Source Book for Bible 
Students 



Containing Valuable Quotations Relat- 
ing to the History, Doctrines, and 
Prophecies of the Scriptures 



1919 



Review and Herald Publishing Association 

WASHINGTON, D. C. 
South Bend, Ind. New York City 



p s1 



Copyright, 1919 
Review and Herald Publishing Association 
Washington, D. C. 



JUN -4 1919 



©CLA525749 



INTRODUCTORY NOTE 



In preparing the subject matter for this book, the publishers have 
had in mind the long-felt need of ministers, writers, editors, and other 
Bible students for such a collection of valuable quotations. 

While calling it a Source Book, we are conscious that much of what 
it contains is not technically source matter. However, the nature of its 
contents, the care exercised in verification, the full and accurate refer- 
ences given, and the way in which the matter will be used, all seem to 
justify, at least in a nontechnical sense, the title of the book. 

The contents of this book may be said to belong in four classes: 
(1) Matter bearing directly upon the Scriptures as a divine revelation, 
including their source, authenticity, authority, sufficiency, etc.; (2) 
Scripture prophecy, the evidences of its fulfilment, including many his- 
torical statements showing such fulfilment; (3) Matter bearing on 
various Christian doctrines, whether true or false, especially such as 
have been most discussed; and (4) The history of the church and of 
apostasy, special reference being had to the great papal apostasy and 
to the final conflict between the forces of truth and the adherents of 
error. 

No attempt has been made to construct an argument, or even to 
indicate the conclusions that the editors might have felt should be 
reached from the facts given and the opinions expressed by the authori- 
ties cited. Each user of the book is thus left free to be his own archi- 
tect and mechanic, to plan and construct as he sees fit his own building 
from the materials he may be able to gather from this and other 
sources. 

An alphabetical rather than a logical arrangement of the topics 
was adopted, not only in the interests of freedom of thought and of 
use, but also as essential to brevity. A strictly logical arrangement for 
the purpose of proving certain doctrines or of sustaining given views 
or interpretations, would have made necessary many notes or connect- 
ing paragraphs, which would have increased the size of the book, mak- 
ing it less convenient for easy carriage and ready reference. 

Editorial notes (signed "Eds.") have been introduced only where 
they seemed absolutely essential to a better understanding of a subject 
necessarily very briefly treated. Tn^ ^ the ' le scope of the subjects 
covered, and the demand for a boo venient size, have made it 

imperative to conserve space. 

The alphabetical arrangemerJ; ol ihp matter, the numerous cross 
references, and a reasonably fuli . ill enable the user to 

find readily not only the various subjg ited, but also any quota- 

>n given. 



4 



Introductory Note. 



If the desired matter is not found under the letter or article where 
it is first sought, the cross index at the close of the article may indicate 
where it can be found. Or in case of failure to locate it in that way, 
if its source is known, resort may be had to another helpful feature of 
the book, namely, the list of " Authorities Cited." This makes it easy 
not only to find matter from a known source, but to determine with a 
good degree of accuracy the relative importance of the various ex- 
tracts, and the standing of the men and works quoted. 

The page numbers following the names of authors and of works 
listed under " Authorities Cited," will be found especially helpful in 
locating quickly any statement the source of which is remembered, but 
not the topic under which it might appear. 

The editors have been compelled by lack of space to discriminate in 
the choice of matter, selecting quotations, according to their judgment, 
from the best authorities only, and adhering also to the rule early 
adopted, — that all excerpts be carefully verified and have definite ref- 
erences. Occasionally a quotation which it has not been possible to 
verify from its original source, has been included because of the inter- 
esting matter it contains. We have no reason, however, to doubt the 
authenticity of these extracts. All such quotations are marked by a 
star at the close. 

That this book is perfect we do not claim, but that it represents an 
immense amount of painstaking research and careful work will be read- 
ily granted by every one who examines it. As an introductory edition 
we have printed only a limited number of copies, and have kept the 
type standing with a view to a larger and better edition in the near 
future, if, as we fondly hope, the constructive criticisms of our friends 
shall enable us, not only to eliminate errors which may have crept intc 
the first edition, but also to add such valuable matter as for any reason 
was not before made available. 

This publication was not undertaken with a view to producing z 
popular seller that would prove to be a large money earner, but rather 
to meet a real need of our people; and to the end that this purpose shall 
be accomplished, we ask the continued co-operation of all who, with us 
desire that the very best possible help touching the history, doctrines 
and prophecies of the Scriptures shall be speedily given, not only tc 
teachers, ministers, and Bible workers, but also to other Bible students 
and to studious Bible-reading and Bible-loving people everywhere. 

Publishers. 



Source Book for Bible 
Students 



Advent, First, Woeld Prepabation for. — The general acquaint-, 
ance with the Greek language that then existed throughout the East, 
in consequence of the conquests of Alexander the Great; and the pre- 
vious translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into that language by the 
direction of Ptolemy Philadelphus, were no doubt designed, in the prov- 
idence of God, to prepare the way of the Lord, and to facilitate the 
spread of the gospel. That state of general peace which existed through- 
out the Roman Empire under the prosperous reign of Augustus Caesar, 
was peculiarly fitted for the advent of the Prince of Peace. — " Sketches 
of Church History" Rev. James Wharey, pp. 16, 17. Philadelphia: 
Presbyterian Board of Publication and Sabbath- School Work, 1840. 

Advent, First, World's Longing for. — The best men in Rome were 
demanding reformation, and were longing for and predicting a new era. 
Cicero prophesied: "There shall no longer be one law at Rome, and 
another at Athens; nor shall it decree one thing today, and another 
tomorrow; but one and the same law, eternal and immutable, shall be 
prescribed for all nations and all times, and the God who shall pre- 
scribe, introduce, and promulgate this law shall be the one common 
Lord and Supreme Ruler of all." — " The Rise of the Mediceval Church-" 
Alexander Clarence Flick, Ph. D., Litt. D., pp. 42, 43. New York: G. P. 
Putnam's Sons, 1909. 

Advent, First, Hopelessness of Times. — The noblest spirits of the 
time felt that the state of things was utterly hopeless. Society could 
not reform itself; philosophy and religion had nothing to offer: they 
had been tried and found wanting. Seneca longed for some hand from 
without to lift up from the mire of despair; Cicero pictured the en- 
thusiasm which would greet the embodiment of true virtue, should it 
eve ppear on earth; Tacitus declared human life one great farce, and 
ex ;sed his conviction that the Roman world lay under some terrible 
All around, despair, conscious need, and unconscious longing, 
reater contrast be imagined than the proclamation of a coming 
Dm of God amid such a world; or clearer evidence be afforded of 
ality of this divine message, than that it came to seek and to save 
r hich was thus lost? — " The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah" 
Alfred Edersheim, M. A., D. D., Ph. D., book 2, chap. 11 (Vol. I, 
9, 260), 8th edition. New York: Longmans, Green & Co., 1896. 

dvent, First, General Expectancy of the Times. — A general ex- 
tion existed, not only among the Jews, but throughout the East, 
.ed upon the predictions of the Jewish prophets, that a very ex- 
dinary personage should arise in Judea, about this time, who 

5 



6 



ADVENT, FIRST. 



should establish a kingdom over the whole world. Hence the alarm of 
Herod, when it was said that Christ was " born king of the Jews; " and 
the consequent murder of the children of Bethlehem. — " Sketches of 
Church History" Rev. James Wharey, p. 16. Philadelphia: Presbyterian 
Board of Publication and Sabbath-School Work, 1840. 

Advent, First, Roman Histoeians on Expectancy of. — The majority 
[of the Jews] were deeply impressed with a persuasion that it was 
contained in the ancient writings of the priests, that it would come to 
pass at that very time, that the East would renew its strength, and 
they that should go forth from Judea should be rulers of the world. 
— " The Works of Tacitus" book 5, par. 13, Oxford Translation, revised. 
New York: Harper & Brothers, 1863. 

A firm persuasion had long prevailed through all the East, that it 
was fated for the empire of the world, at that time, to devolve on some 
one who should go forth from Judea. This prediction referred to a 
Roman emperor, as the event showed; but the Jews, applying it to them- 
selves, broke out into rebellion. — " The Lives of the Twelve Ccesars," C. 
Suetonius Tranquillus, Translation by Alexander Thompson, M. D. 
Philadelphia: Gebbie & Co., 1883. 

Advent, First, Jewish Historian on Expectancy of. — What did 
the most elevate them [the Jews] in undertaking this war, was an 
ambiguous oracle that was also found in their sacred writings, how, 
" about that time, one from their country should become governor of 
the habitable earth." The Jews took this prediction to belong to them- 
selves in particular, and many of the wise men were thereby deceived 
in their determination. Now this oracle certainly denoted the govern- 
ment of Vespasian, who was appointed emperor in Judea. — " Wars of 
the Jews," Flavius Josephus, book 6, chap. 5, par. 4. 

Advent, First. — See Seventy Weeks. 

Advent, Second, Christ's Purpose to Return. — To this end will 
Christ come again to receive his people unto himself, that where he 
is, there they may be also. The Bridegroom's departure was not upon 
divorce. He did not leave us with a purpose to return no more. He 
hath left pledges enough to assure us of the contrary. We have his 
word, his many promises, his sacraments, which show forth his death 
till he come; and his Spirit to direct, sanctify, and comfort, till he 
return. We have frequent tokens of love from him, to show us he for- 
gets not his promise, nor us. — " The Saint's Everlasting Rest," Richard 
Baxter. Philadelphia: H. Cowperthivait, 1828. 

Advent, Second, Our Lord Eagerly Awaits It. — Our Lord Jesus 
is now sitting at the Father's right hand, looking forward with eager 
expectancy to the day of his return to earth; yet he waits patiently, 
that men may have the fullest opportunity at this present ~ 
His eye, and the eye of his follower who is in close, intelligent 
with him and his plans, look forward together expectantly to tht 
day and event. And the expectant heart on earth prays, "Come 
Jesus." — " Quiet Talks About Our Lord's Return," S. D. Gordon, 
New York: Fleming H. Revell Company. 

Advent, Second, Crowning Event of Redemption. — The s 
coming of Christ is the crowning event of redemption; and the h<>i h 
of it constitutes the crowning article of an evangelical creed. F 
hold that the excellence of faith is according to the proportion o 



ADVENT, SECOND. 



7 



Lord's redemptive work which that faith embraces. Some accept merely 
the earthly life of Christ, knowing him only after the flesh; and the 
religion of such is rarely more than a cold, external morality. Others 
receive his vicarious death and resurrection, but seem not to have 
strength as yet to follow him into the heavens; such may be able to 
rejoice in their justification without knowing much of walking in the 
glorified life of Christ. Blessed are they who, believing all that has 
gone before, — life, death, and resurrection, — can joyfully add this con- 
fession also: "We have a great High Priest who is passed through the 
heavens; " and thrice blessed they who can join to this confession still 
another: "From whence also we look for the Saviour, the Lord Jesus 
Christ." For it is the essential part of our Redeemer's priesthood that, 
having entered in to make intercession for his people, he shall again 
come forth to bless them. — " Ecce Venit," A. J. Gordon, D. D., pp. 2, 3. 
New York: Fleming H. Revell, 1889. 

Advent, Second, a Joyful Hope. — Would it not rejoice your hearts 
if you were sure to live to see the coming of the Lord, and to see 
his glorious appearing and retinue? If you were not to die, but to be 
caught up thus to meet the Lord, and to be changed immediately into an 
immortal, incorruptible, glorious state, would you be averse to this? 
Would it not be the greatest joy that you could desire? For my own 
part, I must confess to you that death, as death, appeareth to me as an 
enemy, and my nature doth abhor and fear it. But the thoughts of the 
coming of the Lord are most sweet and joyful to me; so that if I were 
but sure that I would live to see it, and that the trumpet should sound, 
and the dead should rise, and the Lord appear before the period of my 
age, it would be the joyfulest tidings to me in the world. O that I 
might see his kingdom come! It is the character of his saints to love 
his appearing (2 Tim. 4: 8), and to look for "that blessed hope, and 
the glorious appearing of the great God and our Saviour Jesus Christ " 
(Titus 2: 13). "The Spirit and the bride say, Come;" "even so, come, 
Lord Jesus" (Rev. 22: 17, 20), come quickly, is the voice of faith, and 
hope, and love. — "Practical Works,'''' Richard Baxter, (23 vols.) t Vol. 
XVII, "A Treatise of Death;' pp. 555, 556. Edition 1830. 

Advent, Second, an Incentive to Godly Living. — Is holy living 
urged? This is the inspiring motive thereto: " That, denying un- 
godliness and worldly lusts, we should live soberly, righteously, and 
godly, in this present world; looking for that blessed hope, and the glo- 
rious appearing of the great God and our Saviour Jesus Christ." Titus 
2:12, 13. Is endurance under persecution and loss of goods enjoined? 
This is the language of the exhortation: "Cast not away therefore your 
confidence, which hath great recompense of reward. . . . For yet a little 
while, and he that shall come will come, and will not tarry." Heb. 10: 
35-37. Is patience under trial encouraged in the Christian? The admo- 
nition is: "Be ye also patient; stablish your hearts: for the coming of 
the Lord draweth nigh." James 5:8. Is sanctification set before us for 
our diligent seeking? The duties leading up to it culminate in this: 
"And the very God of peace sanctify you wholly; and I pray God your 
whole spirit and soul and body be preserved blameless unto the coming 
of our Lord Jesus Christ." 1 Thess. 5: 23. Is diligence in caring for the 
flock of God enjoined upon pastors? This is the reward: " Feed the flock 
of God which is among you, taking the oversight thereof, not by con- 
straint, but willingly. . . . And when the Chief Shepherd shall appear, ye 
shall receive a crown of glory that f adeth not away." 1 Peter 5 : 2-4. Is 
fidelity to the gospel trust charged upon the ministry? This is the end 
thereof: " That thou keep this commandment without spot, unrebukable, 



8 



ADVENT, SECOND. 



until the appearing of our Lord Jesus Christ." 1 Tim. 6: 14. And 
again: " I charge thee in the sight of God, and of Christ Jesus, who shall 
judge the quick and the dead, and by his appearing and his kingdom: 
Preach the word." 2 Tim. 4: 1, 2. Space would fail us, indeed, to cite 
passages of this purport; they so abound that we may say that the key 
to which the chief exhortations to service and consecration are pitched 
in the New Testament is : " To the end he may stablish your hearts 
unblamable in holiness before God, even our Father, at the coming of 
our Lord Jesus Christ with all his saints." 1 Thess. 3:13. — " Ecce 
Venit," A. J. Gordon, D. D., pp. 8, 9. New York: Fleming H. Revell, 
1889. 

Advent, Second, Effect of Receiving the Hope. — To my mind this 
precious doctrine — for such I must call it — of the return of the 
Lord to this earth is taught in the New Testament as clearly as any 
other doctrine in it; yet I was in church fifteen or sixteen years before 
I ever heard a sermon on it. There is hardly any church that does not 
make a great deal of baptism, but in all of Paul's epistles I believe bap- 
tism is spoken of only thirteen times, while he speaks about the return 
of our Lord fifty times; and yet the church has had very little to say 
about it. Now, I can see a reason for this; the devil does not want us 
to see this truth, for nothing would wake up the church so much. The 
moment a man takes hold of the truth that Jesus Christ is coming back 
again to receive his followers to himself, this world loses its hold on 
him. Gas stocks and water stocks and stocks in banks and railroads 
are of very much less consequence to him then. His heart is free, and 
he looks for the blessed appearing of his Lord, who, at his coming, will 
take him into his blessed kingdom. — " The Second Coming of Christ," 
D. L. Moody, pp. 6, 7. Chicago: F. H. Revell, 1877 * 

Advent, Second, the Hope of the Church. — The hope of the early 
Christians is not the hope of the average Christian now. It has become 
our habit to think of the change which comes at death, or our entrance 
into heaven, as the crowning point in the believer's life, and the proper 
object of our hope. Yet the apostles never speak of death as something 
which the Christian should look forward to or prepare for. [p. 114] . . . 

The hope of the church, then, is the personal return of her Lord. 
As Dr. David Brown stated it in his book on the second advent, sixty 
years ago, " the Redeemer's second appearing is the very pole-star of the 
church." . . . 

It is evident that the early Christians not only looked back to a 
Saviour who had died for them, but forward to a Saviour who was to 
come. There were two poles in their conversion. Their faith was 
anchored in the past in the facts of the death and resurrection of the 
Lord, and also in the future in the assured hope of his return. It is 
manifest, therefore, that the second coming of the Saviour occupied a 
most important place in the gospel which the apostles preached, and 
which these Christians received, [pp. 118, 119] — Rev. John McNicol, 
B. A., B. D., in " The Fundamentals;' Vol. VI, chap. 8, pp. 114, 118, 119. 
Chicago: Testimony Publishing Company. 

Advent, Second, a Neglected Doctrine. — " This same Jesus which 
is taken up from you into heaven, shall so come in like manner as 
ye have seen him go into heaven," is the parting promise of Jesus 
to his disciples, communicated through the two men in white apparel, 
as a cloud received him out of their sight. When after more than fifty 
years in glory he breaks the silence and speaks once more in the Reve- 
lation which he gave to his servant John, the post-ascension Gospel 



ADVENT, SECOND. 



9 



which he sends opens with, " Behold, he cometh with clouds," and 
closes with, " Surely I come quickly." Considering the solemn empha- 
sis thus laid upon this doctrine, and considering the great prominence 
given to it throughout the teaching of our Lord and of his apostles, 
how was it that for the first five years of my pastoral life it had abso- 
lutely no place in my preaching? Undoubtedly the reason lay in the 
lack of early instruction. Of all the sermons heard from childhood on, 
I do not remember listening to a single one upon this subject. — 11 How 
Christ Came to Church" A. J. Gordon, D. D., pp. 20, 21. Philadelphia: 
American Baptist Publication Society, 1895. 

Advent, Second, Doctrine Emphasized by Religious Leaders of 
the Past. — The great leaders who have left their impress on the his- 
tory of the church did not discard this doctrine, but made it a real 
hope in their own lives. Martin Luther, in the midst of the throes of 
the Reformation, wrote, " I ardently hope that, amidst these internal 
dissensions on the earth, Jesus Christ will hasten the day of his com- 
ing." The acute and learned Calvin saw that this was the church's true 
hope. " We must hunger after Christ," he said, " till the dawning of 
that great day when our Lord will fully manifest the glory of his king- 
dom. The whole family of the faithful will keep in view that day." 
The intrepid soul of John Knox was nerved by this hope. In a letter 
to his friends in England he wrote: " Has not the Lord Jesus, in despite 
of Satan's malice, carried up our flesh into heaven? And shall he not 
return? We know that he shall return, and that with expedition." 
John Wesley believed this same truth, as is shown by his comment on 
the closing verses of Revelation: "The spirit of adoption in the bride 
in the heart of every true believer says, with earnest desire and expec- 
tation, 1 Come and accomplish all the words of this prophecy.' " It 
formed the burden of Milton's sublime supplication: "Come forth out 
of thy royal chambers, Prince of all the kings of the earth; put on 
the visible robes of thy imperial majesty; take up that unlimited scepter 
which thy Almighty Father hath bequeathed thee. For now the voice 
of thy bride calls thee, and all creatures sigh to be renewed." It was 
the ardent longing of the seraphic Rutherford: "0 that Christ would 
remove the covering, draw aside the curtains of time, and come down! 
that the shadows and the night were gone! " It was the prayer of 
Richard Baxter in the "Saint's Everlasting Rest:" "Hasten, my 
Saviour, the time of thy return. Send forth thine angels and let that 
dreadful, joyful trumpet sound. Thy desolate Bride saith, Come. The 
whole creation saith, Come. Even so, come, Lord Jesus." And if we 
would follow in the steps of these men, we will return to the simple, 
unmistakable New Testament type of experience, and, with faces up- 
lifted towards the veil, within which the Lord of glory waits, and with 
hearts all aglow with a personal love for him, we will carry on through 
all our life and service the same apostolic prayer. — Rev. John McNicol, 
B. A., B. D., in " The Fundamentals," Vol. VI, chap. 8, pp. 126, 127. 
Chicago: Testimony Publishing Company. 

Advent, Second, Doctrine of All Scripture. — You cannot un- 
thread this doctrine out of the Sacred Book, and have a living Word 
left. As well unthread the nerves out of the body, and have a living 
organism left. And you cannot unthread it out of the faith of the 
church without driving the knife to the heart of thousands of its god- 
liest confessors. Say what men may, one thing stands well attested 
through the ages, that wherever this belief in the Lord's literal return 
has gotten possession of men's hearts, it has invariably exalted the au- 
thority of the Word of God, emphasized all the doctrines of grace, lifted 



10 



ADVENT, SECOND. 



high the cross of Christ, exalted the person and work of the Spirit, 
intensified prayer, enlarged beneficence, separated believers from the 
world, and set them zealously at work for the salvation of men. — 
Thomas Goodwin, D. D* 

Advent, Second, Doctkine of, Taitght in the Creeds. — The Apos- 
tles' Creed (shorter and older form): "He ascended into heaven; and 
sitteth on the right hand of the Father; from thence he shall come to 
judge the quick and the dead." — "A History of the Creeds of Christen- 
dom," Philip Schaff, p. 21. 

The Nicene Creed: "From thence he shall come to judge the quick 
and the dead." — Id., p. 29. 

Athanasian Creed: "He sitteth on the right hand of the Father 
God [God the Father] Almighty. From whence he shall come to judge 
the quick and the dead." — " The Creeds of the Greek and Latin 
Churches," Henry B. Smith, D. D., and Philip Schaff, D. D., p. 69. Lon- 
don: Hodder and Stoughton, 1877. 

Advent, Second, Its Character. — More marvelous than the scenes 
at Pentecost, more startling than the fall of Jerusalem, more blessed 
than the indwelling of the Spirit or the departure to be with the 
Lord, will be the literal, visible, bodily return of Christ. No event 
may seem less probable to unaided human reason; no event is more cer- 
tain in the light of the inspired Scripture. " This same Jesus, which is 
taken up from you into heaven, shall so come in like manner as ye have 
seen him go into heaven." " Behold, he cometh with clouds; and every 
eye shall see him." Acts 1: 11; Rev. 1: 7. 

This coming of Christ is to be glorious, not only in its attendant cir- 
cumstances, but also in its effects upon the church and the world. Our 
Lord predicted that he would return " in his own glory, and the glory 
of his Father, and of the holy angels." Luke 9: 26. He will then be 
revealed in his divine majesty. Once during his earthly ministry, on the 
mount of transfiguration, there was given to his followers a glimpse of 
the royal splendor he had for a time laid aside, and in which he will 
again appear. — Prof. Charles B. Erdman, D. D., in " The Fundamentals," 
Vol. XI, p. 89. Chicago: Testimony Publishing Company. 

Advent, Second, Premillennial. — If any one should say, What 
great difference does it make whether the coming of Christ be before 
or after the millennium, I answer, Many vast and most important dif- 
ferences! If his second coming is to be before the millennium, it brings 
the great hope of the church nearer by a thousand years. It places it 
at the close of this very age in which we live, and which has run 
already eighteen hundred years of its course, instead of at the close 
of a future age which has not yet commenced! It brings the awful 
judgment of the living wicked nearer by a thousand years, as well as 
the resurrection of those who sleep in Jesus. 

It defines the proper object of evangelistic and missionary labor; 
not to convert the whole world, as is too often taken for granted, but 
to bear witness to the truth, and to gather out of all nations a people 
for his name. It places before the church the glorious personal appear- 
ing of Christ as the grand and proper object of her hope, her desire, 
and her expectation. — "A Key to Open the Main Lock of Prophecy," 
H. Grattan Guinness, pp. 11, 12. 

Advent, Second, Fundamental, Literal, Visible, Glorious.— The 
return of Christ is a fundamental doctrine of the Christian faith. It 



ADVENT, SECOND. 



11 



is embodied in hymns of hope; it forms the climax of the creeds; it 
is the sublime motive for evangelistic and missionary activity; and 
daily it is voiced in the inspired prayer: "Even so, come, Lord Jesus." 

It is peculiarly a Scriptural doctrine. It is not, on the one hand, 
a dream of ignorant fanatics, nor, on the other, a creation of speculative 
theologians; but it is a truth divinely revealed, and recorded in the 
Bible with marked clearness, emphasis, and prominence, [p. 87] . . . 

The resurrection of the dead will take place when he returns: "For 
as in Adam all die, so also in Christ shall all be made alive. But each 
in his own order: Christ the first fruits; then they that are Christ's at 
his coming." . . . The time of the return of the Lord will be, further- 
more, the time of the reward of his servants. . . . The real coronation 
day of the Christian is not at death, but at " the appearing of Christ: " 
. . . " when the Chief Shepherd shall be manifested, ye shall receive 
the crown of glory that fadeth not away." 1 Peter 5: 1-4. [pp. 91-93] — 
Prof. Charles R. Erdman, D. D., of Princeton Theological Seminary, in 
"The Fundamentals " Vol. XI, pp. 87, 91-93. Chicago: Testimony Pub- 
lishing Company. 

Advent, Second, a Litekal Coming in Gloky. — Jesus himself cer- 
tainly lays claim to an actual reign. He will come as the Son of man 
in the clouds, and will establish the kingdom which shall absolve all 
earthly kingdoms (Mark 13: 26; 14: 62). . . . 

The resurrection of Jesus was not that coming again; for he ap- 
peared personally only to the disciples. . . . 

A complete termination of earthly history is expected. The Son of 
man unrecognized on earth shall appear again unmistakably in a glory 
that shall bring terror to his enemies and perfect redemption to his 
faithful. Matt. 24: z7, 30. The offenses shall be removed from his king- 
dom, and the chosen shall be gathered and reunited into an eternal 
community of glory. — The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious 
Knowledge, Vol. X, art. "Second Advent," pp. 322, 323. New York: 
Funk and Wagnalls Company. 

Advent, Second, Not at Death. — " Therefore be ye also ready, 
for in such an hour as ye think not the Son of man cometh." Some 
people say that means death; but the Word of God does not say it 
means death. Death is our enemy, but our Lord hath the keys of 
death; he has conquered death, hell, and the grave. . . . Christ is the 
Prince of Life; there is no death where he is; death flees at his com- 
ing; dead bodies sprang to life when he touched them or. spoke to 
them. His coming is not death. He is the resurrection and the life. 
When he sets up his kingdom, there is to be no death, but life for- 
evermore. — " The Second Coming of Christ," D. L. Moody, pp. 10, 11. 
Chicago: F. H. Revell, 1877 * 

Advent, Second, Calvin on Rewards at. — Scripture uniformly en- 
joins us to look with expectation to the advent of Christ, and delays the 
crown of glory till that period. — " Calvin's Institutes," Vol. II, book 3, 
chap. 25. 

Advent, Second, Reformers on Approach of. — Commencing im- 
mediately from the time of Luther and Zwingle's first heaven-made 
discovery of the Antichrist of prophecy being none other than the 
Roman popes, there was also impressed on them, with all the force 
and vividness of a heavenly communication, the conviction of the fated 
time being near at hand, though not indeed yet come, of Antichrist's 
final foredoomed destruction, and therewith also of Christ's kingdom 
coming, and God's great prophetic mystery ending. — " Horw Apoca- 



12 



ADVENT, SECOND. 



lypticce," Rev. E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. II, pp. 140, 141, part 3, chap. 5, 
2d edition. London: Seeley, Burnside, and Seeley, 1846. 

Latimer: "St. Paul saith, 'The Lord will not come till the swerv- 
ing from faith cometh ' (2 Thess. 2: 3), which thing is already done 
and past: Antichrist is already known throughout all the world. 
Wherefore the day is not far off." — " Third Sermon on the Lord's 
Prayer; " cited in " The Reign of Christ on Earth" D. T. Taylor, p. 
144. Boston: Scriptural Tract Repository, 1882. 

Ridley : " The world, without doubt — this I do believe and there- 
fore I say it — draws towards an end." — "Lamentation for the Change 
of Religion; " cited in " The Reign of Christ on Earth," p. 145. 

John Knox: "Has not the Lord Jesus, in despite of Satan's malice, 
carried up our flesh into heaven? And shall he not return? We know 
that he shall return, and that with expedition." — Letter to the Faithful 
in London, 1554; cited in " The Reign of Christ on Earth," p. 151. 

Luther: "I hope the last day will not be long delayed. The dark- 
ness grows thicker around us, and godly servants of the Most High be- 
come rarer and more rare. Impiety and licentiousness are rampant 
throughout the world. . . . But a voice will soon be heard thundering 
forth: Behold, the bridegroom cometh. God will not be able to bear 
this wicked world much longer, but will come, with the dreadful day, 
and chastise the scorners of his word." — " The Table Talk, or Familiar 
Discourse of Martin Luther," pp. 7, 8, translated by William Hazlitt. 
London: David Bogue, 1848. 

"Ah! loving God, defer not thy coming. . . . The Lord be praised, 

who has taught us to sigh and yearn after that day. ... I hope that 

day is not far off. . . . The world cannot stand long, perhaps a hun- 
dred years at the outside." — Id.; pp. 324, 325. 

Advent, Second, Cotton Mathek on Message of. — The Ruler of 
the world, returning to us, will send forerunners, who shall show his 
approach and the speediness of his coming. And before the very great, 
and very greatly to be dreaded, day of the Lord come, he will send 
Elias, or men endued with his spirit and power, who with a loud voice 
shall show themselves sons of thunder concerning the Lord's hastening 
to us. It behooveth any servant of God, who would be named a vigilant, 
and not a drowsy servant, to perform this office of Elias. . . . 

But it is not to be wondered at, if there be very few who would 
believe such a preacher. . . . For when the Lord shall come, he will 
find the world almost void of true and lively faith (especially of faith 
in his coming) ; and when he shall descend with his heavenly banners 
and angels, what else will he find, almost, but the whole church like a 
dead carcass, as it were, miserably putrefied with the spirit and man- 
ners and endearments of this world? — Dr. Cotton Mather's Fa- 
mous Latin Preface to His " Manuductio ad Ministerium " (Student and 
Preacher), Deduced into Ordo Verborum, pp. 5-7; with a literal transla- 
tion on the opposite page, by Mr. Hugh Waif or d. London: R. Hind- 
marsh, 1789. 

Advent, Second, Rapidly Approaching. — The blessedness of 
Christ's coming consists, not only in its relieving the believer living 
on earth, from all the sins and sorrows, the weaknesses and tempta- 
tions, of his present state, but also in the complete gathering together 
and reunion of the whole family of God, in the glories of their risen 



ADVENT, SECOND. 



13 



bodies, to dwell together with their Saviour in the heavenly Jerusalem. 
. . At the coming of Christ, the bodies of all the saints are raised, and 
the whole church of Christ is gathered together. And this glory i3 
rapidly approaching. Believer! lift up your head, and rejoice with a 
hope full of immortality. — Bickersteth; cited in "Commentary upon 
the Holy Bible" Henry and Scott, notes on Dan. 7:15-28. London: The 
Religious Tract Society. 

Advent, Second, Not Pkeceded by a Temporal Millennium. — In 
Matthew 24 he describes his second personal advent and the great events 
which shall precede it. He reveals the course of this dispensation 
and its close. He foretells wars, famines, pestilences, earthquakes, 
persecutions, false prophets, iniquities, apostasies, the preaching of the 
gospel " as a witness " to all nations, false signs and wonders, desola- 
tions, woes, and lastly, the great tribulation, and he closes with the 
words, " Immediately after the tribulation of those days shall the sun 
be darkened, and the moon shall not give her light, and the stars shall 
fall from heaven, and the powers of the heavens shall be shaken; 
and then shall appear the sign of the Son of man in heaven: and then 
shall all the tribes of the earth mourn, and they shall see the Son of 
man coming in the clouds of heaven with power and great glory." 

That these verses describe his personal advent in glory, is certain, 
and equally certain is it that this comprehensive prophecy contains no 
allusion whatever to a previous millennium of blessedness and peace. — 
"A Key to Open the Main Lock of Prophecy," H. Grattan Guinness, 
VP- 7, 8. , , , I, | 

The doctrine of a post-millennial advent is so novel and modern that 
no Christian church has ever woven it into her creed. — " The Reign of 
Christ on Earth," Daniel T. Taylor, p. 423. Boston: Scriptural Tract 
Repository, 1882. 

Advent, Second, Nature Awaits. — 

Sure there is need of social intercourse, 

Benevolence, and peace, and mutual aid, 

Between the nations in a world that seems 

To toll the death-bell of its own decease, 

And by the voice of all its elements 

To preach the general doom. "When were the winds 

Let slip with such a warrant to destroy? 

When did the waves so haughtily o'erleap 

Their ancient barriers, deluging the dry? 

Fires from beneath, and meteors from above, 

Portentous, unexampled, unexplained, 

Have kindled beacons in the skies; and the old 

And crazy earth has had her shaking fits 

More frequent, and foregone her usual rest. 

Is it a time to wrangle, when the props 

And pillars of our planet seem to fail, 

And nature with a dim and sickly eye 

To wait the close of all? 

— " The Poetical Works of William Cowper," 

" The Task" (1785), book 2, lines 44-66. 

Advent, Second, The Response of the Church. — If any say, Where 
is the promise of his coming, when so many ages are past since this 
was written? let them know he is not slack to his people, but long- 
suffering to his enemies. His coming will be sooner than they are 



14 



ADVENT, SECOND. 



aware, sooner than they are prepared, sooner than they desire; but 
to his people it will be seasonable. The vision is for an appointed 
time, and will not tarry; he will come quickly. The church joyfully 
receives Christ's promise, declaring her firm belief in it, Amen, so 
it is, so it shall be. And expresses her earnest desire, Even so, come, 
Lord Jesus. — " Commentary upon the Holy Bible," Henry and Scott, 
notes on Rev. 22:20, 21. London: The Religious Tract Society. 

Advent, Second, Alexander Campbell on Nearness of. — Now the 
cry is heard in our land, " Come out of her, my people, that you 
partake not of her sins, and that you may not receive of her plagues." 
The Lord Jesus will soon rebuild Jerusalem, and raise up the taber- 
nacle of David which have so long been in ruins. Let the < ".lurch pre- 
pare herself for the return of her Lord, and see that she make herself 
ready for his appearance. — " The Christian System," Alexander Camp- 
bell, p. 302. Pittsburgh: Forrester and Campbell, 1839 * 

Advent, Second, Signs of Its Near Approach. — Never did the 
church witness such a constellation of signs of the near coming of 
Christ as now. " The branches of the fig tree are full of sap, and the 
summer is at hand. ' Assuredly I am not ignorant that a portion of 
the church has become gradually weary of the long tarrying, and has 
fallen into doubt. You also shake your head, and are of the opinion 
that we have long talked of " the last time." Well, use this language, 
and increase the number of the existing signs by this new one. Add 
that of the foolish virgins, who, shortly before the midnight hour, 
maintained " the Lord would not come for a long time." — F. W. Krum- 
macher, cited by A. J. Gordon, D. D., in " Ecce Venit" p. 200. New 
York: Fleming H. Revell, 1889. 

Advent, Second, Prophecies of, Fulfilling Now.— 2. We believe 
in the Deity of our Lord Jesus Christ; that he is very God; and in his 
substitutionary death, as an atonement for sin; in his bodily resurrec- 
tion and ascension; and the certainty of his second appearance "with- 
out sin unto salvation." 

3. We believe that our Lord's prophetic word is at this moment 
finding remarkable fulfilment; and that it does indicate the nearness 
of the close of this age, and of the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ. 

4. We believe that the completed church will be translated to be 
forever with the Lord. — Three of the Eight Resolutions adopted by the 
Bible Conference on the Return of Our Lord, held in Philadelphia, May 
28, 29, 30, 1918; printed in the Christian Herald (New York), June 12, 
1918, p. 720. 

Advent, Second, a Truth for This Age. — Never did a Christian 
age so greatly need to have its attitude readjusted to the primitive 
standard as our own, — commerce, so debased with greed of gold; 
science, preaching its doctrine of " dust thou art; " and Christian dog- 
matics, often darkening hope with its eschatology of death! The face 
of present-day religion is to such degree prone downward that, if some 
Joseph appears, with his visions of the sun, moon, and stars, men ex- 
claim: "Behold, this dreamer cometh." But they that say such things 
plainly declare that they do not " seek a country." 

There is a tradition that Michael Angelo, by his prolonged and un- 
remitting toil upon the frescoed domes which he wrought, acquired 
such a habitual upturn of the countenance that, as he walked the 
streets, strangers would observe his bearing, and set him down as some 
visionary or eccentric. It were well if we who profess to be Chris- 



ADVENT MOVEMENT, 1844. 



15 



tians of the apostolic school had our conversation so truly in heaven, 
and our faces so steadfastly set thitherward, that sometimes the " man 
with the muck-rake" should be led to wonder at us, and to look up 
with questioning surprise from his delving for earthly gold and glory. 

Massillon declares that, " in the days of primitive Christianity, it 
would have been deemed a kind of apostasy not to sigh for the return 
of the Lord." Then, certainly, it ought not now to be counted an ec- 
centricity to " love his appearing," and to take up with new intensity 
of longing the prayer which he has taught us : " Even so, come, Lord 
Jesus." Amid all the disheartenment induced by the abounding in- 
iquity of our times; amid the loss of faith and the waxing cold of love 
within the church; and amid the outbreaking of lawlessness without, 
causing men's hearts to fail them for fear, and for looking after those 
things that are coming on the earth, — this is our Lord's inspiring 
exhortation: "Look up and lift up your heads, for your redemption 
draweth nigh." — " Ecce Venit," A. J. Gordon, D. D., pp. 10-12. Neiu 
York: Fleming H. Revell 1889. 

Advent, Second, Moody on Watching fob. — We have the same 
authority for the second coming of Christ that we have for his birth, 
his death, and his resurrection. . . . 

When his coming will be, we don't know. The true attitude of 
every child of God is just to be waiting and watching. We can get 
an idea of what the glory of those mansions will be which he is pre- 
paring for us from the length of time he is taking to get them ready. 
Maybe he is massing his forces for the final victory. " The time of 
our redemption draweth nigh." — "Moody at Home,'" pp. 176-178. 

Advent, Second, Movement of 1844; Stirring Events of Preced- 
ing Decades. — Never, perhaps, in the history of man, were the times 
more ominous, or pregnant with greater events than the present. . . . 
As if the signal had gone throughout the world quick as lightning, na- 
tions, instead of advancing slowly to regeneration, start at once into 
life. And from the banks of the Don to the Tagus, from the shores of 
the Bosporus to Lapland, and, wide Europe being too narrow a field for 
the spirit of change that now ranges simultaneously throughout the 
world, from the new states of South America to the hitherto unchange- 
able China, skirting Africa and traversing Asia, to the extremity of the 
globe on the frozen north, there are signs of change in every country 
under heaven. — " The Signs of the Times," Rev. Alexander Keith, Vol. I, 
pp. 1, 2, 3d edition. Edinburgh: William Whyte <£• Co., 1833. 

Advent, Second, Movement of 1844; Prophetic Study in England 
in Decades Preceding. — The study of prophecy was of a more vague 
and general character during the early years of the nineteenth cen- 
tury. Such books as Faber's " Dissertations on the Prophecies," pub- 
lished in 1806, were mainly taken up with principles apart from any 
supposed application of them to contemporaneous events, or to such as 
were coming immediately. But about the year 1812 this study of propn- 
ecy took a more definite shape. In that year a book, which was after- 
wards translated by Mr. Irving, was published by a Spanish Jesuit 
named Lacunza, under the assumed title of Juan Josafat Ben Ezra, on 
" The Second Coming of the Messiah in Glory and Majesty." In this 
work he argues that the church had never condemned the true doctrine, 
as he deemed it, of the millennium, but only the errors by which it had 
been perverted. In the next year appeared Cuninghame's " Dissertation 
on the Seals and Trumpets," in which: the period of 1260 years men- 
tioned in the Apocalypse was fixed as extending from the edict of Jus- 



16 



ADVENT MOVEMENT, 1844. 



tinian, in 533 a. d., to the French Revolution, being the period during 
which the celebrated code of Justinian was in force. For the French 
Revolution became the means of the introduction of the code of Napo- 
leon, by which the previous code was abrogated. Till that epoch the 
code of Justinian remained the basis of ecclesiastical law. In the ensu- 
ing year, Mr. Hatley Frere published his " Combined View of the Chris- 
tian Prophecies." This was a book which acquired a great reputation 
amongst those who afterwards made up the School of Prophecy, which 
was now in infancy. — " The History and Doctrines of Irvingism," 
Edward Miller, M. A., Vol I, pp. 10, 11. London: G. Kegan Paul & Co., 
1878. 

Advent, Second, Movement of 1844; Agitation of Question in 
Europe. — The end comes, proven in a thorough and convincing manner 
from the Word of God and the latest events; invalidating totally all prej- 
udice against waiting for the coming of our Lord, or reckoning of the 
time; showing plainly how prelate Bengel erred seven years in refer- 
ence to the great decisive year; for not 1836, but the year 1843, is the 
terminus, at which the great struggle between light and darkness will 
be finished, and the long expected reign of peace of our Lord Jesus will 
commence on earth. — " The End Near," title page of pamphlet by Leon- 
ard Heinrich Kelber. Stuttgart, 1835. 

Advent, Second, Movement of 1844; Church of England Clergy- 
man on the Year 1844. — There appears to be no presumption in the 
attempt to direct the anxious mind to the chronological periods which 
God has given, and to inquire how far they support these anticipa- 
tions. 

I have done so, as have likewise almost all that have gone before 
me in these studies; and the results of my inquiries, as they run through- 
out the whole of this work, and as they appear in the chronological 
chart in my former work, must, by this time, be familiar to the reader. 
It will be perceived they all point to a very early period, the year 1844; 
and although it is fashionable to object to the fixing of dates, yet so 
long as it is said, " Things that are revealed belong to us and to our 
children forever," I see not on what sufficient ground. — " An Historical 
Exposition of the Prophecies of the Revelation of St. John," Matthew 
Habershon, pp. 285, 286. London: James Nisbet & Co., 1841. 

Advent, Second, Movement of 1844; Origin of, in America. — 
What is known as the "Advent Movement " originated with William 
Miller, who was born at Pittsfield, Mass., Feb. 15, 1782, and died in Low 
Hampton, N. Y., Dec. 20, 1849. He bore a good reputation as a farmer 
and citizen, serving under a captain's commission in the War of 1812, 
and was a diligent student and a great reader, although he had but a 
common school education. For some years he was an avowed deist, 
but, as he said, " found no spiritual rest," until in 1816 he was con- 
verted and united with the Baptists. ... 

At that time very little v/as heard from pulpit or press respecting 
the second coming of Christ, the general impression being that it must 
be preceded by the conversion of the world and the millennium, a long 
period of universal holiness and peace. As Mr. Miller studied the pro- 
phetic portions of the Bible, however, he became convinced that the 
doctrine of the world's conversion was unscriptural. . . . His conclu- 
sion was that the coming of Christ in person, power, and glory must be 
premillennial. ... 

Moreover, as a result of his study of prophetic chronology, he be- 
lieved not only that the advent was at hand, but that its date might 



ADVENT MOVEMENT, 1844. 



17 



be fixed with some definiteness. Taking the more or less generally ac- 
cepted view that the " days " of prophecy symbolize years, he was led 
to the conclusion that the 2300 days referred to in Daniel 8: 13, 14, the 
beginning of which he dated from the commandment to restore Jeru- 
salem, given in 457 b. c. (Dan. 9: 25), and the 1335 days of the same 
prophet (12: 12), which he took to constitute the latter part of the 
2300 days, would end coincidently in or about the year 1843. The cleans- 
ing of the sanctuary, which was to take place at the close of the 2300 
days (Dan. 8: 14), he understood to mean the cleansing of the earth 
at the second coming of Christ, which, as a result of his computations, he 
confidently expected would occur some time between March 21, 1843, 
and March 21, 1844, the period corresponding to the Jewish year. — 
"Special Reports: Religious Bodies, 1906," part 2, p. 11; Bureau of the 
Census. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1910. 

Advent, Second, Movement of 18 44; Reached All Paets. — One 
or two on every quarter of the globe have proclaimed the news, and 
agree in the time — Wolff, of Asia; Irwin, late of England; Mason, 
of Scotland; Davis, of South Carolina; and quite a number in this re- 
gion are, or have been, giving the cry. And will not you all, my breth- 
ren, examine and see if these things are so, and trim your lamps, and be 
found ready? — "Evidence from Scripture and History of the Second 
Coming of Christ About the Year 1843," William Miller, Lecture 16, p. 
238. Boston: Joshua V. Himes, 1842. 

Advent, Second, Movement of 18 44; Publications Sent World- 
wide— As early as 1842, second advent publications had been sent to 
every missionary station in Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, both 
sides of the Rocky Mountains. . . . The commanders of our vessels and 
the sailors tell us that they touch at no port where they find this proc- 
lamation has not preceded them, and frequent inquiries respecting it 
are made of them. — " Exposition of Matthew 24," E. R. Pinney, pp. 8, 
9; cited in " The Great Second Advent Movement," J. N. Loughborough, 
p. 105. 

Advent, Second, Movement of 18 44, in Orient. — In 1831 Joseph 
Wolff. D. D., was sent as a missionary from Great Britain to labor 
among the Jews of Palestine. He, according to his journals, down 
to the year 1845, proclaimed the Lord's speedy advent in Palestine, 
Egypt, on the shores of the Red Sea, Mesopotamia, the Crimea, Per- 
sia, Georgia, throughout the Ottoman Empire, in Greece, Arabia, Tur- 
key, Bokhara, Afghanistan, Cashmere, Hindostan, Tibet, in Holland, 
Scotland, Ireland, at Constantinople, Jerusalem, St. Helena, also on 
shipboard in the Mediterranean, and in New York City to all de- 
nominations. He declares that he has preached among Jews, Turks, 
Mohammedans, Parsees, Hindoos, Chaldeans, Yesedes, Syrians, Sabeans, 
to pashas, sheiks, shahs, the kings of Organtsh and Bokhara, the queen 
of Greece, etc. — " Voice of the Church," p. 343; cited in " The Great 
Second Advent Movement," J. N. Loughborough, p. 101. 

Advent, Second, Movement of 1844; A World-wide Proclamation. 
— An English writer, Mourant Brock, thus remarks: "It is not 
merely in Great Britain that the expectation of the near return of 
the Redeemer is entertained, and the voice of warning raised, but also 
in America, India, and on the continent of Europe. I was lately told by 
one of our German missionaries that in Wirtemberg there is a Christian 
colony of several hundreds, one of the chief features of which is the 
looking for the second advent. And a Christian minister from near the 
2 



18 



ADVENT MOVEMENT, 1844. 



shores of the Caspian Sea has told me that there is the same daily 
expectation among his nation. They constantly speak of it as ' the day 
of consolation.' In a little publication, entitled ' The Millennium,' the 
writer says that he understands in America about 300 ministers of the 
Word are thus preaching 'this gospel of the kingdom; ' whilst in this 
country, he adds, about 700 of the Church of England are raising the 
same cry." — Advent Tracts, Vol. II, p. 135; cited in "Bible Tracts," 
Vol. II, " The Three Angels," J. N. Andrews, pp. 23, 24. Rochester: 
Advent Review Office, 1855. 

Advent, Second, Movement of 1844; Numbers of All Denomina- 
tions in America. — We have no means of ascertaining the number of 
ministers, and others, who have embraced the advent faith. We only 
know that there are several hundred congregations, and a still larger 
number of ministers, who have publicly professed the faith, besides 
many who still remain in the churches of the land. Those who have 
espoused this cause have honestly believed in the coming of the Lord 
" about a. d. 1843." And, as honest men, they have kept to their work of 
sounding the alarm. All peculiarities of creed or policy have been lost 
sight of, in the absorbing inquiry concerning the coming of the heavenly 
Bridegroom. Those who have engaged in this enterprise are from all 
the various sects in the land. Protestant Episcopal, Methodist Episco- 
pal, Methodist Protestant, Primitive Methodist, Wesleyan Methodist, 
Close Communion Baptist and Open Communion Baptist, Calvinistic 
and Arminian Baptists, Presbyterians, Old and New School Congrega- 
tionalists, Old and New School Lutheran, Dutch Reformed, etc. — The 
Advent Shield and Review, May, 1844, Vol. I, p. 90. Boston: Joshua V. 
Rimes. 

Advent, Second, Movement of 1844; Children Proclaimed Mes- 
sage. — In this connection we will notice how the Lord wrought to 
introduce the proclamation in those countries where the law forbade 
the preaching of anything contrary to the " established church." Swe- 
den was one of those countries. There the Lord used little children to 
introduce the work. The first of this manifestation was in the summer 
of 1843, in Eksjo, southern Sweden. A little girl, only five years of 
age, who had never learned to read or sing, one day, in a most solemn 
manner, sang correctly a long Lutheran hymn, and then with great 
power proclaimed " the hour of his judgment is come," and exhorted 
the family to get ready to meet the Lord; for he was soon coming. The 
unconverted in the family called upon God for mercy, and found par- 
don. This movement spread from town to town, other children proclaim- 
ing the message. The same movement among children was manifest to 
some extent in Norway and Germany. 

In 1896, while holding meetings in seventeen different parts of 
Sweden, I passed through several places where the children had 
preached in 1843, and had opportunity to converse with those who had 
heard the preaching, and with men who had preached when they were 
children. I said to one of them, " You preached the advent message 
when you were a boy?" He replied, "Preached! Yes, I had to preach. 
I had no devising in the matter. A power came upon me, and I uttered 
what I was compelled by that power to utter." — " The Great Second 
Advent Movement," J. N. Loughborough, p. 140. 

Advent, Second, Movement of 1844; Experience in Sweden. — In 
the year 18 43, a religious movement occurred among the people in 
Karlskoga Parish, in Orebro Lsen. The leaders in this movement were 



ADVENT MOVEMENT, 1844. 



19 



children and young men, who were called " rapare." These preached 
with divine power, and proclaimed before the people, with great de- 
cision, that the hour of God's judgment had come. 

In the fall of the same year, I, O. Boqvist, then fifteen years 
of age, with another young man, Erik Walbom, eighteen years of age, 
became so influenced by this unseen power that we could in no wise 
resist it. As soon as we were seized by this heavenly power, we com- 
menced to speak to the people, and to proclaim with loud voice that the 
judgment hour had come, referring them to Joel 2: 28-32 and Rev. 14: 6, 7. 

The people congregated in large numbers to listen to us, and our 
meetings continued both day and night, and a great religious awakening 
was the result. Young and old were touched by the Spirit of God, and 
cried to the Lord for mercy, confessing their sins before God and man. 

But when the priest in the church was apprised of all this, many 
efforts were put forth to silence us. . . . We were arrested, and on the 
following day were placed in custody in orebro prison. Here we were 
associated with thieves in cell 14, as though we had committed some 
great crime. . . . 

Through the sympathy and pleadings of the warden, we were re- 
leased and permitted to return to our homes. The cruel treatment we 
had received threw us into a long siege of fever. After a few weeks 
we were able to resume our preaching, which brought on a fresh out- 
burst of persecution against us. But this time a prominent parishioner 
presented our case to King Oscar I, and secured freedom for us. — 0. 
Boqvist, in the Advent Review and Sabbath Herald, Battle Creek, Mich., 
Oct. 7, 1890; Vol. 67, No. 39, p. 612. 

Advent, Second, Movement of 1844; The Cky as the Seventh 
Month Came. — Reader, have you heard this astounding " cry," this last 
" midnight cry," which has so suddenly awakened the virgins, who were 
slumbering and sleeping during the tarrying of the vision? Have you 
heard it while it has been borne on the wings of the wind to every ad- 
vent band in the land, and aroused them simultaneously from their 
slumbers, electrifying them with its startling appeal? If you have 
not, then it is high time to awake out of sleep, and listen to its solemn 
notes. The cry has gone forth, that the Lord, " whose goings forth are 
from everlasting," is to come in judgment this present month! — The 
Midnight Cry (New York), Friday, Oct. 11, 1844; Vol. VII, No. 15, p. 113. 

Note. — When the spring of 1844 did not bring the coming of the Lord, the 
disapoointment was keen. Believers found comfort, however, in the idea of the 
" tarrying time " in the parable of the ten virgins waiting for the bridegroom. 
Some taught that the true ending of the prophetic period marking the cleansing 
of the sanctuary must be on the " tenth day of the seventh month," as in the 
typical cleansing of the sanctuary. This day fell upon October 22 that year. 
About July this idea seized upon hearts with a compelling force, revived the be- 
lievers, and what was called " the midnight cry " began. — Eds. 

Advent, Second, Movement of 1844; " The Midxight Cry." — 
At first the definite time was generally opposed; but there seemed to 
be an irresistible power attending its proclamation, which prostrated 
all before it. It swept over the land with the velocity of a tornado, 
and it reached hearts in different and distant places almost simulta- 
neously, and in a manner which can be accounted for only on the sup- 
position that God was in it. It produced everywhere the most deep 
searching of heart and humiliation of soul before the God of high 
heaven. It caused a weaning of affections from the things of this world 
— a healing of controversies and animosities, a confession of wrongs, 
a breaking down before God, and penitent, broken-hearted supplica- 



2 



ADVENT MOVEMENT, 1844. 



tions to him for pardon and acceptance. It caused self-abasement and 
prostration of soul, such as we never before witnessed. — The Midnight 

Cry (New York), Thursday, Oct. 31, 1844 (Vol. VII, No. 18, p. 140). 

Advent, Second, Movement of 1844; Working for the Children. 

— Now is the time to lay our children upon the altar. In some 
cases, mothers have taken their little ones into their closets, and prayed 
with them, and seen their prayers answered in their conversion. In 
one house four children, being left at home last Monday evening, held 
a prayer meeting, and the next morning there was a marked change in 
their deportment, and they were all rejoicing in the Lord. One of the 
children, when she came downstairs, said, " Father, we held a prayer 
meeting last night, and we all got religion." May the Lord help the 
parents to cherish the tender plants, and seek the watering of the Spirit. 

— The Midnight Cry, Friday, Oct. 11, 1844 (Vol. VII, No. 15, p. 117). 

Advent, Second, Movement of 18 44; Putting Away Sin. — We feel 
sensible of our many imperfections. Whilst we have contended for 
what we believe to be truth, we can see that pride of opinion and 
self have arisen. When new truths have been presented, we have been 
slow to receive them; we have been asleep during the tarrying of the 
vision, and we have not labored with that ardor we should have done, 
had we so fully realized the nearness of the judgment. We have been 
slow of heart to believe all that Moses and the prophets have spoken, 
and all our labors and toils appear to us as nothing; and that at best 
we have been but unprofitable servants. We can therefore only offer 
the prayer of the publican, — God be merciful to us sinners. 

We feel that we are now making our last appeal, that we are ad- 
dressing you through these columns for the last time. In this crisis we 
must stand alone. If any are hanging upon our skirts, we shake them 
off. Your blood be upon your own heads. We ask forgiveness of God 
and all men, for everything which may have been inconsistent with his 
honor and glory; and we desire to lay ourselves upon his altar. Here 
we lay our friends and worldly interests, and trust alone in the merits 
of Christ's atoning blood, through the efficacious and sanctifying in- 
fluence of God's Holy Spirit, for pardon and forgiveness and accept- 
ance at the Father's mercy-seat. May the blessing of God rest upon all 
of us; and that we may all meet in God's everlasting kingdom, is the 
prayer of your unworthy servant, J. V. Himes. 

The above was written in Boston, with the expectation that this 
would be the last paper. I heartily join in the prayer and confession 
expressed by Bro. H. — N. Southard, editor of the Midnight Cry, Satur- 
day, Oct. 12, 1844 (Vol. VII, No. 16, p. 128). 

Advent, Second, Movement of 1844; When the Time Passed. — 
My own conviction still is, the Lord is at the door. For the event of 
his coming I, through grace, shall quietly and patiently wait. But I 
must add, that I have now no confidence in any definite point of time 
in the future. I shall, through grace, endeavor to " watch and keep my 
garments," believing that the Lord will now " come as a thief." — George 
Storrs, in the Midnight Cry, Oct. 31, 1844 (Vol. VII, No. 18, p. 138). 

We have been mistaken in a belief to which we thought ourselves 
conducted by the Word and Spirit and Providence of God. But the Word 
stands sure, however we may err: and the promise is true: "If any 
man will do his will, he shall know of the doctrine, whether it be of 
God." The Lord will lead his obedient children. We have an unwaver- 
ing trust that he will cause our disappointment and trial to work to- 



ADVENT MOVEMENT, 1844. 



21 



gether for our good. We shall humbly watch the providences of God, 
and we know he will vindicate his truth and faithfulness. Let him be 
honored, though we may be humbled. — Id., Editorial, p. 140. 

As many of our brethren and sisters have disposed of their sub- 
stance, and given alms, agreeable to Luke 12: 33, in the confident ex- 
pectation of the speedy coming of the Lord, I wish to have immediate 
provision made for the comfort and wants of all such persons, and 
families, by the advent brethren. — J. V. Himes, in the Midnight Cry, 
Oct. 31, 1844. 

Advent, Second, Movement of 1844; On Wm. Miller's Prophetic 
Date. — Professor Bush, in writing to Mr. Miller, said: "In taking 
a day as the prophetical time for a year, I believe you are sustained by 
the soundest exegesis, as well as fortified by the high names of Mede, Sir 
Isaac Newton, Bishop Newton, Faber, Scott, Keith, and a host of others, 
who have long since come to substantially your conclusions on this 
head. They all agree that the leading periods mentioned by Daniel and 
John do actually expire about this age of the world; and it would be 
strange logic that would convict you of heresy for holding in effect the 
same views which stand forth so prominently in the notices of these 
eminent divines." " Your results in this field of inquiry do not strike 
me as so far out of the way as to affect any of the great interests of 
truth or duty." — " A Brief History of William Miller" 4th edition, p. 200. 
Boston: Advent Christian Publication Society, 1915. 

Note. — William Miller's correspondent was Prof. Geoi'ge Bush, the Presby- 
terian commentator, professor of Hebrew at tile University of New York. 

Advent, Second, Movement of 18 44; Prophetic Date Correct, 
Some See Mistake as to Event. — Since the tenth day of the seventh 
month has passed, and we are disappointed in not seeing our Lord, it 
seems necessary to define our position again. This we most cheerfully 
do. But first please indulge us a few moments, in expressing our great 
disappointment in not seeing our Lord at the time expected. We did 
believe that he would come at that time; and now, though we sorrow on 
account of our disappointment, yet we rejoice that we have acted ac- 
cording to our faith. We have had, and still have, a conscience void of 
offense, in this matter, towards God and man. God has blessed us abun- 
dantly, and we have not a doubt but that all will soon be made to work 
together for the good of his dear people, and his glory. 

We cheerfully admit that we have been mistaken in the nature of 
the event we expected would occur on the tenth day of the seventh 
month; but we cannot yet admit that our great High Priest did not on 
that very day, accomplish all that the type would justify us to expect. 
We now believe he did. — The Voice of Truth, Nov. 7, 1844, Joseph Marsh, 
editor; cited in the Advent Review, Auburn, N. Y., August, 1850. 

Note. — Some thus began to see that, while the position that the 2300 years 
ended in 1844 was absolutely sound, they had misapprehended the event that was 
then to take place. Others began to get hold of the fact that the sanctuary to 
be cleansed was not this earth, as they had supposed, but the antitypical sanc- 
tuary, or temple, in heaven above. In his " Great Second Advent Movement," 
page 193, J. N. Loughborough says : 

" Hiram Edson, of Port Gibson, N. Y., told me that the day after the pass- 
ing of the time in 1844, as he was praying behind the shocks of corn in a field, 
the Spirit of God came upon him in such a powerful manner that he was almost 
smitten to the earth, and with it came an impression, 4 The sanctuary to be 
cleansed is in heaven.' He communicated this thought to O. R. L. Crosier, and 
they together carefully investigated the subject. In the early part of 1846 an 
elaborate exposition of the sanctuary question from a Bible standpoint, written 
by Mr. Crosier, was printed in the Day Star, a paper then published in Canan- 



2 2 



ADVENT MESSAGE. 



daigua, N. Y. In that lengthy essay it was made to appear that the work of 
cleansing the sanctuary was the concluding work of Christ as our high priest, 
beginning in 1844 and closing just before he actually comes again in the clouds 
of heaven as King of kings and Lord of lords." — Eds. 

Advent, Second, Movement of 1844; O. R. L. Crosier on the 
Sanctuary in Heaven. — The sanctuary to be cleansed at the end of 
2300 days is also the sanctuary of the new covenant, for the vision of 
the treading down and cleansing, is after the crucifixion. We see that 
the sanctuary of the new covenant is not on earth, but in heaven. . . . 

But as we have been so long and industriously taught to look to the 
earth for the sanctuary, it may be proper to inquire, by what Scriptural 
authority have we been thus taught? I can find none. If others can, 
let them produce it. Let it be remembered that the definition of sanc- 
tuary is " a holy or sacred place." Is the earth, is Palestine, such a 
place? Their entire contents answer, No! Was Daniel so taught? 
Look at his vision. " And the place of his sanctuary was cast down." 
Dan. 8: 11. This casting down was in the days and by the means of 
the Roman power; therefore, the sanctuary of this text was not the 
earth, nor Palestine. — From an article on " The Sanctuary,'" by 0. R. L. 
Crosier, in the Day Star Extra, 1846 ; reprinted in the Advent Review, 
Auburn, N. Y., September, 1850; Vol. I, No. 3. 

Advent, Second, Message or Revelation 14; Rise of Seventh-day 
Adventists. — After the passing of this period [1844], many believ- 
ers in the doctrine gave up the hope of Christ's early advent, and others 
set new times. Some, however, reviewing the facts of history and proph- 
ecy, were confirmed in the belief that no mistake had been made in the 
fixing of the date of the fulfilment of the 2300 days, and were Convinced 
also that the advent movement, rising spontaneously in many lands, 
was of God. As they further investigated the subject, it seemed to some 
that, while there had been no mistake in regard to the time, there had 
been error in interpreting the character of the event; that the sanctuary 
to be cleansed was not this earth, but the sanctuary in heaven, where 
Christ ministered as high priest; and that this work of cleansing, ac- 
cording to the Levitical type, was the final work of atonement, the begin- 
ning of the preliminary judgment in heaven which is to precede the 
coming of Christ, as described in the judgment scene of Daniel 7: 9, 
10, which shows an " investigative judgment " in progress in heaven, 
while events are still taking place on earth. 

Further study of the subject of the " sanctuary " convinced them 
that the standard of this investigative judgment was to be the law of 
God as expressed in the ten commandments which formed the code 
that was placed in the ark of the covenant in the earthly sanctuary, a 
type of the heavenly sanctuary. The fourth precept of this law com- 
manded the observance of the seventh day of the week as the Sabbath, 
and they found nothing in Scripture commanding or authorizing the 
change of the Sabbath from the seventh to the first day. 

The passage in Revelation 14: 6-14, particularly that portion begin- 
ning with the phrase " the hour of his judgment is come," they inter- 
preted as a representation of the final work of the gospel; and un- 
derstood that, with the coming of this "judgment" (in 1844, as, they 
believed), a movement was imperative to carry to every nation and 
tongue a warning against following tradition, and a call to men to follow 
the commandments of God and the faith of Jesus. They further believed 
that when this final message had been carried to all the world, Christ 
would come to reap the harvest of the earth. 

As the result of these convictions, a few persons in New England, 
formerly First-day Adventists, began in 1845 and 1846 to observe the 



ADVENT MESSAGE. 



23 



seventh day of the week, and to preach the doctrines which now con- 
stitute the distinctive tenets of the Seventh-day Adventists. ... In 1849 
they began the publication of a paper at Middletown, Conn. Later they 
established their headquarters at Rochester, N. Y., but in 1855 trans- 
ferred them to Battle Creek, Mich., and in 1903 to Washington, D. C. At 
a conference held in Battle Creek in October, 1860, the name " Seventh- 
day Adventist Denomination " was for the first time formally adopted 
as the official designation of the denomination, and three years later a 
general conference was organized at that place, under that name. — 
"Special Reports: Religious Bodies, 1906," part 2, pp. 21, 22; Bureau 
of the Census. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1910. 

The Sabbath was first introduced to the attention of the Adventist 
people at Washington, N. H. A faithful Seventh-day Baptist sister, Mrs. 
Rachel D. Preston, from the State of New York, having removed to this 
place, brought with her the Sabbath of the Lord. Here she became in- 
terested in the doctrine of the glorious advent of the Saviour at hand. 
Being instructed in this subject by the Adventist people, she in turn in- 
structed them in the commandments of God, and as early as 1844 nearly 
the entire church in that place, consisting of about forty persons, be- 
came observers of the Sabbath of the Lord. The oldest body of Sab- 
bath keepers among Seventh-day Adventists is therefore at Washing- 
ton, N. H. . . . 

From this place several Adventist ministers received the Sabbath 
truth during the year 1844. One of these was Elder T. M. Preble, who 
has the honor of first bringing this great truth before the Adventists 
through the medium of the press. — "History of the Sabbath and the 
First Day of the Week," J. N. Andrews, pp. 505, 506, 3d edition, 1887. 

Advent, Second, Message of Revelation 14; Sabbath Agitation 
in 1844.— Many persons have their minds deeply exercised respect- 
ing a supposed obligation to observe the seventh day. — Editorial in 
the Midnight Cry, New York, Sept. 5, 1844. 

We last week found ourselves brought to this conclusion: There is 
no particular portion of time which Christians are required by law to 
set apart as holy time. If this conclusion is incorrect, then we think 
the seventh day is the only day for the observance of which there is 
any law — Id., Sept. 12, 1844 (Vol. VII, No. 10, p. 76). 

Note. — In his " Great Second Advent Movement," J. N. Loughborough says 
of the agitation of the Sabbath question in the times following : 

" The attention of the Adventists as a body was called to the Sabbath ques- 
tion by an essay on the subject from T. M. Preble, dated Feb. 13, 1845, and pub- 
lished in the Hope of Israel, Portland, Maine, Feb. 28, 1845. After showing the 
claims of the Bible Sabbath, and the fact that it was changed to Sunday by the 
great apostasy, he remarks : ' Thus we see Dan. 7 : 25 fulfilled, the little horn 
changing " times and laws." Therefore it appears to me that all who keep the 
first day for the Sabbath are the pope's Sunday-keepers and God's Sabbath- 
breakers.' 

" Soon after this there appeared in print an article from J. B. Cook, in 
which he showed that there is no Scriptural evidence for keeping Sunday as the 
Sabbath, and he used this terse expression : ' Thus easily is all the wind taken 
from the sails of those who sail, perhaps unwittingly, under the Pope's Sab- 
batic flag.' 

" Although Sabbath keeping by these two men was of short duration, they 
had set a ball rolling that could not easily be stopped. The catch phrases, ' pope's 
Sunday keepers,' ' God's commandment breakers,' and ! sailing under the pope's 
Sabbatic flag.' were on the lips of hundreds who were eager to know the truth 
of this matter. Elder Joseph Bates, of Fairhaven, Mass., had his attention thus 
arrested, and he accepted the Sabbath in 1845. 

" His experience was on this wise : Hearing of the company in Washington, 
N. H., that were keeping the Sabbath, he concluded to visit that church, and see 



24 



ADVENT MESSAGE. 



what it meant. He accordingly did so, and on studying the subject with them 
he saw they were correct, and at once accepted the light on the Sabbath ques- 
tion. On returning to New Bedford, Mass., he met, on the bridge between New 
Bedford and Fair Haven, a prominent brother, who accosted him thus, ' Captain 
Bates, what is the news ? ' Elder Bates replied, ' The news is that the seventh 
day is the Sabbath of the Lord our God.' ' Well,' said the man, ' I will go home 
and read my Bible, and see about that.' So he did, and when next they met, 
this brother had accepted the Sabbath truth and was obeying it." — Pages 250, 251. 

In the Revieiv and Herald, Vol. XXIII, March 29, 1864, the following state- 
ment by T. M. Preble is quoted : " I have once been an observer of the seventh- 
day Sabbath. This was from about the middle of the year 1844 to the middle of 
1847." 

Advent, Second, Message of Revelation 14; J. B. Cook's Sab- 
bath Essay. — Every enactment relative to the religious observance of 
the first day originated with the Pope, or Potentates of Rome, and 
those who in this matter sympathize with them; but every enactment 
that ever originated in heaven, relative to the keeping of the Sabbath, 
confines us to the seventh day. The seventh day is " the Sabbath of the 
Lord our God." 

My space will not allow me to adduce the historic testimony; but 
the above I solemnly believe is the exact truth. From the twelfth to 
the fifteenth centuries we trace the efforts of the man of sin to set 
aside " the Lord's day," and introduce the first day — the day on which 
the European nations had been accustomed to idolize the sun. Let 
Scripture testify; and let us throw off the last rag of " the mother of 
harlots." . . . 

Paul met his disciples on the first part of the first day, — answering 
to our Saturday night, — preaching all night " till break of day," and 
then " departed," or set off on his journey. If he had met them on our 
Sunday night, it would have been the Jewish second day. Then he did 
not keep the first day as a Sabbath. Those who dream that he did, 
only give evidence that they are so far " drunk with the wine " of 
papal Rome. My feelings were inexpressible when I saw this. The 
truth I must confess. 

This is the true testimony. Thus easily is all the wind taken from 
the sails of those who sail, perhaps unwittingly, under the Pope's Sab- 
batic flag. — Article on " The Sabbath," by J. B. Cook, in "Advent Testi- 
mony" (1845); reprinted in the Advent Review, Auburn, N. Y., August, 
1850. 

Advent, Second, Message of Revelation 14; Sik Isaac Newton 
on Last Refoem Movement. — For as the few and obscure prophecies 
concerning Christ's first coming were for setting up the Christian reli- 
gion, which all nations have since corrupted; so the many and clear 
prophecies concerning the things to be done at Christ's second coming, 
are not only for predicting but also for effecting a recovery and re-estab- 
lishment of the long-lost truth, and setting up a kingdom wherein dwells 
righteousness. — " Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the 
Apocalypse of St. John," Sir Isaac Newton, part II, chap. 1, p. 252. 
London: J. Darby and T. Browne, 17 S3. 

Advent, Second, Message of Revelation 14; John Wesley on. 
— These three denote great messengers of God with their assistants; 
three men who bring messages from God to men. . . . Happy are they 
who make. the right use of these divine messages. — "Explanatory Notes 
upon the New Testament," John Wesley, on Rev. 14:6-9. Philadelphia: 
John Dickens, 1791. 

Advent, Second, Message of Revelation 14; Early View of the 
Three Messages. — " Fear God, and give glory to him, for the hour 



ADVENT MESSAGE. 



2 5 



of his judgment is come." This interesting prophecy seems now to 
be receiving its accomplishment, and will probably continue to be ful- 
filled with increasing clearness during the remainder of the period into 
which we have entered. . . . 

The flight of the second angel to declare the fall of Babylon seems 
to be still future, and by consequence also the preaching of the third 
angel. . . . 

The going forth of the second and third angels being thus future, 
it does not become us to form conjectures as to the manner in which 
this vision shall be accomplished, whether by the preaching of living 
ministers, or by the louder and more awful voice of the divine judg- 
ments, accomplishing the fall of Babylon, and proclaiming aloud the 
awful punishment awaiting the worshipers of the beast. . . . 

The foregoing view of the flight of the three angels was written in 
the year 1812; and I still adhere to it [edition of 1817]. — "A Disserta- 
tion on the Seals and Trumpets of the Apocalypse" William Guning- 
liame, Esq., pp. 256-258, 4th edition. London: Thomas Cadell, 1843. 

Advent, Second, Message of Revelation 14; Foemee Russian Gov- 
ernment on Seventh-day Adventists. — The Seventh-day Adventists 
in Russia show a splendid, live, and active work. The movement con- 
tinues to take in new districts in the European and Asiatic Russias. 
They reveal a determinate zeal in their missionary efforts to win souls. 
The whole organization is primarily a missionary one. . . . Every 
church member must help forward the third angel's message. . . . 

The Seventh-day Adventists' doctrine is very rational. Adventists 
do not believe in traditions, nor the sacraments of the church, nor the 
church hierarchy. . . . According to the doctrine of the Seventh-day 
Adventists, the Old and New Testaments are the only fountain of 
knowledge. It is the doctrine for the rule of life. — Official Publication 
by the Russian Government, 1911, on the Teaching and Work of Seventh- 
day Adventists; translation by J. T. Boettcher, missionary in Russia; 
quoted in the Advent Review and Sabbath Herald, Nov. 13, 1911, p. 1, 
and the General Conference Bulletin, 1913, p. 87. 

Note. — This book issued by the Russian government and containing 101 
pages, was based on most thorough inquiry and observation by special agents of 
the government, who attended conferences while in session and studied methods. 
As a result, new regulations were formed, aimed to prevent local and union con- 
ference organization, all as part of the plan of discouraging religious propaganda, 
save that of the state church. In consequence a new campaign of banishment 
and imprisonment of evangelistic workers began, which ended only when the 
state church itself was overthrown in the political revolution of 1916. — Eds. 

Advent, Second, Message of Revelation 14; Seventh-day Advent- 
ist Teaching, and the ¥/ork of Mrs. E. G. White. — Of course, these 
teachings [of the founders of the denomination] were based on the 
strictest doctrine of inspiration of the Scriptures. Seventh-day Ad- 
ventism could be got in no other way. And the gift of prophecy was to 
be expected, as promised to the " remnant church," who had held fast 
to the truth. This faith gave great purity of life and incessant zeal. 
No body of Christians excels them in moral character and religious 
earnestness. Their work began in 1853, in Battle Creek, and it has 
grown until now they have thirty-seven publishing houses throughout 
the world, with literature in eighty different languages, and an annual 
output of $2,000,000. They have now seventy colleges and academies, 
and about forty sanitariums; and in all this Ellen G. White has been 
the inspiration and guide. Here is a noble record, and she deserves 
great honor. 



26 



ADVENT, BELIEF IN. 



Did she really receive divine visions, and was she really chosen 
by the Holy Spirit to be endued with the charisrn of prophecy? or was 
she the victim of an excited imagination? Why should we answer? 
One's doctrine of the Bible may affect the conclusion. At any rate, she 
was absolutely honest in her belief in her revelations. Her life was 
worthy of them. She showed no spiritual pride and she sought no 
filthy lucre. She lived the life and did the work of a worthy prophetess, 
the most admirable of the American succession. — The Independent, 
New York, Aug. 23, 1915, in notice of the death of Mrs. White. 

Advent, Second, Statement of Belief in,, by Bible Conference, 
1918. — 1. We believe that the Bible is the inerrant, one and final Word 
of God; and, therefore, is our only authority. 

2. We believe in the Deity of our Lord Jesus Christ; that he is 
very God; and in his substitutionary death, as an atonement for sin; 
in his bodily resurrection and ascension, and the certainty of his second 
appearance " without sin unto salvation." 

3. We believe that our Lord's prophetic word is at this moment 
finding remarkable fulfilment; and that it does indicate the nearness of 
the close of this age, and of the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ. 

4. We believe that the completed church will be translated to be for- 
ever with the Lord. 

6. We believe that all human schemes of reconstruction must be 
subsidiary to the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ, because all nations 
will be subject to his rule. 

8. We believe that the truths embodied in this statement are of the 
utmost importance in determining Christian character and action in 
reference to the pressing problems of the hour. — From the " Statement 
of Belief" adopted by the Bible Conference on the Return of Our Lord, 
held in Philadelphia, May 28-30, 1918 ; cited in " Light on Prophecy 
authorized report of the Philadelphia Conference, pp. 12, 13. 

Advent, Second. — See Dark Day; Falling Stars; Robes, Ascension; 
Seven Churches, 493; Signs of the Times. 

Adventists, First-day, see Advent, 22, 23; Seventh-day, see Advent, 
22-26. 

Ahasuerus. — See Medo-Persia, 309. 

Alani. — See Rome, Its Barbarian Invaders, 440. 

Alaric. — See Rome, Its Barbarian Invaders, 437, 444; Seven Trump- 
ets, 499, 501, 502. 

Alboin.— See Papacy, 348; Rome, 452, 454. 

Alcasar, Jesuit, Author of Preterist Method of Interpretation. 
— See Antichrist, 30. 

Alcohol. — See Health and Temperance. 

Alemanni. — See Rome, Its Barbarian Invaders, 438, 440. 

Alexander the Great. — See Advent, 5; Daniel, 133; Greece, 184- 
189; Medo-Persia, 311; Rome, 433. 



ANTICHRIST, MEANING OF. 



27 



Alexander, or Russia. — See Eastern Question, 148. 
Anabaptists. — See Religious Liberty, 413. 
Anglo-Saxons. — See Rome, Its Barbarian Invaders, 441. 
Anthony, St. — See Monasticism, 314. 

Antichrist, Vicar of Christ. — The apostle John, . . . speaking of 
the apostasy, the coming of which he predicts, styles it the " Anti- 
christ." And we have also said that the Papacy, speaking through its 
representative and head, calls itself the "Vicar of Christ." The first, 
" antichrist," is a Greek word; the second, "vicar," is an English word; 
but the two are in reality one, for both words have the same meaning. 
Antichrist translated into English is vice-Christ, or vicar of Christ; and 
vicar of Christ, rendered into Greek, is Antichrist — Antichristos. If 
we can establish this — and the ordinary use of the word by those to 
whom the Greek was a vernacular, is decisive on the point — we shall 
have no difficulty in showing that this is the meaning of the word 
" Antichrist," even a vice-Christ. And if so, then every time the Pope 
claims to be the vicar of Christ, he pleads at the bar of the world that 
he is the Antichrist. — " The Papacy Is the Antichrist''' Rev. J. A. Wylie, 
p. 2. Edinburgh: George M* Gibbon. 

Antichrist, Meaning of. — The term is a composite one, being made 
up of two words, " anti " and "Christ.' The name is one of new 
formation, being compounded, it would seem, for this very enemy, and 
by its etymology expressing more exactly and perfectly his character 
than any older word could. The precise question now before us is this, 
What is the precise sense of " anti " in this connection? ... 

To determine this, let us look at the force given to this prefix by 
writers in both classic literature and Holy Scripture. First, the old 
classic writers. By these the preposition avrc is often employed to des- 
ignate a substitute. That is, in fact, a very common use of it in 
the classic writers. For instance, avn-^aaiXeiJs, he who is the locum 
tenens of a king, or as we now should say, viceroy, dvn having in this 
case the force of the English term " vice." He who filled the place of 
consul was dvdiJTraros, proconsul. He who took the place of an absent 
guest at a feast was styled avridenrvos. The preposition is used in 
this sense of the great Substitute himself. Christ is said to have given 
himself as an dvrCKvTpov, a ransom in the stead of all. 

Classic usage does not require us to give only one sense to this 
word, and restrict it to one who seeks openly, and by force, to seat 
himself in the place of another, and by violent usurpation bring that 
other's authority to an end. We are at liberty to apply it to one who 
steals into the office of another under the mask of friendship; and 
while professing to uphold his interests, labors to destroy them. . . . 

It is clear that Antichrist, as depicted by our Lord and by his 
apostle John, is to wear a mask, and to profess one thing and act 
another. He is to enter the church as Judas entered the garden — pro- 
fessedly to kiss his Master, but in reality to betray him. He is to come 
with words of peace in his mouth, but war in his heart. He is to be a 
counterfeit Christ — Christ's likeness stamped on base metal. He is to 
be an imitation of Christ, — a close, clever, and astute imitation, which 
will deceive the world for ages, those only excepted who, taught by the 
Holy Spirit, shall be able to see through the disguise and detect the 
enemy under the mask of the friend. — Id., pp. 12, 13, 17, 18. 



28 



ANTICHRIST, VIEWS ON. 



" The vicegerent of Jesus Christ," which, by a singular concurrence, 
meant the same as the obnoxious term Kvtlxp^tos, " Antichrist," 
originally signifying a " pro-Christ," or " deputy Christ," ... or "'a 
false Christ," who assumed his authority and acted in his stead. — "A 
New Analysis of Chronology" Rev. William Hales, D. D., Vol. II, p. 505. 

The meaning of St. John's description of the Antichrist is ably set 
forth by Bishop Westcott in the Speaker's Commentary on St. John's 
Epistles. He there says, in words that contain the key of the question: 
" It seems most consonant to the context to hold that 'Antichrist ' here 
describes one who, assuming the guise of Christ, opposes Christ." That 
this is the true meaning of St. John's description of the Antichrist has 
been pointed out by Elliott, Liicke, Professor Rothe, and other able com- 
mentators, and, indeed, should be obvious to any one who studies the 
context of the passages. Wrong teaching about the person and work of 
Christ has ever been Satan's great weapon against him. A comparison 
of all the passages where the word "Antichrist" occurs (1 John 2: 18, 
22; 4:3; and 2 John 7) shows that the antichristian spirit, which in 
St. John's day animated the false but professedly Christian teachers of 
whom he speaks, took the form of corrupting the truth of the gospel 
with regard to the person and office of Christ. ... 

It is clear therefore that the term " deny " in these passages is not 
used in the infidel sense of denying the existence of G-od and Christ, 
but is applied to those who, while professing Christianity, corrupt the 
doctrine " as the truth is in Jesus," and so prove false to Christ. Such 
teachers of apostasy are said by St. John to " deny " the Lord, and, 
by implication, to deny the Father also. . . . 

In the above quoted passage, therefore (chap. 4: 3), St. John, as 
Bishop Westcott shows, speaks of these false Christian teachers and 
corrupters of the truth of Christ as constituting the personification of 
" the spirit of the Antichrist " which was working in mystery in his * 
day. Just so the successive heads of the papal apostasy constitute the 
personification of the spirit of the Antichrist in its open development 
and manifestation in that gigantic system of corruption of the truth of 
Christ which is represented by the Pope of Rome. — " Daniel and the 
Revelation," Rev. Joseph Tanner, B. A., pp. 223-225. London: Rodder 
and Stoughton, 1898. 

Antichrist, Newman on. — ^All the offices, names, honors, powers 
which it [the church] claims depend upon the determination of the 
simple question, " Has Christ, or has he not, left a representative 
behind him? " Now, if he has, all is easy and intelligible. This is what 
churchmen maintain; they welcome the news; and they recognize in 
the church's acts but the fulfilment of the high trust committed to 
her. But let us suppose for a moment the other side of the alternative 
to be true; supposing Christ has left no representative behind him. 
Well then, here is an association which professes to take his place with- 
out warrant. It comes forward instead of Christ and for him; it speaks 
for him, it develops his words, it suspends his appointments, it grants 
dispensations in matters of positive duty; it professes to minister grace; 
it absolves from sin; and all this of its own authority. Is it not forth- 
with according to the very force of the word " Antichrist " ? He who 
speaks for Christ must either be his true ambassador or Antichrist; 
and nothing but Antichrist can he be, if appointed ambassador there 
is none. Let his acts be the same in both cases, according as he has 
authority or not, so is he most holy or most guilty. It is not the acts 
that make the difference, it is the authority for those acts. The very 
same acts are Christ's or Antichrist's according to the doer; they are 



ANTICHRIST, VIEWS ON. 



29 



Antichrist's if Christ does them not. There is no medium between a 
vice-Christ and Antichrist. — John Henry Newman, in an*, article, " The 
Protestant Idea of Antichrist," in the British Critic and Quarterly Theo- 
logical Review, October, 1840, pp. 430-432. 

Note. — This article was printed about a year before Newman joined the 
Church of Rome. — Eds. 

Antichrist, Bishop of Rome. — Since the Bishop of Rome has erected 
a monarchy in Christendom, claiming for himself dominion over all 
churches and pastors, exalting himself to he called God, wishing to be 
adored, boasting to have all power in heaven and upon earth, to dispose 
of all ecclesiastical matters, to decide upon articles of faith, to author- 
ize and interpret at his pleasure the Scriptures, to make a traffic of 
souls, to disregard vows and oaths, to appoint new divine services; and 
in respect to the civil government, to trample underfoot the lawful au- 
thority of magistrates, by taking away, giving, and exchanging king- 
doms, we believe and maintain that it is the very Antichrist and the 
son of perdition, predicted in the Word of God under the emblem of a 
harlot clothed in scarlet, seated upon the seven hills of the great city, 
which has dominion over the kings of the earth; and we expect that the 
Lord will consume it with the spirit of his mouth, and finally destroy it 
with the brightness of his coming, as he has promised and already 
begun to do. — Article 31 of the Confession of Faith adopted in 1603 in 
the Synod held at Gap, under Henry TV, of France. 

Antichrist, Views Concerning, in the Sixteenth Century. — At the 
time the Fathers of Trent assembled, there was a bitter and obstinate 
war declared against the authority, the institutions, the sacraments, the 
dogmas, the moral teaching, the discipline of the church, in the name 
of Scripture. The innovators found in our sacred books [the Scrip- 
tures] that the Pope was Antichrist, and the Church of Rome the harlot 
of Babylon, and her traditions " old wives' fables," and the priesthood 
the common property of all Christians, and faith alone sufficient for 
salvation, etc. — " Catholic Doctrine as Defined by the Council of Trent," 
[1545-1563], Rev. A. Nampon, 8. J. (R. C.J, pp. 103, 104. Philadelphia: 
Peter F. Cunningham, 1869. 

Antichrist, Wycliffe on. — He [Wycliffe] spoke and wrote against 
the worldly spirit of the Papacy, and its hurtful influence. He was 
wont to call the Pope Antichrist, " the proud, worldly priest of Rome." — 
" History of the Christian Religion and Church," Dr. Augustus Neander, 
sec. 2, div. 1, par. 2. 

Antichrist, the Little Horn. — After studying the picture of Anti- 
christ in St. Paul's Epistle to the Thessalonians, one easily recognizes 
the "man of sin" in Dan. 7: 8, 11, 20, 21, where the prophet describes 
the " little horn." — The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. I, art. " Antichrist" 
p. 560. 

Antichrist, Rome's Effort to Avoid the Application of. — So great 
a hold did the conviction that the Papacy was the Antichrist gain upon 
the minds of men, that Rome at last saw she must bestir herself, and 
try, by putting forth other systems of interpretation, to counteract the 
identification of the Papacy with the Antichrist. 

Accordingly, towards the close of the century of the Reformation, 
two of the most learned doctors set themselves to the task, each endeav- 
oring by different means to accomplish the same end, namely, that of 



30 



ANTICHRIST, VIEWS ON. 



diverting men's minds from perceiving the fulfilment of the prophecies 
of the Antichrist in the papal system. The Jesuit Alcasar devoted him- 
self to bring into prominence the preterist method of interpretation, 
. . . and thus endeavored to show that the prophecies of Antichrist were 
fulfilled before the popes ever ruled at Rome, and therefore could not 
apply to the Papacy. On the other hand, the Jesuit Ribera tried to set 
aside the application of these prophecies to the papal power by bringing 
out the futurist system, which asserts that these prophecies refer prop- 
erly, not to the career of the Papacy, but to that of some future super- 
natural individual, who is yet to appear, and to continue in power for 
three and a half years. Thus, as Alford says, the Jesuit Ribera, about 
a. d. 1580, may be regarded as the founder of the futurist system in 
modern times. 

It is a matter for deep regret that those who hold and advocate the 
futurist system at the present day, Protestants as they are for the most 
part, are thus really playing into the hands of Rome, and helping to 
screen the Papacy from detection as the Antichrist. It has been well 
said that " futurism tends to obliterate the brand put by the Holy Spirit 
upon popery." More especially is this to be deplored at a time when 
the papal Antichrist seems to be making an expiring effort to regain 
his former hold on men's minds. — "Daniel and the Revelation," Rev. 
Joseph Tanner, B. A., pp. 16, 17. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1898. 

Antichrist, Militz on. — Important in this regard is particularly his 
tract, Be Antichristo, which has been preserved by Matthias of Janow in 
bis larger work. . . . Under the "abomination of desolation" (Matthew 
24) he [Militz] finds signified corruption in all the parts of the church. 
The apostasy of the Jewish nation from divine truth appears to him an 
antetype of the fall of the secularized church from evangelical truth. 
Antichrist, he supposes, is not still to come, but has come already. — 
"History of the Christian, Religion and Church," Neander, sec. 2, div. 2, 
par. 4. 

Antichrist, the Papacy. — The word " antichrist " signifies one who 
puts himself in the place of Christ, and in opposition to him; and be- 
cause the authority of Christ is resisted in this world in many different 
ways, it is said in the Word of God that "there are many antichrists;" 
and the Christian church has been taught by Holy Scripture that, before 
the course of this world is brought to a close, some apostate power 
would arise, which, from its proud and impious deeds, would bear that 
awful name, " The Antichrist." 

It is not fitting for private persons to speak confidently of what 
will be: and I confine myself to what has "been, and to what is. 

In one of my letters it is shown that the Pope of Rome, at his first 
inauguration, sits "in the temple of God," and upon the altar of God; 
and is there worshiped as God. 

It is also shown that at his coronation he requires himself to 
be styled " Ruler of the World." Thus, on those solemn occasions, 
he sets himself in the place of Christ; and this is one attribute of 
Antichrist. . . . 

Again: it is very observable that almost all the ancient Latin poets, 
speaking, as it were, with one voice, and ranging over a period of five 
hundred years, have described Rome as the seven-hilled city, and thus 
seem to have identified it with the city on the seven mountains, the 
queen of the earth in the age of the Apocalypse, in which city, if Chris- 
tian prophecy be true, the antichristian power will appear. 

Judging therefore from the past and from the present, I do not 
shrink from affirming that the Roman Papacy has rendered it impos- 



ANTICHRIST, VIEWS ON. 



31 



sible to doubt that in divers ways it has placed and does place itself 
in the room of Christ, and in opposition to him; and must therefore, as 
far as these acts of usurpation are concerned, in Scripture language, be 
called Antichristian. — " Sequel to Letters to M. Gondon, on the Destruc- 
tive Character of the Church of Rome" Chr. Wordsworth, D. D., pp* 
251-254. London: Francis & John Rivington, 1848. 

Antichrist, Teaching of the Waldenses Concerning. — Two hun- 
dred and fifty years before Wycliffe stood forth as the champion of 
Protestant truth; three hundred years before Huss and Jerome con- 
fronted the Council of Constance; four hundred years before Luther 
published his ninety-five theses in Wittemberg, the Waldenses wrote 
their treatise on Antichrist, a copy of which is contained in Leger's 
folio volume, dated a. d. 1120. That treatise, whose doctrine is the same 
as their catechism dated a. d. 1100, and was the doctrine they faithfully 
maintained century after century, thus begins, "Antichrist es falseta 
de damnation ceterna cuberta de specie de la Verita, . . . appella Anti- 
christ, Babylonia, quarta Bestia, Meretrix, home de pecca, filli 
de perdition [Antichrist is falsehood, eternally condemned, covered with 
an appearance of truth, . . . called Antichrist, the Babylon, the fourth 
beast, the harlot, the man of sin, the son of perdition]." — "History Un- 
veiling Prophecy," H. Grattan Guinness, D. D., pp. 90, 91. New York: 
Fleming H. Revell Company. 

Antichrist, Lord Cobham on. — The year following that of the mar- 
tyrdom of Huss and Jerome [1416], witnessed the burning of Lord 
Cobham, at Smithfield. When brought before King Henry V and ad- 
monished to submit himself to the Pope as an obedient child, this was 
his answer: "As touching the Pope, and his spirituality, I owe them 
neither suit nor service, forasmuch as I know him by the Scriptures to 
be the great Antichrist, the son of perdition, the adversary of God, 
and an abomination standing in the holy place." — Id., pp. 102, 103. 

Antichrist, The Popes Constitute a Composite Picture of. — An 
experiment was recently tried in America of taking a photograph of a 
number of faces in succession, belonging to the same class of persons, 
say, of musicians, for example. The faces were taken in the same posi- 
tion, one likeness being superimposed, as it were, upon the other; and 
thus a composite photograph or general portrait was produced, com- 
pounded out of the principal features of them all. Just so, if we look 
down the long list of popes, and read of their personal lives, their pub- 
lic actions, their official words, their persistent persecutions, their arro-» 
gant pretensions, their sanction of false miracles, their instigation of 
wholesale massacres, their approval of the horrors of the Inquisition, 
together with that topstone of blasphemous pride, the claim to infal- 
libility, we plainly recognize in the general portraiture thus obtained 
the very features of the representative person foretold by the prophets. 
His mouth has spoken "very great things; " he has been the invader of 
God's prerogatives; he has appeared in the character of the lawless one, 
claiming to be above all law; he has been the persecutor of those who 
are faithful to "the testimony of Jesus; " and his manifestation has 
been accompanied by " lying wonders." Thus, by fulfilling these proph- 
ecies, and by putting himself, and the Virgin, and the saints, and the 
priesthood in the place of Christ, and so acting against Christ, he has 
shown himself to be, what the name implies, The Antichrist. — " Daniel 
and the Revelation," Rev. Joseph Tanner, B. A., p. 265. London: Hod* 
der and Stoughton, 1898. 



32 



ANTICHRIST, VIEWS ON. 



Antichrist, Historical Interpretation of. — Historical interpreters 
hold that the great fourfold prophecy of the " little horn " of the fourth 
beast in Daniel 7, the " man of sin " spoken of by St. Paul in 2 Thessa- 
lonians 2, the "Antichrist" referred to by St. John in his epistles, and 
the " beast " of the Revelation under its seventh head revived, relates 
to a power terrible for mischief to the church of Christ, which was to 
begin to be manifested on the scene of the world at the remarkable 
crisis of the break-up of the old Roman Empire under the invasions of 
the Goths, and which was to continue in existence until annihilated by 
the coming of Christ, — in other words, that the true fulfilment of the 
Antichrist is to be found in the papal power, as represented by its 
dynastic head, the Pope for the time being — a power which began to 
rise into prominence at the very crisis predicted for the appearance of 
the Antichrist, and has exhibited all its foretold characteristics. — Id., 
pp. 12, 13. 

Antichrist, Early Catholic Fathers on (Its Rise to Follow the 

Division of the Roman Empire). — 

Tertuliian (About A. D. 160-240) 

"For the mystery of iniquity doth already work; only he who now 
hinders must hinder, until he be taken out of the way." What obstacle 
is there but the Roman state, the falling away of which, by being scat- 
tered into ten kingdoms, shall introduce Antichrist upon (its own 
ruins) ? " And then shall be revealed the wicked one." — " On the Resur- 
rection of the Flesh," chap. 24; "Ante-Nicene Fathers,'" Vol. Ill, p. 563. 
Buffalo: Christian Literature Company, 1885. 

The very end of all things threatening dreadful woes — is only 
retarded by the continued existence of the Roman Empire. — " Apology,'" 

chap. 32; "Ante-Nicene Fathers," Vol. Ill, p. 43. 

Lactantius (Early in the Fourth Century A. D.) 

The subject itself declares that the fall and ruin of the world will 
shortly take place; except that while the city of Rome remains, it ap- 
pears that nothing of this kind is to be feared. But when the capital 
of the world shall have fallen, and shall have begun to be a street, 
which the Sibyls say shall come to pass, who can doubt that the end 
has now arrived to the affairs of men and the whole world? It is that 
city, that only, which still sustains all things. — "Divine Institutes," 
book 7, chap. 25; " 'Ante-Nicene Fathers," Vol. VII, p. 220. 

Cyril of Jerusalem (A. D. 318-386) 

What temple then? He means the temple of the Jews which has 
been destroyed. For God forbid that it should be the one in which we 
are! [He means the church itself. — Editors.] — " Catechetical Lectures," 

sec. 15, On 2 Thess. 2:4; " Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers," Vol. VII, 
p. 108. New York: The Christian Literature Company, 1895. 

But this aforesaid Antichrist is to come when the times of the Ro- 
man Empire shall have been fulfilled, and the end of the world is now 
drawing near. There shall rise up together ten kings of the Romans, 
reigning in different parts perhaps, but all about the same time; and 
after those an eleventh, the Antichrist, who by his magical craft shall 
seize upon the Roman power; and of the kings who reigned before him, 
"three he shall humble," and the remaining seven he shall keep in 
subjection to himself. — Id., p. 109. 



ANTICHRIST, VIEWS ON. 



33 



Ambrose (A. D. -398) 

After the failing or decay of the Roman Empire, Antichrist shall 
appear. — Quoted in " Dissertations on the Prophecies," Bishop Thomas 
Newton, D. D., p. 463. London: William Tegg & Co. 

Chrysostom (A. D. -407) 

When the Roman Empire is taken out of the way, then shall he 
[the Antichrist. — Eds.] come. And naturally. For as long as the fear 
of this empire lasts, no one will willingly exalt himself, but when that 
is dissolved, he will attack the anarchy, and endeavor to seize upon the 
government both of man and of God. — Homily IV, On 2 Thess. 2:6-9; 
"Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers;' Vol. XIII, p. 389. New York: The 
Christian Literature Company, 1889. 

Jerome (d. about A. D. 420) 

He that letteth is taken out of the way, and yet we do not realize 
that Antichrist is near. — " To Ageruchia," Letter 123, as barbarians 
were invading the empire; "Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers," Vol. VI, 
p. 236. 

Gregory I (Pope, A. D. 590-604) 

Whosoever calls himself, or desires to be called, Universal Priest, 
is in his elation the precursor of Antichrist, because he proudly puts 
himself above all others. Nor is it by dissimilar pride that he is led 
into error; for as that perverse one wishes to appear as God above all 
men, so whosoever this one is who covets being called sole priest, he 
extols himself above all other priests. — Letter to Emperor Maurice, 
against assumption of title by Patriarch of Constantinople, " Epistles of 
St. Gregory the Great" book 7, epis. 33; " Nicene and Post-Nicene Fa- 
thers," Vol. XII, p. 226. 

Antichrist, Failure of Some to Recognize. — The great Joseph Mede 
long ago remarked that " the Jews expected Christ to come when he 
did come, and yet knew him not when he was come, because they fancied 
the manner and quality of his coming like some temporal monarch with 
armed power to subdue the earth before him. So the Christians, God's 
second Israel, looked [expected that] the coming of Antichrist should be 
at that time when he came indeed, and yet they knew him not when he 
was come; because they had fancied his coming as of some barbarous 
tyrant who should with armed power not only persecute and destroy 
the church of Christ, but almost the world; that is, they looked for such 
an Antichrist as the Jews looked for a Christ." (Mede's Works, p. 647.) 
— " Daniel and His Prophecies" Charles H. H. Wright, D. D., " Intro- 
duction" p. xvi. London: Williams and Nor gate, 1906. 

Antichrist, English Reformers on. — The subject is however so 
important, the times so critical, and the views of the early Reformers 
and founders of our English Church on the point in question so often 
overlooked, if not misrepresented, that it seems to me desirable that the 
truth about it should be fully and plainly stated. . . . 

1. Tyndale. (Martyred a. d. 1536.) 

" Now, though the Bishop of Rome and his sects give Christ these 
names, . . . yet in that they rob him of the effect, and take the signifi- 
cations of his names unto themselves, and make of him but an hypo- 
crite, as they themselves be — they be the right Antichrists, and * deny 
both the Father and the Son; for they deny the witness that the Father 
bare unto the Son, and deprive the Son of all the power and glory that 
his Father gave him." — " Tyndale' 's Works" Vol. II, p. 183, Parker ed. 
3 



34 



ANTICHRIST, VIEWS ON. 



2. Cranmer. (Archbishop of Canterbury, 1533; martyred 1555.) 

" But the Romish Antichrist, to deface this great benefit of Christ, 
hath taught that his sacrifice upon the cross is not sufficient hereunto, 
without another sacrifice devised by him, and made by the priest; or 
else without indulgences, beads, pardons, pilgrimages, and such other 
pelfry, to supply Christ's imperfection: and that Christian people can- 
not apply to themselves the benefits of Christ's passion, but that the 
same is in the distribution of the Bishop of Rome; or else that by 
Christ we have no full remission, but be delivered only from sin, and 
yet remaineth temporal pain in purgatory due for the same; to be re- 
mitted after this life by the Romish Antichrist and his ministers, who 
take upon them to do for us that thing which Christ either would not 
or could not do. O heinous blasphemy, and most detestable injury 
against Christ! O wicked abomination in the temple of God! O pride 
intolerable of Antichrist, and most manifest token of the son of perdi- 
tion; extolling himself above God, and with Lucifer exalting his seat 
and power above the throne of God!" — Preface to Defence, etc., in 
" Works of Archbishop Cranmer,'''' Vol. I, pp. 5-7, Parker edition. 

3. Latimer. (Bishop of Worcester, 1535-1539; martyred 1555.) 

" ' Judge not before the Lord's coming.' In this we learn to know 
Antichrist, which doth elevate himself in the church, and judgeth at his 
pleasure before the time. His canonizations, and judging of men before 
the Lord's judgment, be a manifest token of Antichrist. How can he 
know saints? He knoweth not his own heart." — Third Sermon before 
Edward VI, in " Works of Bishop Latimer," Vol. I, pp. 148, 149, Parker 
edition. 

4. Ridley. (Bishop of Rochester, 1547, and of London, 1550-1553; 
martyred 1555.) 

" The see [of Rome] is the seat of Satan; and the bishop of the same, 
that maintaineth the abominations thereof, is Antichrist himself indeed. 
And for the same causes this see at this day is the same which St. John 
calleth in his Revelation ' Babylon,' or ' the whore of Babylon,' and • 
' spiritually Sodoma and JEgyptus,' • the mother of fornications and of 
the abominations upon the earth.' " — Farewell Letter, in " Works of 
Bishop Ridley," p. 415, Parker edition. 

5. Hooper. (Bishop of Gloucester, 1551-1554; martyred 1555.) 

" If godly Moses and his brother Aaron never acclaimed this title 
[to be God's vicar and lieutenant] in the earth, doubtless it is a foul 
and detestable arrogancy that these ungodly bishops of Rome attribute 
unto themselves to be the heads of Christ's church. . . . 

" Because God hath given this light unto my countrymen, which be 
all persuaded (or else God send them to be persuaded), that [neither] 
the Bishop of Rome, nor none other, is Christ's vicar upon the earth, it 
is no need to use any long or copious oration: it is so plain that it 
needeth no probation: the very properties of Antichrist, I mean of 
Christ's great and principal enemy, are so openly known to all men that 
are not blinded with the smoke of Rome, that they know him to be the 
beast that John describeth in the Apocalypse." — Declaration of Christ, 
chap. 3, in " Early Writings of Bishop Hooper," pp. 22-24, Parker edition. 

6. Philpot. (Archdeacon of Winchester; martyred 1555.) 

" I doubt not but you have already cast the price of this your build- 
ing of the house of God, that it is like to be no less than your life; for 
I believe (as Paul saith) that God hath appointed us in these latter days 



APOSTASY, THE GREAT. 



35 



as sheep to the slaughter. Antichrist is come again; and he must make 
a feast to Beelzebub his father of many Christian bodies, for the re- 
storing again of his kingdom. Let us watch and pray, that the same 
day may not find us unready. — Letter to Robert Glover, in " Writings 
of Archdeacon Philpot," p. 244, Parker edition. 

7. Bradford. (Prebendary of St. Paul's, 1551; martyred 1555.) 

" This word of God, written by the prophets and apostles, left and 
contained in the canonical books of the Holy Bible, I do believe to con- 
tain plentifully ' all things necessary to salvation,' so that nothing, as 
necessary to salvation, ought to be added thereto. ... In testimony of 
this faith I render and give my life; being condemned, as well for not 
acknowledging the Antichrist of Rome to be Christ's vicar-general, and 
supreme head of his Catholic and universal church, here and elsewhere 
upon earth, as for denying the horrible and idolatrous doctrine of tran- 
substantiation, and Christ's real, corporal, and carnal presence in his 
Supper, under the forms and accidents of bread and wine. — Farewell to 
the City of London, in " Writings of Bradford," p. 435, Parker edition. 

8. Homilies of the Church of England. (Authorized, 1563.) 

" He ought therefore rather to be called Antichrist, and the suc- 
cessor of the Scribes and Pharisees, than Christ's vicar or St. Peter's 
successor." — "Homilies" Part 3, Homily of Obedience, p. 114. Cam- 
bridge: Corrie, 1850. 

" Neither ought miracles to persuade us to do contrary to God's 
word; for the Scriptures have for a warning hereof foreshowed, that 
the kingdom of Antichrist shall be mighty ' in miracles and wonders,' 
to the strong illusion of all the reprobate. But in this they pass the 
folly and wickedness of the Gentiles." — " Homilies," Part 3, Homily 
Against Peril of Idolatry, p. 234. 

9. Jewel. (Bishop of Salisbury, 1559-1571.) 

" Many places of the Holy Scriptures, spoken of Antichrist, seemed 
in old times to be dark and doubtful; for that as then it appeared not 
unto what state and government they might be applied: but now, by 
the 'doctrine and practice of the Church of Rome, to them that have 
eyes to see, they are as clear and as open as the sun." — " Defence of tine 
Apology," Vol. IV, p. 744. 

Note. — This section is found in the first edition of Rev. E. B. Elliott's 
" Horae Apocalypticae," Appendix IV, pp. 548-552. — Eds. 

Antichrist. — See Advent, Second, 11, 12; Apostasy; Little Horn, 
285; Papacy, 340, 349; Papal Supremacy, 359; Pope; Popery; Reforma- 
tion, 411; Rome, 440; Sabbath, 473; Seven Churches, 493; Ten King- 
doms, 555; Two Witnesses, 570, 572. 

Aiitiochus. — See Greece, 193, 194. 

Apostasy, The Great, Quick Development of. — One hundred years 
after the death of the apostle John, spiritual darkness was fast settling 
down upon the Christian community; and the Fathers, who flourished 
toward the commencement of the third century, frequently employ lan- 
guage for which they would have been sternly rebuked, had they lived 
in the da^s of the apostles and evangelists. — " The Ancient Church," 
William D. Eillen, D. D., period 2, sec. 2, chap. 5 (p. 418). London: 
James Nisbet & Co., 1883. 



36 



APOSTASY, THE GREAT. 



Apostasy, The Geeat, Pkimitive Aspect Changed. — In the interval 
between the days of the apostles and the conversion of Constantine, the 
Christian commonwealth changed its aspect. The Bishop of Rome — a 
personage unknown to the writers of the New Testament — meanwhile 
rose into prominence, and at length took precedence of all other church- 
men. Rites and ceremonies, of which neither Paul nor Peter ever heard, 
crept silently into use, and then claimed the rank of divine institutions. 
Officers for whom the primitive disciples could have found no place, 
and titles which to them would have been altogether unintelligible, 
began to challenge attention, and to be named apostolic. — Id., Preface 
to original edition, pp. xv, xvi. 

Apostasy, The Great, Multiplying Rites. — It is certain that to 
religious worship, both public and private, many rites were added, with- 
out necessity, and to the offense of sober and good men. The principal 
cause of this I readily look for in the perverseness of mankind, who are 
more delighted with the pomp and splendor of external forms and 
pageantry, than with the true devotion of the heart, and who despise 
whatever does not gratify their eyes and ears. But other and addi- 
tional causes may be mentioned, which, though they suppose no bad 
design, yet clearly betray indiscretion. 

First, There is good reason to suppose the Christian bishops mul- 
tiplied sacred rites for the sake of rendering the Jews and the pagans 
more friendly to them. For both these had been accustomed to nu- 
merous and splendid ceremonies from their infancy, and had no doubts 
that they constituted an essential part of religion. And when they saw 
the new religion to be destitute of such ceremonies, they thought it too 
simple, and therefore despised it. To obviate this objection, the rulers 
of the Christian churches deemed it proper for them to be more formal 
and splendid in their public worship. 

Secondly, The simplicity of the worship which Christians offered to 
the Deity, gave occasion to certain calumnies, maintained both by the 
Jews and the pagan priests. The Christians were pronounced atheists, 
because they were destitute of temples, altars, victims, priests, and all 
that pomp in which the vulgar suppose the essence of religion to con- 
sist. For unenlightened persons are prone to estimate religion by what 
meets their eyes. To silence this accusation, the Christian doctors 
thought they must introduce some external rites, which would strike 
the senses of people; so that they could maintain that they really had 
all those things of which Christians were charged with being destitute, 
though under different forms. — "Ecclesiastical History," Johann Lorenz 
von Mosheim, book 1, cent. 2, part 2, chap. 4, sec. 1 (Vol. I, p. 171). Lon- 
don: Longman & Co., 1841. 

Apostasy, The Great, Adopting Heathen Philosophy.— The Chris- 
tian church came early, after the days of the apostles, under the influ- 
ence, not merely of the Greek language, but of the philosophy of the 
Greeks. The tendency in this direction was apparent even in the times 
of the apostles. It was against this very influence that Paul so often 
and earnestly warned the early Christians: " Beware lest any man spoil 
you through philosophy and vain deceit, after the tradition of men, and 
not after Christ." " Avoid profane and vain babblings, and oppositions 
of science, falsely so called, which some professing, have erred concern- 
ing the faith." " I fear, lest by any means, as the serpent beguiled Eve, 
through his subtilty, so your minds should be corrupted from the 
simplicity that is in Christ." ... It was not long before the Grecian 
philosophy had become dominant and controlling. Their schools of lit- 
erature, and especially of theology, were Grecian schools. Grecian phi- 



APOSTOLIC CHRISTIANITY. 



37 



losophers became their teachers and leaders. — " The Gospel of Life in 
the 8yriac New Testament," Prof. J. II. Pettingell, p. 9. 

Apostasy, The Great, in the Fourth Century. — In the course of 
the fourth century two movements or developments spread over the face 
of Christendom, with a rapidity characteristic of the church; the one 
ascetic, the other ritual or ceremonial. We are told in various ways by 
Eusebius, that Constantine, in order to recommend the new religion to 
the heathen, transferred into it the outward ornaments to which they 
had been accustomed in their own. — " Development of Christian Doc- 
trine," John Henry Cardinal Newman, p. 373. London: Longmans, 
Green & Co., 1906. 

Apostasy, The Great, Adopting Pagan Rites. — Confiding then in 
the power of Christianity to resist the infection of evil, and to transmute 
the very instruments and appendages of demon worship to an evangel- 
ical use, and feeling also that these usages had originally come from 
primitive revelations and from the instinct of nature, though they had 
been corrupted; and that they must invent what they needed, if they 
did not use what they found; and that they were moreover possessed 
of the very archetypes, of which paganism attempted the shadows; the 
rulers of the church from early times were prepared, should the occa- 
sion arise, to adopt, or imitate, or sanction the existing rites and cus- 
toms of the populace, as well as the philosophy of the educated class. 
— Id., pp. 371, 372. 

Apostasy, The Great, Ritual or Roman Paganism. — They [Roman 
pagans, 4th century] are delighted, in fact, with gold and jewels and 
ivory. The beauty and brilliancy of these things dazzle their eyes, and 
they think that there is no religion where these do not shine. And thus, 
under pretense of worshiping the gods, avarice and desire are worshiped. 
. . . The more ornamented are the temples and the more beautiful the 
images, so much the greater majesty are they believed to have; so en- 
tirely is their religion confined to that which the desire of men admires. 

These are the religious institutions handed down to them by their 
ancestors, which they persist in maintaining and defending with the 
greatest obstinacy. Nor do they consider of what character they are; 
but they feel assured of their excellence and truth on this account, 
because the ancients have handed them down; and so great is the 
authority of antiquity that it is said to be a crime to inquire into it. 
And thus it is everywhere believed as ascertained truth. — "Divine In- 
stitutes," Ldctantius, oook 2, chap. 7; " Ante-Nicene Fathers," Vol. VII, 
p. 50. 

Apostasy. — See Antichrist; Babylon, 65; Papacy, 331. 
Apostles' Creed. — See AdVent, Second, 10. 

Apostolic Christianity, Contrasted with Medieval. — Apostolic 
Christianity spread as the religion of the poor; medieval Christianity 
as the religion of the rich. The apostolic church was democratic in its 
origin and institutions. Far otherwise was the church of the eighth 
and ninth centuries, in which the monarchical ideas of the empire had 
superseded the republican order of its first founders. 

Such a change of views could not fail to make itself felt in the 
circumstances of both church and state, nor could it fail to influence 
the conduct and practice of churchmen. The higher ecclesiastics were 



88 



ARIAN. 



now considered as alone constituting the church, as alone able to ex- 
press its voice. A marvelous importance was attached to the conver- 
sion of kings and princes, an example of which had already occurred 
at the conversion of Constantine. The great ma:s of Christians — the 
Christian populace, as it were — disappear from view; the spiritual 
aristocracy of monks and bishops alone becomes prominent. The feel- 
ings and wishes of the people are never considered, or are ignored; the 
interests and wishes of kings and princes are religiously observed. 
The church has become an institution for the great and the rich; the 
history of Christianity, a history of the relation of bishops to princes, 
and princes to bishops, of the Papacy to the empire, and the empire to 
the Papacy. — " The See of Rome in the Middle Ages," Rev. Oswald J'. 
Reichel, B. C. L., M. A., pp. 142, 143. London: Longmans, Green & Go., 
1870. 

Arian, Application of the Term. — Arian : In theology, one who 
adheres to the doctrines of Arius and his school. Arius was a presbyter 
of the church of Alexandria in the fourth century. He held that the 
Son v/as begotten of the Father, and therefore not coeternal nor con- 
substantial with the Father, but created by and subordinate to the 
Father, though possessing a similar nature. The name Arian is given 
in theology not only to all those who adopt this particular view of the 
nature of Christ, but also to all those who, holding to the divine nature 
of Christ, yet maintain his dependence upon and subordination to the 
Father in the Godhead. As a class the Arians accept the Scriptures as 
a divinely inspired and authoritative book, and declare their doctrines 
to be sustained by its teachings. — The Gentury Dictionary and Cyclo- 
pedia, Vol. I, art. "Arian" p. 308. New York: The Gentury Company. 

Arianism. — See Papal Supremacy, 359; Rome, 452, 455. 457. 

Avians.— See Rome, 445, 446, 453, 455, 456. 

Armageddon, The Geographical Meaning of the Word. — Arma- 
geddon, the great battlefield where occurred the chief conflicts between 
the Israelites and their enemies. The name was applied to the table-land 
of Esdraelon in Galilee and Samaria, in the center of which stood the 
town of Megiddo, on the site of the modern Lejjun. — Encyclopedia 
Americana, art. "Armageddon." 

Megiddo was the military key of Sjnria; it commanded at once the 
highway northward to Phoenicia and Ccele-Syria and the road across 
Galilee to Damascus and the valley of the Euphrates. . . . The vale of 
the Kishon and the region of Megiddo were inevitable battlefields. 
Through all history they retained that qualification; there many of the 
great contests of Southwestern Asia have been decided. ... It was re- 
garded as a predestined place of blooA and strife; the poet of the 
Apocalypse has clothed it with awe as the ground of the final conflict 
between the powers of light and darkness. — " Egypt in Asia," George 
Gormack, p. 83. London: Adam and Charles Black, 1908. 

Armageddon, Forebodings of. — I was educated in the school of 
a king who was, before all things, just; and I have tried, like him, al- 
ways to preach love and charity. I have always mistrusted warlike 
preparations, of which nations seem never to tire. Some day this ac- 
cumulated material of soldiers and guns will burst into flames in a 
frightful war that will throw humanity into mourning on earth and 
grieve our universal Father in heaven. — Queen Alexandra, of Britain. 



ARMAGEDDON. 



39 



Today all Europe is divided into two armed camps, waiting breath- 
lessly for the morrow with its Armageddon. — E. Alexander Powell, 
F. R. G. S., in Everybody's Magazine (New York), November, 1909, p. 692. 

Never was national and racial feeling stronger upon earth than it 
is now. Never was preparation for war so tremendous ..nd so sustained. 
Never was striking power so swift and so terribly formidable. . . . 
Almost can the ear of imagination hear the gathering of the legions for 
the fiery trial of peoples, a sound vast as the trumpet of the Lord of 
hosts. — Harold F. Wyatt, in Nineteenth Century and After (London); 
quoted in the Literary Digest (New York), May 6, 1911, p. 606. 

Armageddon, Thought of as the Wak Broke. — In the clash of 
the two great European organizations, — the Triple Alliance and the 
Triple Entente, — we have all those. wild features of universal chaos 
which the writer of the Apocalypse saw with prophetic eye as ushering in 
the great day of the Lord. — In an article, "Armageddon — and After,'" 
by Oulis, in the Fortnightly Review (London), October, 1914, p. 549. 

It may be that these events will quickly usher in the return of 
Christ to gather his saints together from the four quarters of the 
earth. . . . Many see in the events preceding and accompanying this 
terrible cataclysm of war the signs of our Lord's near return. If so, 
blessed will that servant be whom his Lord when he cometh shall find 
giving " their food in due season " to those fellow servants who have 
been put in his charge. — Message of the Church Missionary Society 
(Church of England) to its Missionaries, in the Church Missionary Re- 
view, November, 1914. 

Armageddon, The Spirit That Stirs the World. — The whole of 
Asia is in the throes of rebirth. At last we may see these three — the 
yellow race, the Indian race, and the Arab-Persian Mohammedan race. 
And all that is making for the Armageddon. — Dr. N. H. Marshall, in 
Contemporary Review (London), September, 1909, p. 315. 

A new spirit is abroad in the East. It arose on the shores of the 
Pacific when Japan proved that the great powers of Europe are not in- 
vulnerable. North and south and west it has spread, rousing China out 
of centuries of slumber, stirring India into ominous questioning, re- 
viving memories of past glory in Persia, breeding discontent in Egypt, 
and luring Turkey onto the rocks. — Nineteenth Century and After, 
May, 1913. 

It is really as if in the atmosphere of the world there were some 
mischievous influence at work, which troubles and excites every part 
of it. — Sir Edward Grey, Foreign Secretary, in House of Commons, 
Nov. 27, 1911. 

In these last ten years, a strange breath has passed over the Asiatic 
world. — North American Review, September, 1914. 

Artaxerxes, Seventh Year of. — Sir Isaac Newton, the great mathe- 
matician and scientist, made an analysis of Greek and other records 
bearing witness to 457 b. c. as the seventh year of Artaxerxes. For the 
famous discoverer of the law of gravitation was an earnest student of 
prophecy, and of that greatest of all sciences — the science of salva- 
tion. In his work on the prophecies of Daniel, he gives various in- 
dependent lines of proof for the date 457 b. c. as the seventh year of 



40 



ARTAXERXES, SEVENTH YEAR OF. 



Artaxerxes, whence the prophetic period was to be reckoned. Reference 
to three of these lines of evidence must suffice: 

1. Newton shows that soon after an anniversary of his accession, 
Xerxes began to march his army over the Hellespont into Europe, " in 
the end of the fourth year of the seventy-fourth Olympiad," which ended 
in June, 480 b. c. Newton continues: 

" In autumn, three months after, on the full moon, the sixteenth 
day of the month of Munychion, was the battle of Salamis, and a little 
after that an eclipse of the sun, which, by the calculation, fell on Octo- 
ber 2. His [Xerxes'] sixth year, therefore, began a little before June, 
suppose in spring, An. J. P. [Julian period] 4234 [b. c. 480], and his 
first year consequently in spring, An. J. P. 4229 [b. c. 485], as above. 
Now he reigned almost twenty-one years, by the consent of all writers. 
Add the seven months of Artabanus, and the sum will be twenty-one 
years and about four or five months, which end between midsummer 
and autumn, An. J. P. 4250 [b. c. 464]. At this time, therefore, began 
the reign of his successor, Artaxerxes, as was to be proved." — " Obser- 
vations upon the Prophecies," Sir Isaac Newton, part 1, chap. 10. 

2. Again, Newton takes the writings of Africanus, a Christian of 
the third century: 

" The same thing is also confirmed by Julius Africanus, who in- 
forms us out of former writers that the twentieth year of this Arta- 
xerxes was the one hundred fifteenth year from the beginning of the 
reign of Cyrus in Persia, and fell in with An. 4, Olympiad 83 [the fourth 
year of the eighty-third Olympiad i]. It began, therefore, with the 
Olympic year, soon after the summer solstice, An. J. P. 4269 [b. c. 445]. 
Subduct nineteen years, and his first year will begin at the same time of 
the year An. J. P. 4250 [b. c. 464], as above." — Ibid. 

3. Another of Newton's arguments in proof of the date, the last 
that we have space to refer to, is based on testimony as to the death of 
Artaxerxes. It will be more easily followed if we quote more fully 
than Sir Isaac Newton does from the original authority cited; and 
indeed the story is an interesting one apart from its contribution to 
chronology. It is from the " History of the Peloponnesian War," — 
really a contest between Sparta and Athens, — written by Thucydides. 
Writing of the winter season of 425-424 b. c, he says: 

" During the ensuing winter, Aristides, son of Archippus, one of the 
commanders of the Athenian vessels which collected tribute from the 
allies, captured at Eion, upon the [river] Strymon, Artaphernes, a Per- 
sian, who was on his way from the king [Artaxerxes] to Sparta. He 
was brought to Athens, and the Athenians had the dispatches which he 
was carrying, and which were written in the Assyrian character, trans- 
lated. . . . The chief point was a remonstrance addressed to the Lace- 
daemonians by the king, who said that he could not understand what 
they wanted. ... If they meant to make themselves intelligible, he 
desired them to send to him another embassy with the Persian envoy. 
Shortly afterward the Athenians sent Artaphernes in a trireme [gal- 
ley] to Ephesus, and with him an embassy of their own; but they found 
that Artaxerxes, the son of Xerxes, had recently died; for the embassy 
arrived just at that time." — " History of the Peloponnesian War," Thu- 
cydides, book 2, par. 50; JowetVs Translation, p. 278. 



1 " An Olympiad is a cycle of four years, and the years are reckoned as the 
first, second, third, or fourth years of any given Olympiad. The Olympic games 
consisted of various athletic sports, a record of which was kept at Elis, and the 
names of the victors inserted in it by the presidents of the games. These regis- 
ters are pronounced accurate by ancient historians, and are complete, with the 
exception of the 211th Olympiad, " the only one," says Pausanias, " omitted in 
the register of the Eleans." — " Analysis of Sacred Chronology/' 8. Bliss, p. 23. 



ARTAXERXES, SEVENTH YEAR OF. 



41 



As all this happened " during the winter," it is evident that the 
envoys from Greece on the way to Artaxerxes' court in Persia, and the 
embassy from Persia announcing the king's death, met in Ephesus (in 
Asia Minor) in the early months of 424 b. c; and that the death of 
Artaxerxes must have occurred toward the end of 425 b. c. Sir Isaac 
Newton shows that his precise reign was thirty-nine years and three 
months. Counting this time hack from the end of 425 b. c, the begin- 
ning of his reign comes in the latter half of 464 b. c, just as we have 
seen by other witnesses, and the seventh year of his reign would be 
457 b. c. 

This is but a rough calculation, based on an estimate of the rea- 
sonable time elapsing in the journeying of the embassies. It is related 
to the exact chronology of Ptolemy's Canon only as the " log " reckon- 
ing of a ship is related to the sure observation by the sun or stars in 
determining the ship's position. But it is interesting as showing how 
fragmentary details of chronological history join in confirming an 
important date in prophecy. 

The testimony of the Olympiads agrees with that of Ptolemy's 
Canon in fixing the year period within which Artaxerxes began to reign. 
And just where the testimony of history is uncertain — as to the season 
of the year — the voice of Inspiration speaks. 

The year in which the great commission was granted to Ezra to 
restore and build Jerusalem was 457 b. c. — " The Hand of God in His- 
tory," W. A. Spicer, pp. 57-60. 

Artaxerxes, Seventh Year of, Season When It Began. — While, ac- 
cording to the principle of the canon, the reign of Artaxerxes is reck- 
oned as beginning with the first day of the year 284 of the Nabonassa- 
rean era, we only know from it that the actual commencement of the 
reign was sometime in the course of that year. 

Now the time of the year when he began to reign seems determi- 
nable from Ezra and Nehemiah. It appears from Neh. 1 : 1 and 2 : 1, that 
in the twentieth year of the reign of Artaxerxes, and consequently in 
the other years of his reign, the first Hebrew month, Nisan (March- 
April), came after the ninth, Chisleu (November-December). Conse- 
quently the date of his accession must have been sometime between 
Nisan and Chisleu. And from Ezra 7: 7-10 it follows that in the sev- 
enth, and therefore in the other years of his reign, the fifth month, Ab 
(July- August), came after the first, or Nisan. Therefore the accession 
of Artaxerxes was somewhere between the latter end of July and the 
former part of November, i. e., somewhere about the summer i of 464 
b. c. — " Fulfilled Prophecy ;" Rev. W. Goode. D. D., F. 8. A., pp. 212, 213, 
2d edition. London: James Nisoet & Co., 1891. 

Artaxerxes, Seventh Year or, Date of. — Now, what is the testimony 
of the canon to the seventh year of Artaxerxes Longimanus, when the 
decree to Ezra went forth? Ptolemy, of course, knew nothing of the 
Christian era and the reckoning of years before Christ and after Christ. 
He began with the era of Nabonassar. Of the origin of this system, 
Dr. Hales ("Chronology," Vol. I, p. 155) says: 

"Nabonassar [king of Babylon], having collected the acts of his 
predecessors, destroyed them, in order that the computation of the 
reigns of the Chaldean kings might be made from himself. It began, 
therefore, with the reign of Nabonassar, Feb. 26, b. c. 747." 



1 Note. — Mr. Goode's own statement shows that he means the summer of 
Syria ; it is more accurate with us to say autumn than summer, as the margin 
of time lies between the latter part of August and the latter part of November, 
— Eds. 



-12 



ART AXERXE S , SEVENTH YEAR OF. 



That day was the Egyptian Thoth, or New Year. It begins the 
year 1 of Ptolemy's Canon, which thenceforward numbers off the years, 
1, 2, 3, etc., straight on through history, telling in what year of 
Nabonassar's era each king began to reign, always counting full years 
from New Year to New Year. The canon does not deal with parts of 
years. It is like a rigid measuring rule, just three hundred sixty-five 
days long, laid down over history, marking the years and numbering 
them from that first New Year. Knowing the starting-point, Feb. 26, 
747 b. c, it is but a matter of computation, or measuring, to tell in 
what year of our modern reckoning a given year of the canon falls. 

According to Ptolemy, the year in which Artaxerxes began to reign 
Was the two hundred eighty-fourth year of the canon. This year 284,. 
according to our calendar, began Dec. 17, 465 b. c.i 

But according to the rule of Ptolemy, this means only that some- 
where between Dec. 17, 465, and Dec. 17, 464, the king came to the 
throne. At whatever time in the year a king came to the throne, his 
reign was counted from the New Year preceding. To illustrate: If we 
were following that plan now of recording the reigns^ of kings, — by 
years only, not counting parts of years, — and a king should come to 
the throne in July, 1913, the year of his accession would be set down as 
beginning with the New Year, Jan. 1, 1913, for in the year then opening 
he began to reign. That was Ptolemy's method. Dr. Hales ("Chronol- 
ogy," Vol. I, p. 171) states the rule: 

" Each king's reign begins at the Thoth, or New Year's Day, be- 
fore his accession, and all the odd months of his last year are included 
in the first year of his successor." . . . 

Therefore, inasmuch as the canon shows only that Artaxerxes be- 
gan his reign sometime in the Nabonassean year beginning Dec. 17, 
465 b. c, and ending Dec. 17, 464, the question is, At what time of the 
year did he come to the throne? With this answered, we can readily 
determine the seventh year of Artaxerxes, as the Scripture would 
reckon it from the time when he actually began to reign. And here 
Inspiration itself gives the answer. 

The record of Nehemiah and Ezra fully establishes the fact that 
Artaxerxes began his reign at the end of the summer, or in the autumn. 
Neh. 1:1; 2:1; Ezra 7: 7-9.2 His first year, therefore, was from the 
autumn of 464 b. c. to the autumn of 463 b. c, and his seventh year was 
from the autumn of 458 b. c. to the autumn of 457 b. c. 

Under Ezra's commission the people began to go up to Jerusalem 
in the spring of that year, 457 b. c. (in the first month, or April), and 



1 As the exact 365-day year of the Egyptians made no allowance for leap 
year, the Egyptian Thoth, or New Year, drops back in our calendar about a day 
every four years. So that, while it fell on February 26 in 747 b. c, where 
the years of the canon begin, in this two hundred eighty-fourth year of the 
canon it falls on Dec. 17, 465. 

2 The texts prove that the king came to the throne after midsummer, 
toward or fully in the autumn, so that the actual years of his reign would 
run from autumn to autumn. Nehemiah 1 : 1 begins the record : " In the montb 
Chisleu, in the twentieth year." Nehemiah 2 : 1 continues : " It came to pass 
in the month Nisan, in the twentieth year of Artaxerxes." Thus it is plain 
that in the actual year of the king's reign the month Chisleu came first in 
order, and then Nisan. Chisleu was the ninth month of the Jewish sacred 
year. Zech. 7 : 1. The year began in the spring. In our calendar Chisleu is, 
roughly, December, or, strictly, from the latter part of November to the 
latter part of December. Nisan* is the first month, April. And these months — 
November (latter part). December, April — in the order named by the prophet, 
came in the first year of the king, of course, the same as in his twentieth year, 
And in the same year also came the fifth month, August; for Ezra 7: 7-9 shows 
that the first and fifth months also fell in the same year of his reign. Then 
we know of a certainty that his reign began somewhere between August and 
the latter part of November. 



AZAZEL — SATAN. 



43 



they "came to Jerusalem in the fifth month" (August). Ezra 7, 8, 9. 
Ezra and his associates soon thereafter " delivered the king's commis- 
sions unto the king's lieutenants, and to the governors on this side the 
river: and they furthered the people, and the house of God." Ezra 8: 36. 

Y/ith this delivery of the commissions to the king's officers, the 
commandment to restore and to build had fully gone forth. And from 
this date, 457 b. c., extend the 70 weeks, or 490 years, allotted to the 
Jewish people. " Seventy weeks are determined [cut off] upon thy 
people and upon thy holy city, . . . from the going forth of the com- 
mandment to restore and to build Jerusalem." Dan. 9: 24, 25. 

This 490-year period, measuring from 457 b. c. to 34 a. d., touches 
at its close the years of the public ministry and crucifixion of Christ, 
and the turning of the apostles to the Gentiles. 

At the same date, 457 b. c, necessarily began the longer period of 
2300 years, from which the shorter period was " determined," or cut off. 
And this long prophetic period was to reach to " the time of the end," 
to " the cleansing of the sanctuary," the beginning of the closing min- 
istry of Christ in the heavenly sanctuary, preparatory to his second 
coming in glory. — " The Hand of God in History," William A. Spicer, 
pp. 44-49. 

Artaxerxes. — See Ptolemy's Canon; Seventy Weeks, 518, 519. 
Ascension Robes. — See Robes, Ascension, 424. 
Athanasian Creed. — See Advent, Second, 10. 
Atonement. — See Azazel. 

Attila.— See Rome, 443, 444, 452; Seven Trumpets, 499, 504, 505; 
Temporal Power of the Pope, 550. 

Augustus. — See Rome, 433, 434. 

Azazel, a Supers atukal Being. — The name of a supernatural being 
mentioned in connection with the ritual of the day of atonement (Leviti- 
cus 16). After Satan, for whom he was in some degree a preparation, 
Azazel enjoys the distinction of being the most mysterious extrahuman 
character in sacred literature. — The Jewish Encyclopedia, Vol. II, art. 
"Azazel," p. 365. Neiv York: Funk and Wagnalls Company, 1903. 

Azazel, Representing tee Source of Evil. — Far from involving the 
recognition of Azazel as a deity, the sending of the goat was, as stated 
by Nahmanides, a symbolic expression of the idea that the people's sins 
and their evil consequences were to be sent back to the spirit of desola- 
tion and ruin, the source of all impurity. — Id., p. 366. 

Azazel, a Namje for the Devil. — 8. Scapegoat. See different opim 
ion in Bochart. Spencer, after the oldest opinions of the Hebrews and 
Christians, thinks Azazel is the name of the devil, and so Rosenmuller, 
whom see. The Syriac has Azzail, the "angel (strong one) who re- 
volted." — " The Comprehensive Commentary of the Holy Bible," edited 
by William Jenks, D. D., note on Lev. 16:8, p. 410. Brattleboro, Yt.: 
Fessenden & Co., 1835. 

Azazel, Satan. — The command to present two goats to Jehovah for 
a sin offering (Lev. 16: 5), and to cast lots on them, one for Jehovah, 
the other for Azazel (verse 8), requires us to take Azazel as a spiritual 



44 



AZAZEL, NAMES FOR. 



personality, in contrast to Jehovah, who must be thought of as dwelling 
in the wilderness, the habitation of demons and impure beings (Matt. 
12: 43; Luke 11: 24), inasmuch as the goat devoted to Azazel is sent into 
the wilderness (Lev. 16: 11, 21). Thus he must belong to the kingdom of 
evil spirits, and that not as a subordinate demon, for he is here put in 
contrast to Jehovah, but can only be the ruler of the kingdom of the 
demons or their head, that evil spirit who is afterward called Satan. — 
" Biblical Archaeology," Johann F. K. Keil, Vol. II, p. 43. 

Azazel, Another Name fob Satan. — The use of the preposition im- 
plies it [that Azazel is a proper name]. The same preposition is used 
on both lots, La-Yehovah, La-Azazel, and if the one indicates a person, 
it seems natural the other should. Especially, considering the act of 
casting lots. If one is Jehovah, the other would seem for some other 
person or being; not one for Jehovah, and the other for the goat itself. 

What goes to confirm this is, that the most ancient paraphrases and 
translations treat Azazel as a proper name. The Chaldee paraphrase 
and the targums of Onkelos and Jonathan would certainly have trans- 
lated it if it was not a proper name, but they do not. The Septuagint, 
or oldest Greek version, renders it by airoTrofnralos [apopompaios], a word 
applied by the Greeks to a malign deity, sometimes appeased by sac- 
rifices. 

Another confirmation is found in the Book of Enoch, where the 
name Azalzel, evidently a corruption of Azazel, is given to one of the 
fallen angels, thus plainly showing what was the prevalent understand- 
ing of the Jews at that day. 

Still another evidence is found in the Arabic, where Azazel is em- 
ployed as the name of. the evil spirit. 

In addition to these, we have the evidence of the Jewish work 
Zohar, and of the Cabalistic and Rabbinical writers. They tell us that 
the following proverb was current among the Jews: "On the day of 
atonement, a gift to Sammael." Hence Moses Gerundinensis feels called 
to say that it is not a sacrifice, but only done because commanded 
by God. 

Another step in the evidence is when we find this same opinion 
passing from the Jewish to the early Christian church. Origen was the 
most learned of the Fathers, and on such a point as this, the meaning 
of a Hebrew word, his testimony is reliable. Says Origen: "He who is 
called in the Septuagint 6 diroTro/jLirahs, and in the Hebrew Azazel, is no 
other than the devil." 

Lastly, a circumstance is mentioned of the emperor Julian, the apos- 
tate, that confirms the argument. He brought as an objection against 
the Bible, that Moses commanded a sacrifice to the evil spirit. An 
objection he never could have thought of, had not Azazel been generally 
regarded as a proper name. 

In view, then, of the difficulties attending any other meaning, and 
the accumulated evidence in favor of this, Hengstenberg affirms, with 
great confidence, that Azazel cannot be anything else but another name 
for Satan. — Observations on Lev. 16:8, in "Redeemer and Redeemed: 
an Investigation of the Atonement and of Eternal Judgment," Charles 
Beecher, pp. 67, 68. Boston: Lee and Shepard, 1864. 

Azazel, a Personal Being. — The meaning of Azazel is much dis- 
puted; it is, of course, a subject closely connected with the inquiry into 
the origin of the custom [of setting apart one goat for Azazel]. It is 
at least certain that, as Azazel receives one goat while Yahwe [Jehovah] 
receives the other, both must be personal beings. — Encyclopedia Bib- 
lica, a Dictionary of the Bible, edited by the Rev. T. K. Cheyne, M. A., 



BABYLON, HISTORY OF. 



45 



D. D., and T. Sutherland Black, M. A., LL. D., art. " Azazeir New York: 
The Macmillan Company, 1899. 

Babylon, Historical Sketch of. — Babylonia (Assyr. Babilu, Per. 
Babirush) was the name given to the plain of the Tigris and Euphrates, 
now forming the modern Arab province of Irak-Arabi. In the Old 
Testament it is Shinar, Babel, or ' the land of the Chaldees." The 
boundaries of Babylonia varied at different periods of its history. The 
northern frontier was formed partly by the Euphrates and its tribu- 
taries, but chiefly by a line of forts and frontier stations established by 
mutual arrangement between the Assyrian and Babylonian kings, prob- 
ably the Median Wall of the classical writers, [p. 38] . . . 

It is now evident, from the monuments and inscriptions which have 
been obtained from the traditionally oldest cities of Chaldea, that the 
civilization of the ancient people of Babylonia has an antiquity rivaling 
that of ancient Egypt, [p. 40] . . . 

On the disruption of the Assyrian Empire after the death of Assur- 
bani-pal, the throne of Babylon was seized by Nabu-abla-utzar, or 
Nabopolassar, the general of the Babylonian garrison, who had married 
a Median princess, and was himself no doubt of collateral descent from 
the royal line of Babylonian kings. He was succeeded in 604 b. c. by 
his son Nebuchadnezzar, one of the greatest sovereigns who ever ruled 
over the ancient empire. During a long reign of forty-three years he 
succeeded in recovering the long-lost provinces of the kingdom, and once 
more making Babylon queen of nations. He not only restored the em- 
pire and rebuilt Babylon, but almost every temple and edifice through- 
out the land underwent restoration at his hands. It is an astonishing 
fact that not a single mound throughout Babylonia has as yet been 
opened by the explorers which has not been found to contain bricks, 
cylinders, or tablets inscribed with his name. In 599 b. c. he captured 
Jerusalem, and sent Jehoiakim captive to Babylon, and eleven years 
later, owing to the still disturbed state of the kingdom (588 b. a), he 
destroyed the city, and removed most of the inhabitants to Chaldea. 

Nebuchadnezzar was succeeded in 561 b. c. by his son Evil-merodach, 
who was murdered by his brother-in-law, " chief seer " of one of the 
temples. His reign lasted until 556 b. c. The throne was in 556 b. c. 
usurped by a powerful and active prince, Nabu-naid or Nabonidus, the 
son of a " chief seer," whose reign is the most critical, next to that of 
Nebuchadnezzar, in later Babylonian history. The inscriptions of this 
king are found in almost all temples, and some of them contain impor- 
tant historical facts. In a cylinder found at Sippara the king records 
his restoration of the temple at Kharran, which was destroyed by the, 
Scythians; and in his sixth year, 549 b. c, he records the overthrow of 
Astyages, king of the Medes, and the capture of Ecbatana by Cyrus. 
In the king's seventeenth year the whole land of Babylonia was in revolt 
against him for neglecting the duties of court and religion, leaving all 
to his son Belshazzar. 

During the summer of this year Cyrus invaded Babylonia, advancing 
from the neighborhood of the modern Bagdad, and reaching Sippara on 
the 14th day of Tammuz (June), which the garrison yielded without 
fighting. Two days later, Tammuz 16, Babylon capitulated. Babylonia 
now became a Persian province, and under the rule of Cyrus (538-529 
b. c.) and Cambyses (529-521), it appears to have been peaceful. On 
the accession to the throne of Darius, son of Hystaspes, the old rebel- 
lious spirit once more asserted itself, and for three years (521-519) the 
city held out against the Persians. 

With the overthrow of the Persian monarchy, Babylonia came under 
the short-lived dominion of Alexander the Great, who died in that city 



4 6 



BABYLON, CITY OF. 



(323 b. c.) — Standard Encyclopedia, Vol. Ill, pp. 38, 40, 43, 44. New 
York: Funk and Wagnalls Company. 

The epoch of the new Babylonian Empire covers a period of time 
from about 615 to 538 b. c, approximately three quarters of a cen- 
tury. . . . 

Nabopolassar (Nabu-apal-usur, i. e., " Nabu protect the heir"), ac- 
cording to the Ptolemaic Canon, reigned from 625 b. c. (the date of his 
accession thus being 626) until 605 b. c, in which year he died, shortly 
before the victory won by his son Nebuchadrezzar over the Egyptians 
at Carchemish, having been in ill health before Nebuchadrezzar started 
for Syria. . . . 

Nabopolassar, who died in 605, while his son was on the march for 
Syria, only just missed the satisfaction of seeing the new kingdom of 
Babylonia which he had founded enter upon the heritage of the Assyrian 
Empire, out of which the western province could least of all be spared. 
He did not see it: instead the news of his father's death reached the 
young Nebuchadrezzar (Nabu-kudur-usur, i. e., "Nabu protect the 
crown") shortly after the victory of the Egyptians, which decided the 
fate of Syria for the time being; and leaving his generals to follow up 
the victory, he had to return to Babylon in hot haste to assume the 
royal dignity that awaited him. There he received the crown at the 
hands of the great nobles without encountering any obstacles, and for 
the long period of his glorious reign, which lasted forty-two years (604- 
562) he guided the destinies of his country, extended and strengthened 
its borders, and thus made Babylonia a great power, and Babylon one of 
the most splendid and illustrious cities of ancient times. If we further 
take into consideration that it was he who likewise conquered Syria 
for Babylonia, we cannot but acknowledge his claim to be counted the 
first ruler who entered upon the full possession of Assyria and con- 
solidated it. 

Amid all the many and sometimes detailed inscriptions of Nebu- 
chadrezzar which have been found in the ruins of Babylon and other 
cities, not one contains any account of his campaigns; but from a pas- 
sage in the preamble of the great inscription of the kingdom, we see 
that in spite of his preference for building and other peaceful labors he 
was a mighty warrior. — " The Historians' History of the World," edited 
by Henry Smith Williams, LL. D., Vol. I, pp. 448, 449. New York: The 
Outlook Company, 1905. 

Babylon, City of. — The accounts given by the classic writers are 
very confused. With the capital of the older kingdom they have, for 
the most part, nothing to do; they are all to be referred to the resusci- 
tated and adorned residence of Nebuchadnezzar. Herodotus gives a 
description of the city, as if from his own observation. It stood on 
both sides of the river, in the form of a square, the length of whose 
sides is variously given; by Herodotus it is stated at 120 stadia, making 
the whole circumference 60 miles. It was surrounded by a wall 200 
cubits high and 50 cubits thick, and furnished with 100 brazen gates — 
the last number is raised by Diodorus to 250. The city was built with 
extreme regularity, with broad straight streets crossing one another at 
right angles; and the two parts were connected by a roofed bridge built 
of hewn stones, fastened together with iron clamps. Of this bridge, not 
a trace has yet been discovered. The western part of the city is 
undoubtedly the older, belonging to the early and properly Babylonish 
dynasty. Here stood, in the middle of the city, as it is described, the 
famous temple of Belus or Baal, called by the Arabs, Birs Nimrud. 
The next important point on the western side is the mass of ruins 
called Mujellibe, which was probably the royal citadel of the old Baby- 



BABYLON, CITY OF. 



47 



Ionian monarchy. On the eastern side of the river stood the buildings 
of the Neo-Babylonian period, among which the " Hanging Gardens " of 
Semiramis are to be singled out as one of the wonders of the world. 
Of these gardens Diodorus has left us a detailed description. The ruins 
may be recognized in the mound called El-Kasr. The city suffered 
greatly from the Persian conquest. Xerxes plundered the temple of 
Belus, which had been hitherto spared, and Herodotus found it empty. 
Although the Persian kings made Babylon their residence, nothing was 
done for the restoration of the city; and Alexander the Great, who, on 
his entrance, in 331 b. c, had promised the inhabitants to rebuild the 
ruined temple, was unable even to clear away the rubbish, although he 
employed 10,000 workmen for two months. After his death in the palace 
of Nebuchadnezzar, and the foundation of Seleucia on the Tigris by 
Seleucus Nicator, Babylon went rapidly to decay. — Standard Encyclo- 
pedia, Vol. Ill, art. "Babylon" p. 37. Neiv York: Funk and Wagnalls 
Company. 

Babylon, City of, Desceiption by Herodotus. — 178. When Cyrus 
had reduced all the other parts of the continent, he attacked the Assyr- 
ians. Now Assyria contains many large cities, but the most renowned 
and the strongest, and where the seat of government was established 
after the destruction of Nineveh, was Babylon, which is of the following 
description: The city stands in a spacious plain, and is quadrangular, 
and shows a front on every side of one hundred and twenty stades; these 
stades make up the sum of four hundred and eighty in the whole cir- 
cumference. Such is the size of the city of Babylon. It was adorned 
in a manner surpassing any city we are acquainted with. In the first 
place, a moat deep, wide, and full of water, runs entirely around it; 
next, there is a wall fifty royal cubits in breadth, and in height two 
hundred; but the royal cubit is larger than the common one by three 
fingers' breadth. 

179. . . . And on the top of the wall, at the edges, they built dwell- 
ings of one story, fronting each other, and they left a space between 
these dwellings sufficient for turning a chariot with four horses. In the 
circumference of the wall there were a hundred gates, all of brass, as 
also are the posts and lintels. . . . 

180. In this manner Babylon was encompassed with a wall; and the 
city consists of two divisions, for a river, called the Euphrates, sepa- 
rates it in the middle. . . . The wall, therefore, on either bank, has an 
elbow carried down to the river; from thence, along the curvatures of 
each bank of the river, runs a wall of baked bricks. The city itself, 
which is full of houses three and four stories high, is cut up into 
straight streets, as well all the other as the transverse ones that lead 
to the river. At the end of each street a little gate is formed in the 
wall along the river-side, in number equal to the streets; and they are 
all made of brass, and lead down to the edge of the river. 

181. This outer wall, then, is the chief defense, but another wall 
runs round within, not much inferior to the other in strength, though 
narrower. In the middle of each division of the city fortified buildings 
were erected; in one, the royal palace, with a spacious and strong 
inclosure, brazen-gated; and in the other, the precinct of Jupiter Belus, 
which in my time was still in existence, a square building of two stades 
on every side. In the midst of this precinct is built a solid tower of 
one stade both in length and breadth, and on this tower rose another, 
and another upon that, to the number of eight; and an ascent to these 
is outside, running spirally round all the towers. About the middle of 
the ascent there is a landing-place and seats to rest on, on which those 
who go up sit down and rest themselves; and in the uppermost tower 
stands a spacious temple. . . . 



48 



BABYLON, CITY OF. 



183. There is also another temple below, within the precinct at 
Babylon; in it is a large golden statue of Jupiter [Bel] seated, and near 
it is placed a large table of gold, the throne also and the step are of 
gold, which together weigh eight hundred talents, as the Chaldeans 
affirm. . . . There was also at that time within the precincts of this 
temple a statue of solid gold, twelve cubits high: I, indeed, did not see 
it; I only relate what is said by the Chaldeans. Darius, son of Hys- 
taspes, formed a design to take away this statue, but dared not do so; 
but Xerxes, son of Darius, took it, and killed the priest who forbade 
him to remove it. — Herodotus, book, 1, pars. 178-183; Gary's translation, 
pp. 77-79. Everyman's Library edition. 

Babylon, City or, in the Light of Excavations. — In the time of 
Nebuchadnezzar the traveler who approached the capital of Babylonia 
from the north would find himself where the Nil Canal flows today, face 
to face with the colossal wall that surrounded mighty Babylon. Part of 
this wall still exists and is recognizable at the present time in the guise 
of a low earthen ridge about four to five kilometers in length. Up to 
the present [preface is dated " Babylon, May 16, 1912 "] we have only 
excavated a small part. . . . There was a massive wall of crude brick 
7 meters thick, in front of which, at an interval of about 12 meters, 
stood another wall of burnt brick 7.8 meters thick. . . . The space be- 
tween the two walls was filled in with rubble, at least to the height at 
which the ruins are preserved and presumably to the crown of the outer 
wall. Thus on the top of the wall there was a road that afforded space 
for a team of four horses abreast, and even for two such teams to pass 
each other. . . . The line of defense was very long; the northeast front, 
which can still be measured, is 4,400 meters long. . . . Generally speak- 
ing, the measurements given [by Herodotus and other ancient writers] 
are not in accordance with those actually preserved, while the general 
description, on the contrary, is usually accurate. — " The Excavations at 
Babylon," Robert Koldeway, pp. 1-3. London, 19T4. 

Note. — It must be remembered, however, that excavators are not sure that 
they have found the outmost walls and defenses of Babylon : so that Herodotus, 
while admittedly capable of exaggerating, may not be overstating Babylon's dimen- 
sions after all. — Eds. 

Babylon, City of, Its Palaces and Temples. — The most remarkable 
buildings which the city contained were the two palaces, one on either 
side of the river, and the great temple of Belus. Herodotus describes 
the great temple as contained within a square inclosure, two stades 
(nearly a quarter of a mile) both in length and breadth. Its chief 
feature was the ziggurat, or tower, a huge solid mass of brickwork, 
built (like all Babylonian temple towers) in stages, square being em- 
placed on square, and a sort of rude pyramid being thus formed, at the 
top of which was the main shrine of the god. . . . 

The great palace was a building of still larger dimensions than the 
great temple. According to Diodorus, it was situated within a triple 
inclosure, the innermost wall being twenty stades, the second forty 
stades, and the outermost sixty stades (nearly seven miles), in cir- 
cumference. ... 

But the main glory of the palace was its pleasure-ground — the 
" Hanging Gardens," which the Greeks regarded as one of the seven 
wonders of the world. This extraordinary construction, which owed 
its erection to the whim of a woman, was a square, each side of which 
measured 400 Greek feet. It was supported upon several tiers of open 
arches, built one over the other, like the walls of a classic theater, and 
sustaining at each stage, or story, a solid platform, from which the 



BABYLON, A WORLD CENTER. 



4!) 



piers of the next tier of arches rose. The building towered into the 
air to the height of at least seventy-five feet, and was covered at the 
top with a great mass of earth, in which there grew not merely flow- 
ers and shrubs, but trees also of the largest size. Water was sup- 
plied from the Euphrates through pipes, and was raised (it is said) by 
a screw working on the* principle of Archimedes. — " The Five Great 
Monarchies," George Rawlinson, M. A., Vol. II, pp. 514-517 ; " The Fourth 
Monarchy" chap. 4. New York: Dodd, Mead & Co. 

Babylon, the Capital of Ancient Leaening. — Here were the great 
libraries of the Semitic race. Here were the scholars who copied so 
painstakingly every little omen or legend that had come down to them 
out of the hoary past. Here were the men who calculated eclipses, 
watched the moon's changes, and looked nightly from observatories 
upon the stately march of constellations over the sky. Here were the 
priests who preserved the knowledge of the ancient Sumerian language, 
that its sad plaints and solemn prayers might be kept for use in temple 
worship. — "History of Babylonia and Assyria," Robert W. Rogers, Ph. D., 
Vol. II, pp. 575, 576, sixth edition. New York: The Abingdon Press, 1915. 

Babylon, Religious Capital of the Semitic Race. — The Assyrian 
rulers regarded it as both a privilege and a solemn duty to come to 
Babylon and invoke the protection of Marduk and Nabu. In E-Saggila 
the installation of the rulers over Babylonia took place, and a visit to 
Marduk's temple was incomplete without a pilgrimage across the river 
to E-Zida. The influence of these two temples upon the whole course of 
Babylonian history from the third millennium on, can hardly be over- 
estimated. From the schools grouped around E-Saggila and E-Zida went 
forth the decrees that shaped the doctrinal development of the religion 
of Babylonia and Assyria. . . . The thought of E-Saggila and E-Zida 
must have stored up emotions in the breast of a Babylonian and Assy- 
rian, that can only be compared to a pious Mohammedan's enthusiasm 
for Mecca, or the longing of an ardent Hebrew for Jerusalem. . . . The 
priests of Marduk could view with equanimity the rise and growth of 
Assyria's power. The influence of E-Saggila and E-Zida was not affected 
by such a shifting of the political kaleidoscope. Babylon remained the 
religious center of the country. When one day, a Persian conqueror — 
Cyrus — entered the precincts of E-Saggila, his first step was to ac- 
knowledge Marduk and Nabu as the supreme powers in the world; and 
the successors of Alexander continue to glory in the title, "Adorner of 
E-Saggila and E-Zida." — " The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria," Mor- 
ris Jastrow, Jr., pp. 649, 650. Boston: Ginn & Co., 1898. 

Babylon, a World Center. — Babylonian civilization and history 
was not confined to the region watered by the Tigris and Euphrates. 
A civilization so advanced as that of Babylonia could not exist without 
attracting to itself the assistance of neighboring lands and carrying 
thither its own achievements. Thus we see, even in remote antiquity. 
Babylon reaching out toward Palestine, Armenia, Elam, and even to 
Arabia. Her merchants went forth in the pursuits of commerce, her 
soldiers to war and victory. The products of her artists and artisans 
were laid in foreign markets. Her superfluous population found homes 
on alien soil. — " The History of Babylonia and Assyria," Hugo Winckler, 
Ph. D., translation by J. A. Craig, p. 5. New York: Charles Scribner's 
Sons, 1907. 

Babylon, Nebuchadnezzar's Military Exploits. — This Babylonian 
king conquered Egypt, and Syria, and Phenicia, and Arabia, and ex- 
4 



50 



BABYLON — NEBUCHADNEZZAR. 



ceeded in his exploits all that had reigned before him in Babylon. — 

Berosus, the Chaldean; cited by Josephus, "Against Apion," book 1, 
par. 19. 

Babylon, Golden Age of, under Nebuchadnezzar, — Nebuchadnezzar 
is the great monarch of the Babylonian Empfre, which, lasting only 88 
years — from b. c. 625 to b. c. 538 — was for nearly half the time under 
his sway. Its military glory is due chiefly to him, while the con- 
structive energy, which constitutes its especial characteristic, belongs 
to it still more markedly through his character and genius. It is 
scarcely too much to say that, but for Nebuchadnezzar, the Babylonians 
would have had no place in history. At any rate, their actual place is 
owing almost entirely to this prince, who to the military talents of an 
able general added a grandeur of artistic conception and a skill in 
construction which place him on a par with the greatest builders of 
antiquity. — " The Five Great Monarchies," George Rawlinson, M. A., Vol. 
Ill, p. 50; "The Fourth Monarchy," chap. 8. New York: Dodd, Mead 
& Co. 

Babylon, Nebuchadnezzar the Great Builder of. — So began one 
of the longest and most brilliant reigns (604-562 b. c.) of human history. 
Nebuchadnezzar has not left the world without written witnesses of his 
great deeds. In his inscriptions, however, he follows the common 
Babylonian custom of omitting all reference to wars, sieges, campaigns, 
and battles. Only in a very few instances is there a single reference to 
any of these. The great burden of all the inscriptions is building. In 
Babylon was centered his chief pride, and of temples and palaces, and 
not of battles and sieges, were his boasts. — "History of Babylonia and 
Assyria," Robert W. Rogers, Ph. D., Vol. II, pp. 504, 505, sixth edition, 
New York: The Abingdon Press, 1915. 

Babylon, Ancient, Chronology of Nebuchadnezzar's Reign. — The 
first year of Judah's captivity was also the first year of Nebuchadnezzar's 
power, and the prophetic date of the Babylonian monarchy. The year 
of that monarch's accession, in the canon, is a. c. 604. And to this 
date the prophet refers in the vision of the image, which is said to be 
in the second year of Nebuchadnezzar's reign. But it appears, from other 
passages, that this monarch began to reign conjointly with his father 
two years earlier; and from this earlier accession his years, and those 
of the captivity, are reckoned in every other place. This appears from 
Daniel's own narrative. He and his fellows were nourished three full 
years to stand before the king. Yet the vision was interpreted in 
Nebuchadnezzar's second year. Hence the separation of those youths 
must have been more than one and less than two years before his 
accession, and their captivity still earlier. Now this took place in the 
third of Jehoiakim, the time which is elsewhere called the first of 
Nebuchadnezzar. Hence at Babylon, the seat of empire, the reign of 
the king was dated from the death of his father, a. c. 604; but in 
Judea, two years earlier, a. c. 606, from his actual supreme command 
over the Babylonian forces. — " The Four Prophetic Empires," Rev. 
T. R. Birks, M. A., pp. 25, 26. London: Seeley, Burnside, and Seeley, 
1845. 

Babylon, Capture of, by Cyrus, According to Herodotus. — He had 
recourse to the following stratagem. Having stationed the bulk of his 
army near the passage of the river where it enters Babylon, and again 
having stationed another division beyond the city, where the river 
makes its exit, he gave orders to his forces to enter the city as soon as 



BABYLON, CAPTURE OF. 



51 



they should see the stream fordable. Having thus stationed his forces 
and given these directions, he himself marched away with the inef- 
fective part of his army; and having come to the lake [" a considerable 
distance above Babylon "], Cyrus did the same with respect to the river 
and the lake as the queen of the Babylonians had done [Queen Nitocris 
had once diverted the river into a marshy lake in order to build a bridge 
over it in Babylon] ; for having diverted the river, by means of a canal, 
into the lake, which was before a swamp, he made the ancient channel 
fordable by the sinking of the river. When this took place, the Per- 
sians who were appointed to that purpose close to the stream of the 
river, which had now subsided to about the middle of a man's thigh, 
entered Babylon by this passage. If, however, the Babylonians had 
been aware of it beforehand, or had known what Cyrus was about, they 
would not have suffered the Persians to enter the city, but would have 
utterly destroyed them; for, having shut all the little gates that lead 
down to the river, and mounting the walls that extend along the banks 
of the river, they would have caught them as in a net; whereas the 
Persians came upon them by surprise. It is related by the people 
who inhabited this city, that, by reason of its great extent, when they 
who were at the extremities were taken, those of the Babylonians who 
inhabited the center knew nothing of the capture (for it happened to 
be a festival) ; but they were dancing at the time, and enjoying them- 
selves, till they received certain information of the truth. And thus 
Babylon was taken for the first time. — Herodotus, book 1, par. 191; 
Cary's translation, pp. 82, 83. Everyman's Library edition. 

Babylon, Capture of, According to Xenophon. — 13. Thus his army 
was employed [digging great trenches alongside the walls], but the 
men within the walls laughed at his preparations, knowing they had 
supplies to last them more than twenty years. When Cyrus heard that, 
he divided his army into twelve, each division to keep guard for one 
month in the year. 14. At this the Babylonians laughed louder still, 
greatly pleased at the idea of being guarded by Phrygians and Lydians 
and Arabians and Cappadocians, all of whom, they thought, would be 
more friendly to themselves than to the Persians. 

15. However by this time the trenches were dug. And Cyrus heard 
that it was a time of high festival in Babylon when the citizens drink 
and make merry the whole night long. As soon as the darkness fell, 
he set his men to work. 16. The mouths of the trenches were opened, 
and during the night the water poured in, so that the river-bed formed 
a highway into the heart of the town. 

17. When the great stream had taken to its new channel, Cyrus 
ordered his Persian officers to bring up their thousands, horse and foot 
alike, each detachment drawn up two deep, the allies to follow in their 
old order. 18. They lined up immediately, and Cyrus made his own 
bodyguard descend into the dry channel first, to see if the bottom was 
firm enough for marching. 19. When they said it was, he called a 
council of all his generals and spoke as follows: 

20. "My friends, the river has stepped aside for us; he offers us a 
passage by his own high-road into Babylon. We must take heart and 
enter fearlessly, remembering that those against whom we are to march 
this night are the very men we have conquered before, and that too 
when they had their allies to help them, when they were awake, alert, 
and sober, armed to the teeth, and in their battle order. 21. Tonight 
we go against them when some are asleep and some are drunk, and all 
are unprepared: and when they learn that we are within the walls, 
sheer astonishment will make them still more helpless than before. 
22. If any of you are troubled by the thought of volleys from the roofs 



52 



BABYLON, CAPTURE OF. 



when the army enters the city, I bid you lay these fears aside: if our 
enemies do climb their roofs, we have a god to help us, the god of Fire. 
Their porches are easily set aflame, for the doors are made of palm 
wood and varnished with bitumen, the very food of fire. 23. And we 
shall come with the pine-torch to kindle it, and with pitch and tow to 
feed it. They will be forced to flee from their homes or be burnt to 
death. 24. Come, take your swords in your hand: God helping me, I 
will lead you on. Do you," he said, turning to Gadatas and Gobryas, 
"show us the streets, you know them; and once we are inside, lead 
us straight to the palace." 

25. " So we will," said Gobryas and his men, " and it would not 
surprise us to find the palace gates unbarred, for this night the whole 
city is given over to revelry. Still, we are sure to find a guard, for 
one is always stationed there." 

" Then," said Cyrus, " there is no time for lingering; we must be 
off at once and take them unprepared." 

26. Thereupon they entered: and of those they met some were 
struck down and slain, and others fled into their houses, and some 
raised the hue and cry, but Gobryas and his friends covered the cry 
with their shouts, as though they were revelers themselves. And thus, 
making their way by the quickest route, they soon found themselves 
before the king's palace. 27. Here the detachment under Gobryas and 
Gadatas found the gates closed, but the men appointed to attack the 
guards rushed on them as they lay drinking round a blazing fire, and 
closed with them then and there. 28. As the din grew louder and 
louder, those within became aware of the tumult, till, the king bidding 
them see what it meant, some of them opened the gates and ran out. 
29. Gadatas and his men, seeing the gates swing wide, darted in, hard 
on the heels of the others who fled back again, and they chased them at 
the sword's point into the presence of the king. 

30. They found him on his feet, with his drawn scimitar in his 
hand. By sheer weight of numbers they overpowered him: and not one 
of his retinue escaped, they were all cut down. — " Gyropwdia : The Edu- 
cation of Gyrus,'" Xenophon, book 7, pars. 13-30; translation by Dakyns. 
Everyman's Library edition, pp. 237-239. 

Note. — Xenophon's " Cyropsedia " is classed as historical fiction, the writer 
enlarging upon conversations and details to round out his story of Cyrus, yet 
he must have had access to a vast mass of material. Of this description of 
Babylon's fall, Rawlinson says, " The picture is graphic, and may well be true."' 
— " The Fourth Monarchy/' chap. 8, p. 72, footnote. — Eds. 

Babylon, Capture of, by Cyrus, According to the Tablets. — 213. 
Fortunately we are not dependent upon the statements of second- or 
third-hand historians for a description of the fall of Babylon. We have 
the records both of Nabonidus, the reigning and vanquished king, and 
of Cyrus, the conqueror. Though somewhat fragmentary in some places, 
they nevertheless furnish us with a reasonably good picture of ' that 
momentous event. Nabonidus's own record [rather, the record of the 
scribes, evidently priests, who kept the annals of his reign] will be cited 
first (Nab.-Cyr. Chron. Col. i. Rev. 12-24) : 

" In the month Tammuz [June], when Cyrus gave battle in the city 
of Opis, on the banks of the river Salsallat, to the troops of Accad, the 
inhabitants of Accad he subdued. Whenever the people gathered them- 
selves together, he slew them. On the 14th day of the month, Sippar 
was taken without fighting. Nabonidus fled. On the 16th day, Gobryas, 
the governor of Guti, and the troops of Cyrus entered Babylon without 
battle. Nabonidus, because of his delay, was taken prisoner in Babylon. 
Until the end of the month, the shields of the country of Guti guarded 



BABYLON, CAPTURE OF. 



53 



the gates of E-Sagila. No weapons were brought into E-Sagila or 
other sacred precincts, nor was any war standard carried there. On 
the 3d day of Marcheshvan (October), Cyrus entered Babylon. Ob- 
structions (?) fell down before him. Peace for the city he established. 
Cyrus proclaimed peace to all Babylon. Gobryas, his governor, he 
appointed governor of Babylon. And from the month Kislev (Novemr 
ber) to Adar (February), the gods of Accad, whom Nabonidus had 
carried to Babylon, returned to their own cities. In the night of the 
11th day of Marcheshvan, Gobryas against ... he slew the king's son. 
From the 27th of Adar (February) to the 3d of Nisan (March), there 
was lamentation in Accad; all the people hung their heads." This 
remarkable piece of the royal annals astonishes us by recording but one 
battle in the neighborhood of Babylon. That was fought near Accad, 
and resulted favorably for Cyrus's troops. Thence the way was open 
into the city of the empire. The reception of the army is equaled only 
by the liberty which was announced for the whole city. 

214. Cyrus's own cylinder gives us a no less wonderful story. This 
sets out by assuring the reader that Cyrus was thoroughly imbued with 
the idea that he was the man of destiny (Cyl. 11-19, 22-24). "Through 
all lands he (Merodach) searched, he saw him, and he sought the 
righteous prince, after his own heart, whom he took by the hand. 
Cyrus, king of Anshan, he called by name; to sovereignty over the 
whole world he appointed him. The country of Kutu (Gutium), all the 
Umman-Manda, he made his subjects. As for the black-headed people, 
whom he (Merodach) caused his (Cyrup/s) hands to conquer, with 
justice and uprightness he cared for them. Merodacn, the great lord, 
guardian of his people, beheld with joy his gracious deeds and his 
upright heart; to his own city, Babylon, he issued orders to march, and 
he caused him to take the road to Babylon, marching by his side like 
a friend and companion. His wide-extended troops, whose number like 
the waters of a river cannot be known, fully equipped, marched by his 
side. Without skirmish or battle he (Merodach) made him enter 
Babylon. His city Babylon he spared (in its) distress. Nabonidus, 
the king, who did not reverence him, he delivered into his hand. All 
the people of Babylon, all Sumer and Accad, nobles and governors, pros- 
trated themselves before him, kissed his feet, rejoiced at his sovereignty, 
their faces beamed with joy. The lord (Merodach), who by his power 
brings the dead to life, who by care and protection benefits all mankind 
— they gladly did him homage, they obeyed his command. . . . When I 
made my peaceful entrance into Babylon, with joy and rejoicing I took 
up my lordly residence in the king's palace. Merodach, the great lord, 
[granted] me favor among the Babylonians, and I gave daily attention 
to his worship. My vast army spread itself out peacefully in the city 
of Babylon." — " The Monuments and the Old Testament," Ira M. Price, 
Ph. D., pp. 225-228, 5th edition. Philadelphia: American Baptist Publi- 
cation Society, 1907. 

Babylon, Capture of; Differences in the Record. — It will be re- 
membered that the old historian Herodotus tells us that Cyrus drained 
the river Euphrates nearly dry by means of a canal running into a lake, 
and that the Persians marched up through the river gates, which were 
carelessly left open by the Babylonians. No mention of this is made in 
the inscriptions; but there is no reason why Cyrus should not have had 
recourse to this means as well as to fighting. — " The Assyrian Eponym 
Canon," George Smith; cited in 11 Light for the Last Bays," H. Grattan 
Guinness, p. 421. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1893. 

Note. — The tablets, it must be remembered, were written by the priestly 
scribes to magnify the part of Marduk in leading Cyrus into Babylon, and in 
the interests of Cyrus, to publish to the world how gladly he was welcomed 



54 



BABYLON, CAPTURE OF. 



by the people. It would be perfectly in keeping with their style of history to 
omit reference to siege, and entrance by draining of the river, etc. On the other 
hand, both Herodotus and Xenophon wrote in times so near (comparatively) to 
the events, that they must have gathered information from many Babylonian and 
other records. The descriptions of Babylon given by these Greek writers, have 
been generally verified by the modern excavations (see Babylon, City of , in Light of 
Excavations, p. 48), showing that they wrote from knowledge gained by careful 
historical research and inquiry. Their accounts of the draining of the Euphrates by 
Cyrus are not discredited by the omission of such reference in the tablets. All 
this may be covered by the statements of both tablets that Cyrus entered without 
battle ; and it would be in harmony with their plan, for the glorification of Cyrus 
as the chosen deliverer of Marduk's shrine and people, to omit references to any 
street fighting after Cyrus's army entered ; though they preserve the* essential 
story of the attack upon the citadel. — Eds. 

Babylon, Captuee of, the Citadel. — It is clear that a Babylonian 
citadel was not simply a fortress to be used by the garrison for the 
defense of the city as a whole: it was also a royal residence, into which 
the monarch and his court could shut themselves for safety should the 
outer wall of the city itself be penetrated. ... In the case of the South- 
ern citadel of Babylon on which excavations have now been continuously 
carried out for sixteen years, we shall see that it formed a veritable 
township in itself. It was a city within a city, a second Babylon in 
miniature. 

The southern or chief citadel was built on the mound now known as 
the Kasr, and within it Nebuchadnezzar erected his principal palace 
partly over an earlier building of his father Nabopolassar. The palace 
and citadel occupy the old city square or center of Babylon, which is re- 
ferred to in the inscriptions as the irsit BaMli, " the Babil place." . . . 
We may conclude that the chief fortress of Babylon always stood upon 
this i site, and the city may well have derived its name Bab-ili, " the 
gate of the gods," from the strategic position of its ancient fortress, 
commanding as it does the main approach to B-Sagila, the famous 
temple of the city god. — "A History of Babylon" L. W. King, p. 27. 

Babylon, Captuee of, Slaying of' King's Son. — It was October be- 
fore Cyrus entered the city. . . . On the night of the 11th of Marchesh- 
wan, Gobryas descended (or went) upon or against something, and the 
king, or son of the king, died. The combination of these two state- 
ments, taken in connection with the record of Dan. 5: 30, suggests that 
the latter reading is the correct one. [p. 417] . . . 

The probability is, therefore, that the " son of the King," Belshaz- 
zar, held out against the Persians in some part of the capital, and kept 
during that time a festival on the 11th of Marcheswan, when Gobryas 
pounced upon the palace, and he, the rightful Chaldean king, was slain, 
as recorded in Daniel. In this case, Darius the Mede ought to be 
" Gobryas of Gutium." — " The Old Testament in the Light of the His- 
torical R^ecbrds," T. G. Pinches, pp. 417, 418. 

Babylon, Captuee of, Stoeming the Place of Belshazzae's Feast. 
— Cyrus's triumphal entry took place on 3d Marcheshwan (October 27). 
. . . Seven days after Cyrus's triumphal entry . . . Guburu stormed 
that part of Babylon which still held out against the Medo-Persian 
army. On that night (the 11th of Marcheshwan — November 4) Bel- 
shazzar, " the king's son," was slain. The record of Cyrus confirms the 
narrative of the last day of Babylon as it is depicted in Daniel 5. 
[p. 129] . . . 

As to the feast itself, so vividly described in this chapter of Dan- 
iel, there is nothing, apart from the story of the handwriting on the 
wall, which ought to present any difficulty to a historical critic of the 
broadest school of thought. 



BABYLON, CAPTURE OF. 



55 



The great palace of Babylon and the portion of the city which it 
commanded was (as Cyrus's tablets lead us to believe) the rallying- 
place for the Babylonian army in command of Belshazzar. [p. 130] . . . 

To encourage his soldiers in their struggle with the Medo-Persian 
foe, Belshazzar considered it fit to make a magnificent banquet. He 
was in possession of the treasures that had been carried off from Jeru- 
salem. At his feast, therefore, Belshazzar sought to remind his war- 
riors of the old campaigns which their forefathers fought, when they 
had trodden down the people of Jehovah as the mire in the streets. — 
" Daniel and His Prophecies;' Charles H. H. Wright, D. D., pp. 129-131. 
London: Williams and Norgate, 1906. 

Babylon, Capture of, Scene of Belsiiazzae's Feast. — The front of 
the great palace of Belshazzar was six times as great as the front of 
St. Peter's church at Rome, four times as great as the length of the 
Capitol at Washington. The whole structure was surrounded by three 
walls, so high that it would take thirteen tall men, standing erect one 
above the other, to reach the top. The outer wall of the palace inclosed 
more ground than Central Park in New York. . . . 

The flames of idolatrous sacrifice rose high into heaven from the 
lofty tower of Belus. The hanging-gardens were hung with lanterns 
and torches, till they seemed like a mountain of fire at midnight. 
Torchlight processions flowed like rivers of flame through the broad 
streets. The light of lamps outshone the starlight, and the blue Chal- 
dean heavens looked black above the blaze of the great illumination. 

Meanwhile, Belshazzar has entered the hall of banquet — 

"And a thousand dark nobles all bend at his board; 
Fruits glisten, flowers blossom, meats steam, and a flood 
Of the wine that man loveth runs redder than blood; 
Wild dancers are there and a riot of mirth, 
And the beauty that maddens the passions of earth; 
And the crowd all shout, while the vast roofs ring, 
All praise to Belshazzar, Belshazzar the king! " 

" The music and the banquet and the wine; the garlands, the rose- 
odors, and the flowers; the sparkling eyes, the flashing ornaments, the 
jeweled arms, the raven hair, the braids, the bracelets, the thin robes 
floating like clouds; the fair forms, the delusion and the false enchant- 
ment of the dizzy scene," take away all reason and all reverence from 
the flushed and crowded revelers. There is now nothing too sacred for 
them to profane, and Belshazzar himself takes the lead in the riot and 
the blasphemy. Even the mighty and terrible Nebuchadnezzar, who 
desolated the sanctuary of Jehovah at Jerusalem, would not use his 
sacred trophies in the worship of his false gods. But this weak and 
wicked successor of the great conqueror, excited with wine and carried 
away with the delusion that no foe can ever capture his great city, is 
anxious to make some grand display of defiant and blasphemous 
desecration: 

" ' Bring forth/ cries the monarch, ' the vessels of gold 
Which my father tore down from the temples of old; 
Bring forth, and we'll drink while the trumpets are blown, 
To the gods of bright silver, of gold, and of stone. 
Bring forth.' And before him the vessels all shine, 
And he bows unto Baal, and he drinks the dark wine, 
While the trumpets bray and the cymbals ring, 
' Praise, praise to Belshazzar, Belshazzar the king.' 
Now what cometh? Look, look! without menace or call, 
Who writes with the lightning's bright hand on the wall? 



56 



BABYLON — BELSHAZZAR. 



What pierceth the king like the point of a dart? 

What drives the bold blood from his cheek to his heart? 

Let the captive of Judah the letters expound. 

They are read; and Belshazzar is dead on the ground. 

Hark! the Persian has come on the conqueror's wing, 

And the Mede's on the throne of Belshazzar the king." 

The graphic lines of the modern poet do not exaggerate the rapidity 
with which the ministers of vengeance came upon Belshazzar and his 
thousand lords on the last night of his impious reign. At the very 
moment when their sacrilegious revelry was at its height, the bodiless 
hand came forth and wrote the words of doom upon the wall of the 
banqueting-room, the armies of Cyrus . . . were already in possession 
of the palace gates when Belshazzar and his princes were drinking wine 
from the vessels of Jehovah and praising the gods of gold and silver 
and stone, and that great feast of boasting and of blasphemy was the 
last ceremonial of the Chaldean kings. — "Night Scenes in the Bible," 
Rev. Daniel March, D. D., pp. 289-294. Philadelphia: Zeigler, McGurdy 
& Co.. 1869. 

Babylon, Belshazzar as CckRuler. — Though there is no clear state- 
ment in his records to this effect, it seems almost certain that the great 
concerns of state were left to his son, Bel-shar-usur ("Bel, protect the 
king," the biblical Belshazzar), who was a sort of regent during prob- 
ably a large part of the reign. That the position of Bel-shar-usur was 
unusual appears quite clearly from the manner of the allusions to him 
in Nabonidus's inscriptions. At the end of some of them his name is 
coupled in the prayers with that of Nabonidus, and blessings are espe- 
cially invoked upon him.i 

No such usage as this appears in any other text, and there must be 
a specific reason for it, which it is simplest to find in his regency. This 
is supported, likewise, by the otherwise inexplicable conduct of Naboni- 
dus during the most threatening situation in all the history of Babylon. 
When the army of Cyrus, as will be shown later, was approaching the 
city, he remained in retirement at Tema, and gave over the control and 
leadership completely to Bel-shar-usur. By this regency of Belshazzar 
is also explained the origin of the Jewish tradition preserved in the 
book of Daniel, which makes Belshazzar, and not Nabonidus, the last 
king of Babylon. Dan. 5: 1, 30, 31. — "History of Babylonia and As- 
syria," Robert W. Rogers, Ph. D., Vol. II, pp. 554, 555, 6th edition. New 
York: The Abingdon Press, 1915. 

Babylon, Belshazzar as Second Ruler. — Oaths were never sworn 
by the names of any men except kings. . . . [The writer then quotes a 
tablet of the 12th year of Nabonidus] : 

" Ihi-Amurru, son of Nuranu, has sworn by Bel, Nebo, the lady of 
Erech, and Nana, the oath of Nabonidus, king of Babylon, and Bel- 
shazzar, the king's son, that, on the 7th day of the month Adar of the 
12th year of Nabonidus, king of Babylon, I will go to Erech," etc. 

The importance of this inscription is that it places Belshazzar prac- 
tically on the same plane as Nabonidus, his father, five years before the 
latter's deposition, and the bearing of this will not be overlooked. 
Officially, Belshazzar had not been recognized as king, as this would 



1 So, for example : " From sin against thy great godhead guard me, and grant 
me, as a gift, life for many days, and in the heart of Belshazzar, my first-born 
son, the offspring of my heart, establish reverence for thy great godhead. May 
he not incline to sin, but enjoy the fulness of life " (small inscription of Ur, 
col. ii, lines 20-31). — Langdon, Neubabylonische Kbnigsinschriften, Nabonidj No. 5, 
pp. 252, 253. 



BABYLON — BELSHAZZAR. 



57 



have necessitated his father's abdication, but it seems clear that he 
was in some way associated with him on the throne, otherwise his 
name would hardly have been introduced into the oath with which the 
inscription begins. We now see that not only for the Hebrews but also 
for the Babylonians, Belshazzar held a practically royal position. The 
conjecture as to Daniel's being made the third ruler in the kingdom 
because Nabonidus and Belshazzar were the first and second, is thus 
confirmed, and the mention of Belshazzar's third year in Dan. 8: 1 is 
explained. — T. G. Pinches, in Expository Times, Vol. XXVI, April, 1915; 
cited in " Studies in the Book of Daniel,'" R. D. Wilson, footnote, p. 102. 

Babylon, a Co-Regent Called " King." — Cyrus made his son Cam- 
byses a co-regent the year before his death (530 b. a). He gave him 
the title " King of Babylon," while he retained " king of countries." — 
"Light on the Old Testament from Babel," Albert T. Clay, Ph. D., p. 
386. Philadelphia: The Sunday School Times Company, 1907. 

Babylon, Witness of the Contract Tablets. — The chronicle [tab- 
let] mentions the fact that, prior to Cyrus's appearing in person, the 
gates of E-Sagila were guarded, and that no arms were taken into the 
sanctuary. It is not so likely that Belshazzar and his nobles were 
assembled there, but it is quite possible that they had fortified them- 
selves in the great palace which Nebuchadrezzar had built; in which 
case it would be the palace referred to in the book of Daniel. The 
king's palace was separately fortified, and protected by walls and 
moats, — in other words, it was a fortress within a fortified city. After 
Nabonidus, who was the rightful heir to the throne, had been de- 
throned, it is altogether reasonable to suppose that Belshazzar's faith- 
ful followers proclaimed him king, and that he reigned in this peculiar 
way for nearly four months. 

The dating of contracts shows that the people did not recognize 
Cyrus as king until after he had entered the city. In contracts pub- 
lished by Father Strassmaier there are no less than twelve dated in 
the reign of Nabonidus after he was imprisoned, in fact, up to the day 
before Belshazzar's death; and one even later. On the other hand, 
there is one published contract dated in the reign of Cyrus which is 
supposed to belong to the month prior to his entrance into the city, but 
the tablet is effaced, and the date uncertain. The first tablet, the date 
in which his reign is mentioned, was written on the 24th of Marches- 
van, i. e., twenty-one days after Cyrus had proclaimed peace in Baby- 
lon. These facts show that Cyrus was not generally acknowledged to 
be king until after he entered Babylon, three and a half months after 
his army had dethroned Nabonidus. And although during this period 
the scribes continued to date legal documents in the reign of the de- 
throned king, it is quite reasonable to believe that at least some re- 
garded Belshazzar as the ruler. — Id., pp. 377-379. 

Note. — Thus the tablets were still dated in the reign of Nabonidus, while 
the final blow was tarrying. Little wonder, then, that Belshazzar himself should 
count Nabonidus first ruler, himself second, and so promise Daniel the place of 
" third ruler in the kingdom." — Eds. 

Babylon, How Son ship was Counted in Ancient East. — Son was 
used in ancient documents (1) to denote succession in office, as Jehu is 
called the son of Omri [in inscription of Shalmaneser III: " The tribute 
of the Tyrian, the Sidonian, and of Jehu, son of Omri, I received." — 
Barton's "Archeology and the Bible," p. 362]; or (2) for members of a 
corporation, as the son of a prophet is used in the Scriptures (1 Kings 
20: 35), or the son of a scribe in Assyrian [Sargon's Annals]; or (3) 



58 



BABYLON — DARIUS. 



for remote descendant, as son of Adam in the Arabian Nights (Lane, 
ii, 196), or son of David, and son of Abraham in the New Testament 
(Luke 18: 38; 19: 9); or (4) for grandson, as frequently in the Scrip- 
tures. — " Studies in the Book of Daniel," Robert D. Wilson, pp. 117, 
118. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1917. 

Babylon, Belshazzar's Relationship to Nebuchadnezzar (Dan. 5: 
11). — There is no real evidence [from the records] which can be ad- 
duced to prove that Belshazzar was an actual descendant of Nebuchad- 
nezzar. It is, however, highly probable that Belshazzar may have been 
so descended. For, like Neriglissor, Nabunaid would naturally have 
sought to strengthen his position by intermarriage with the old royal 
stock; and it is admitted on the other side that there is no evidence to 
show that he did not so ally himself. — " Daniel and His Prophecies,'' 1 
Charles H. H. Wright, p. ISO. London: Williams and Norgate, 1906. . 

Babylon, Belshazzar as Son of Reigning House. — As to the rela- 
tion between Belshazzar and the two kings Nebuchadnezzar and Nabu- 
naid, he may well have been the son of both. First he may have been 
the procreated son of Nebuchadnezzar and the stepson of Nabunaid, 
because the latter married Belshazzar's mother after the death of 
Nebuchadnezzar. It was the custom of succeeding kings to marry the 
wives of their predecessors. . . . The queen of Dan. 5: 10 may have been 
the mother of Belshazzar (though she is not called this), and still 
have been a young woman when the glory of the Chaldee's excellency 
passed into the hands of the conquering Medo-Persian army under 
Gobryas and Cyrus. Or, Belshazzar may have been the own son of 
Nebuchadnezzar and the adopted son of Nabunaid. This would account 
for the fact that Berosus, according to Josephus (Cont. Apion, i. 20), 
calls Nabunaid a Babylonian, whereas Belshazzar is called by Daniel a 
Chaldean. What could have been better policy on the part of the 
Babylonian Nabunaid than to attempt to unite the conquered Baby- 
lonians and the Chaldean conquerors by adopting as his own successor 
the son or grandson of Nebuchadnezzar, the greatest of all the Chaldean 
kings? According to the code of Hammurabi, 186, 190, 193, a man 
might in this way have two fathers. This was the law also, in the 
time of Nabunaid. — Id., pp. 119, 120. 

How could Belshazzar be called by Nabunaid, not merely the " son 
of the king," but " Belshazzar the first-born son," and " Belshazzar the 
first-born son, the offspring of my heart," if he were not the born son 
of Nabunaid? Fortunately, this question is answered in Meissner's 
Altoabylonisches Privatrecht, 98, where we learn that an adopted son 
could be called, not merely "the son," but ." the eldest son" of his 
adopted parents. In the inscription of Eshki-Harran the high priest 
calls Nabunaid his "son, the offspring of his heart." — Id^ p. 120. 

Babylon, Darius the Mede and Gobryas. — Xenophon's statement 
about Gobryas's share in the death of the king of Babylon is confirmed 
by the Tablet of Cyrus. Gobryas is spoken of in the Annalistic Tablet 
of Cyrus as having been governor of Gutium, in Kurdistan, and there- 
fore might be regarded as a Median. He is afterwards spoken of as 
governor of Babylon. 

Dr. Pinches has, therefore, with considerable probability, conjec- 
tured that Gobryas was " Darius the Mede." . . . Cyrus, of course, re- 
tained his position of " king of kings " or " king of countries." The book 
of Daniel states that after the death of Belshazzar, " Darius the Median 
received ( ^212 ) the kingdom." The Aramaic verb implies that Darius 



BABYLON, RUINS OF. 



59 



received the crown from some superior power. The expression used 
later (Dan. 9:1) also suggests that Darius had over him a suzerain lord, 
for it is: "Darius the Mede, who was made king [italics ours] over the 
kingdom of the Chaldeans." — Id., p. 136. 

Now, Gobryas was governor of Gutium (which at this time included 
Ecbatana) when he conquered Babylon. When he became governor of 
Babylonia, his dominion would extend over all the country from the 
mountains of Media to the deserts of Arabia. — " Studies in the Book 
of Daniel" Robert D. Wilson, p. 143. Neio York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 
1917. 

Why may not the name Darius have been assumed first of all by 
Gobryas the Mede, when he became king of Babylon? When Tiglath- 
Pileser was proclaimed king of Babylon and the other Assyrian kings 
who adopted a policy similar to his, they often ruled as kings in Baby- 
lon under names different from those which they had as kings of 
Assyria. — Id., pp. 138, 139. 

Babylon, Its Glory Ended. — The glory of Babylon is ended. The 
long procession of princes, priests, and kings has passed by. No city 
so vast had stood on the world before it. No city with a history so long 
has even yet appeared. From the beginnings of human history it had 
stood. It was in other hands now, and it would soon be a shapeless 
mass of ruins, standing alone in a sad, unfilled desert. — " History of 
Babylonia and Assyria," Robert W. Rogers, Ph. D., Vol. II, p. 576, 6th 
edition. Neio York: The Abingdon Press, 1915. 

Babylon, Desolations of, in First Century. — No one would hesi- 
tate to apply to it what one of the' comic writers said of Megalopolitas, 
in Arcadia, " The great city is a great desert." — " The Geography of 
Strabo," book 16, chap. 1, sec. 5 (Vol. Ill, p. 145). London: Henry G. 
Bohn, 1857. 

Babylon, Desolations of, in Fifth Century. — Cyril of Alexandria 
says that at the beginning of the fifth century Babylon was changed into 
a swamp in consequence of the bursting of the canal banks. — " The Old 
Testament in the Light of the Ancient East," Jeremiao, Vol. I, p. 294. 

Babylon, Its Ruins, in Twelfth Century. — The ruins of the pal- 
ace of Nebuchadnezzar are still to be seen [twelfth century], but people 
are afraid to venture among them on account of the serpents and scor- 
pions with which they are infested. — Benjamin of Tudela, quoted in 
" History of Babylonia and Assyria," Robert W. Rogers, Vol. I, p. 109. 

Babylon, Become " Heaps." — Shapeless heaps of rubbish cover for 
many an acre the face of the land. ... On all sides, fragments of glass, 
marble, pottery, and inscribed brick are mingled with that peculiar 
nitrous and blanched soil, which, bred from the remains of ancient hab- 
itations, checks or destroys vegetation, and renders the site of Babylon 
a naked and a hideous waste. Owls [which are of a large gray kind, 
and often found in flocks of nearly a hundred] start from the scanty 
thickets, and the foul jackal skulks through the furrows. — " Discoveries 
Among the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon" A. Henry Layard, chap. 21, 
p. 413 ( Layard' s first visit, 1845). 

Babylon, Its Ruins Fulfil the Prophecy. — When we turn from 
this picture of the past to contemplate the present condition of the 
localities, we are at first struck with astonishment at the small traces 



60 



BABYLON, ANCIENT AND MODERN. 



which remain of so vast and wonderful a metropolis. " The broad walls 
of Babylon " are " utterly broken " down, and her " high gates burned 
with fire." Jer. 51:58. "The golden city hath ceased." Isa. 14:4. 
God has swept "it with the besom of destruction." Isa. 14: 23. "The 
glory of the Kingdoms, the beauty of the Chaldees' excellency," is be- 
come "as when God overthrew Sodom and Gomorrah." Isa. 13:19. 
. . . The whole country is covered with traces of exactly that kind 
whicn it was prophesied Babylon should leave. (Jer. 51: 37: "And 
Babylon shall become heaps." Compare 50:26.) Vast "heaps" or 
mounds, shapeless and unsightly, are scattered at intervals over the 
entire region. — " The Five Great Monarchies " George Rawlinson, M. A., 
Vol. II, pp. 520, 521; "The Fourth Monarchy," chap. 4. New York: 
Dodd, Mead & Co. 

Babylon, a Recent Look over Its Ruins. — When we gaze today 
[book written in 1912] over the wide area of ruins, we are involuntarily 
reminded of the words of the prophet Jeremiah (50: 39): "Therefore 
the wild beasts of the desert, with the wild beasts of the islands, shall 
dwell there, and the owls shall dwell therein: and it shall be no more 
inhabited forever; neither shall it be dwelt in from generation to gen- 
eration." — " The Excavations at Babylon," Robert Koldeway, p. 314. 
London, 1914. 

Babylon, Compared with Rome as Religious Capital. — From now 
on [days of " first empire," about time of Hammurabi, when southern 
Babylonia was united with northern, Babylon the capital. — Eds.] the 
"kingdom of Babylon" is the province Kar-duniash, as it was later called, 
with Babilu, the holy city of the god Marduk (Merodach), the seat of 
authority in the Babylonian world of culture. In the history of the 
world Rome alone can be compared with Babylon, when we consider the 
important r61e which this city of Marduk played in Western Asia. As 
in the Middle Ages Rome exercised its power over men's minds and, 
through its teaching, dominated the world, so did Babylon from this 
time on in the ancient Orient. Just as the German kings strove to gain 
for themselves world sovereignty in papal Rome, as the heiress of world 
power, so shall we find later a similar claim by the kings of Assyria 
who look back to Babylon. — " The History of Babylonia and Assyria," 
Hugo Winckler, Ph. D., translation by J A. Craig, pp. 61, 62. New York: 
Charles Scribner's Sotis, 1907. 

Babylon, Ancient and Modern. — We must not neglect the historical 
parallel between Babylon and Rome. Babylon had been and was the 
Queen of the East in the age of the Hebrew prophets; and Rome 
was the Mistress of the West when St. John wrote. Babylon was 
called the Golden City, the glory of kingdoms, the beauty of the 
Chaldees' excellency. She claimed eternity and universal supremacy. 
She said in her heart, " I will ascend into heaven, I will exalt my 
throne above the stars of God. I shall be a lady forever. I am, and 
none else beside me: I shall not sit as a widow, neither shall I know the 
loss of children." In these respects also, Babylon was imitated by 
Rome. She also called herself the Golden City, the Eternal City. 

Again: the king of Babylon was the rod of God's anger, and the 
staff of his indignation against Jerusalem for its rebellion against 
him. Babylon was employed by God to punish the sins of Sion, and to 
lay her walls in the dust. So, in St. John's own age, the imperial 
legions of, Rome had been sent by God to chastise the guilty city which 
had crucified his beloved Son. 

Again : the sacred vessels of God's temple at Jerusalem were carried 
from Sion to Babylon, and were displayed in triumph on the table at 



BABYLON — ROME. 



61 



the royal banquet in that fatal night, when the fingers of a man's 
hand came forth from the wall and terrified the king. 

So, the sacred vessels of the Jewish temple, which were restored by 
Cyrus, and the book of the law, and the golden candlestick, and the 
table of showbread were carried captive in triumphal procession to the 
Roman capitol: and even now their effigies may be seen at Rome, 
carved in sculpture on one of the sides of the triumphal Arch of Titus, 
the imperial conqueror of Jerusalem. — " Union with Rome,'" Chr. Words- 
worth, D. D., pp. 6-8. London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1909. 

Babylon, Identified as Rome. — That Babylon was an accredited 
name for Rome, both among the Jews and Christians, in the early 
period of the Christian era, and was so used by the apostles Peter and 
John, rests upon numerous testimonies. And the use of this name for 
Rome may be easily accounted for. Rome was in many respects the 
successor of Babylon. It was the chief city of the empire that succeeded 
that of which Babylon had been the capital. It stood in the same rela- 
tion to the Jews, after the destruction of the second temple, as Babylon 
had done. And the use of this name for Rome enabled the apostles and 
early Christians to speak more freely of the end that awaited it. To 
foretell the destruction of Rome under its ordinary name, would have 
been suicidal to them. 

Some testimonies that the ancient Jews called Rome Babylon may 
be found in Schoettgen. The reason for its being so called probably 
was, as Schoettgen observes (Hor. Hebr., Vol. I, p. 1050), that Rome 
performed the same part towards the Jews under the second temple as 
Babylon did to them under the first. 

So Augustine says that Babylon was as it were the first Rome, and 
Rome as it were the second Babylon. 

Jerome testifies that some of the early Christian expositors main- 
tained that the Old Testament prophecies referring to Babylon would 
have a further fulfilment in Rome, and presignified the fate that 
awaited it. 

And when speaking of the Babylon of the Apocalypse, the Fathers 
from the earliest period with one voice unhesitatingly assert it to be 
Rome. 

Thus fn two places Tertullian says, " Babylon, in our John, is a 
figure of the city of Rome." 

So Victorinus, bishop of Petau, towards the close of the third 
century, interprets the ruin of Babylon as the ruin of Rome, and the 
woman sitting on the seven mountains (Rev. 17: 9), as meaning "the 
city of Rome," and the kings in verse 10 are the Roman emperors; and 
he holds that the prophecies of Isaiah relating to Babylon, refer to the 
same Babylon as that spoken of in the Apocalypse, the name being so 
applied as meaning the city of confusion. 

So also Jerome, commenting on Isa. 47: 1, et seq., says that "the 
city of Rome," " in the Apocalypse of John and the epistle of Peter, is 
specially called Babylon." 

And in the letter of Paula and Eustochium to Marcella, urging her 
to quit Rome and join them at Bethlehem, occurring in the works of 
Jerome, she is thus exhorted: "Read the Apocalypse of John, and see 
what is said of the woman clothed in purple, and blasphemy written 
on her forehead, the seven hills, the many waters, and the end of 
Babylon. 'Go out of her, my people, saith the Lord, etc' [Rev. 18: 4]. 
Reverting also to Jeremiah, consider what is written, ' Fly out of the 
midst of Babylon, etc' [Jer. 51: 6]." 

The identity of Rome with the Babylon of St. John is here taken 
for granted. 



62 



BABYLON — ROME. 



Primasius, in his " Commentary on the Revelations," seems also to 
take the same view. 

And Andrew of'Csesarea, in his "Commentary on the Revelations," 
though he does not himself hold the view, admits that " the ancient 
doctors of the church " understood Babylon in the Revelations to mean 
Rome. 

St. Peter also apparently uses the name Babylon for Rome, when 
he says, at the end of his first epistle, " The church that is at Babylon, 
elected together with you, saluteth you." 1 Peter 5: 13. For — 

1. This is the unopposed testimony of several of the Fathers. 
Thus, Eusebius tells us that it was said that Peter wrote his first 

epistle from Rome, and that he signified this by calling the city 
figuratively Babylon, in the words, " The church that is at Babylon, 
elected together with you, saluteth you." His words leave it somewhat 
doubtful to whom he refers as bearing this testimony; but the names of 
Clement of Alexandria and Papias, bishop of Hierapolis, occur in the 
previous context in a way which has led some to suppose that his ref- 
erence is to them. 

St. Jerome also twice asserts that St. Peter meant Rome when he 
spoke of Babylon in his first epistle. 

In like manner CEcumenius says, without hesitation, that by Baby- 
lon St. Peter means Rome. 

2. Several MSS. add at the end of the first epistle of St. Peter, that 
" it was written from Rome." 

And one MS. is mentioned by Griesbach and Scholz which has 
" Rome " in the margin opposite " Babylon." 

3. There is nothing to lead us to suppose that St. Peter was ever 
at Babylon in Assyria, still less at Babylon in Egypt. 

Now, it is difficult to understand that there should be this general 
agreement among the early Fathers that the apostles thus used the 
name Babylon for Rome, unless there was good ground for the state- 
ment. — " Fulfilled Prophecy," Rev. W. Goode, D. D., F. 8. A., 2d edition, 
pp. 189-192. London: James Nisbet d- Co., 1891. 

To sum up the evidence on this portion of the inquiry: We have in 
our hands a book, dictated by the Holy Spirit to St. John, the beloved 
disciple, the blessed evangelist, the last surviving apostle, — a book pre- 
dicting events from the day in which it was written even to the end of 
time; a book designed for the perpetual warning of the church, and 
commended to her pious meditation in solemn and affectionate terms. 
In it we behold a description, traced by the divine finger, of a proud 
and prosperous power, claiming universal homage, and exercising 
mighty dominion: a power enthroned upon many waters, which are 
peoples, and multitudes, and nations, and tongues: a power arrogating 
eternity by calling herself a queen forever: a power whose prime agent, 
by his lamblike aspect, bears a semblance of Christian purity, and yet, 
from his sounding words and cruel deeds, is compared to a dragon: a 
power beguiling men from the pure faith, and trafficking in human 
souls, tempting them to commit spiritual adultery, alluring them to her- 
self by gaudy colors and glittering jewels, and holding in her hand a 
golden cup of enchantments, by which she intoxicates the world, and 
5 makes it reel at her feet. 

This power, so described in the Apocalypse, is identified in this 
divinely inspired book with — 

(1) a great city; and that city is described as 

(2) seated on seven hills. It is also characterized as 

(3) that great city, which reigned over the kings of the earth in 
the time of St. John. And 



BABYLON — ROME. 



63 



(4) it is called Babylon. 

Having contemplated these characteristics of this prophetic de- 
scription, we pause, and consider what city in the world corresponds 
to it? 

It cannot be the literal Babylon, for she was not built on seven hills, 
nor was she the queen of the earth in St. John's age. It is some great city 
which then existed, and would continue to exist to our age. Among the 
very few great cities which then were, and still survive, one was seated 
on seven hills. She was universally recognized in St. John's age as the 
Seven-hilled City. She is described as such by the general voice of her 
own most celebrated writers for five centuries; and she has ever since 
continued to be so characterized. She is represented as such on her own 
coinage, the coinage of the world. This same city, and no other, then 
reigned over the kings of the earth. She exercised universal sovereignty, 
and boasted herself eternal. This same city resembled Babylon in many 
striking respects, — in dominion, in wealth, in physical position, and 
in historical acts, especially with regard to the ancient church and 
people of God. This same city was commonly called Babylon by St. 
John's own countrymen, and by his disciples. And, finally, the voice 
of the Christian church, in the age of St. John himself, and for many 
centuries after it, has given an almost unanimous verdict on this sub- 
ject, — that the Seven-hilled City, that great city, the queen of the 
earth, Babylon the Great of the Apocalypse, is the city of Rome. — 
" Union with Rome" Chr. Wordsworth, D. D., pp. 13, 14. London: 
Longmans, Green & Co., 1909. 

It has been known all along that popery was baptized paganism; 
but God is now making it manifest that the paganism which Rome has 
baptized is, in all its essential elements, the very paganism which 
prevailed in the ancient literal Babylon, when Jehovah opened before 
Cyrus the two-leaved gates of brass, and cut in sunder the bars of iron. 
— " The Two Babylons," Rev. Alexander Hislop, p. 2. London: 8. W. 
Partridge & Co., 1907. 

The church which has its seat and headquarters on the seven hills 
of Rome might most appropriately be called " Babylon," inasmuch as 
it is the chief seat of idolatry under the New Testament, as the ancient 
Babylon was the chief seat of idolatry under the Old. — Ibid. 

Now, as the Babylon of the Apocalypse is characterized by the name 
of " Mystery," so the grand distinguishing feature of the ancient Baby- 
lonian system was the Chaldean " mysteries," that formed so essential 
a part of that system. — Id., p. 4. 

Babylon, Luther Identifies It with the Papacy. — I now know 
and am sure that the Papacy is the kingdom of Babylon and the power' 
of Nimrod, the mighty hunter. Here, moreover, that all may go pros- 
perously with my friends, I entreat the booksellers, anc" ,^^at my 
readers, to burn all that I have published on this subject g Jg, ^, hold 
to the following proposition: The Papacy is the mighty K*z^ym of the 
Bishop of Rome. — "Luther's Primary Works," Henry \£ Si, D. D., 
and C. A. Buchheim, Ph. D., p. 295. London: Hodder and Staz jhton, 1896. 

Babylon the Great. — " Rome "... is a Greek word meaning 
" strength " or " power," and as the Greeks obtained their letters from 
the same source as their religion, it is evidently a cognate term of the 
Chaldee Roma. 



64 



BABYLON, TYPE AND ANTITYPE. 



If then Rome means the great, or powerful, it is the distinctive 
epithet applied to both ancient Babylon and the mystical Babylon of the 
Apocalypse. " Is not this," said Nebuchadnezzar, " Great Babylon, or 
Babylon the Great, that I have builded? " So likewise the Babylon of 
the Apocalypse is called " Babylon the Great," i. e., " Babylon Roma," 
" that great city which ruleth over the kings of the earth." Hence 
Rome is not only Babylonish in origin and name, but " the city Rome " 
is " the great city." . . . 

Hence we see that there was good reason for entitling the seven- 
hilled city of papal Rome, " Babylon Roma " or " Babylon the Great." 
Moreover, although the actual city of Rome is the center and seat of 
that vast organization which for centuries " ruled over the kings of the 
earth," and over " peoples and multitudes and nations and tongues," 
yet " the great city " includes all, in every place, who can claim to be 
its citizens, all who are subject to its laws and ordinances, who bow 
to its authority, or are morally identified with it. Just as the citizens 
of pagan Rome included multitudes who had never seen Rome but who 
claimed to be its citizens, bowed to its laws and authority, and were 
entitled to its privileges. — " The True Christ and the False Christ," 
J. Gamier, Vol. II, pp. 94-96. London: George Allen, 1900. 

She is called " Babylon the Great." What symbolical title could 
better describe papal Rome; for has she not been the worldly, idolatrous, 
proud, persecuting power in the history of the Christian church which 
the literal Babylon was in the history of apostate Israel? What could 
better symbolize the idolatrous and persecuting Church of Rome than 
that Babylon which in the days of Jewish apostasy filled Jerusalem 
with bloodshed, and drank to her idol gods out of the golden vessels of 
Jehovah's sanctuary? — " Key to the Apocalypse," II. Grattan Guinness, 
D. D., p. 75. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1899. 

Babylon, Type and Antitype. — The gigantic system of moral cor- 
ruption and idolatry described in this passage under the emblem of a 
woman with a "golden cup in her hand" (Rev. 17: 4), "making all 
nations drunk with the wine of her fornication" (Rev. 17: 2; 18: 3), 
is divinely called "Mystery, Babylon the Great" (Rev. 17: 5). That 
Paul's "mystery of iniquity," as described- in 2 Thess. 2:7, has its 
counterpart in the Church of Rome, no man of candid mind, who has 
carefully examined the subject, can easily doubt. Such was the im- 
pression made by that account on the mind of the great Sir Matthew 
Hale, no mean judge of evidence, that he used to say that if the 
apostolic description were inserted in the public Hue and Cry, any con- 
stable in the realm would be warranted in seizing, wherever he found 
him, the Bishop of Rome as the head of that " mystery of iniquity." 

Now, as the system here described is equally characterized by the 
name of " mystery," it may be presumed that both passages refer to 
the same system. But the language applied to the New Testament 
Babylon, as the reader cannot fail to see, naturally leads us back to 
the Babylon of the ancient world. As the Apocalyptic woman has in 
her hand a cup, Wherewith she intoxicates the nations, so was it with 
the Babylon of old. Of that Babylon, while in all its glory, the Lord 
thus spake, in denouncing its doom by the prophet Jeremiah : " Babylon 
hath been a golden cup in the Lord's hand, that made all the earth 
drunken: the nations have drunken of her wine; therefore the nations 
are mad." Jer. 51: 7. Why this exact similarity of language in regard 
to the two systems? The natural inference surely is, that the one 
stands to the other in the relation of type and antitype. — " The Two 
Babylons," Rev. Alexander Hislop, p. 4. London: S. W. Partridge & Co., 
1907. 



BABYLON, THE APOSTATE CHURCH. 



65 



Babylon, the Apostate Church. — There is a marked and inten- 
tional contrast in the Apocalypse between the two cities Babylon and 
Jerusalem, which is overlooked by the papal interpretation. Babylon, in 
the Apocalypse, is a city and a harlot; Jerusalem, in the same book, is 
a city and a bride. The former is the corrupt associate of earthly 
kings; the latter, the chaste bride of the heavenly King. But the latter 
is a church; the former then is no mere heathen metropolis. The con- 
trast is between church and church; the faithful church and the 
apostate church. . . . 

Read this wonderful prophecy concerning " Babylon the Great " 
in the clear and all-revealing light of history. I ask those of you who 
have read the history of the last eighteen centuries, Did not Rome 
Christian become a harlot? Did not papal Rome ally itself with the 
kings of the earth? Did it not glorify itself to be as a queen, and call 
itself the mistress of the world? Did it not ride upon the body of 
the beast, or fourth empire, and govern its actions for centuries? Did 
not papal Rome array itself in purple and scarlet, and deck itself with 
gold and precious stones and pearls? Is not this its attire still? 

We appeal to facts. Go to the churches and see. Look at the 
priests; look at the cardinals; look at the popes; look at the purple 
robes they wear; look at their scarlet robes; see the encrusted jewels; 
look at the luxurious palaces in which they live; look at the eleven 
thousand halls and chambers in the Vatican, and the unbounded wealth 
and glory gathered there; look at the gorgeous spectacles in St. Peter's 
at Rome, casting even the magnificence of royalty into the shade. Go 
and see these things, or read the testimony of those who have seen 
them. Shamelessly Rome wears the very raiment, the very hues and 
colors, portrayed on the pages of inspired prophecy. You may know 
the harlot by her attire, as certainly as by the name upon her brow. — 
" Romanism and the Reformation" H. Grattan Guinness, D. D., F. R. 
A. 8., pp. 99-101. London: J. Nisoet tC- Co., 1891. 

Babylon, Antiquity of Interpretation of. — The interpretation 
which identifies the church of Rome with the Apocalyptic Babylon, 
does not date from the Reformation; the truth is, that it was prior to 
the Reformation, and did much to produce the Reformation. 

In the seventh and following centuries, the Church of Rome was 
united with the city of Rome, by the junction of the temporal and 
spiritual powers in the person of the Roman Pontiff; and when the 
Church of Rome began to put forth her new dogmas, and to enforce 
them as necessary to salvation, then it was publicly affirmed by many 
(although she burnt some who affirmed it), that she was fulfilling the 
Apocalyptic prophecies concerning Babylon. And though the de- 
struction of heathen Rome by the Goths in the fifth century was a most 
striking event, yet not a single witness of any antiquity can be cited 
in favor of the exposition of Bossuet and his coreligionists, who see 
a fulfilment of the predictions • of the Apocalypse, concerning the de- 
struction of Babylon, in the fall of heathen Rome by t t sword of 
Alaric. 

Indeed, that exposition is a modern one; it is an after-thought; and 
has been devised by Bossuet and others to meet the other, which they 
call the Protestant interpretation. The identification of the Apocalyptic 
Babylon with ancient heathen Rome, as its adequate antitype, is an 
invention of modern papal Rome. — " Union with Rome," Chr. Words- 
worth, D. D., pp. 19, 20. London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1909. 

Babylon, Cup of. — In 1825, on the occasion of the jubilee, Pope 
Leo XII struck a medal, bearing on the one side his own image, and on 
6 



66 



BABYLON, A MYSTERY. 



the other, that of the Church of Rome symbolized as a " woman," hold- 
ing in her left hand a cross and in her right a cup, with the legend 
around her, " Sedet super uni'versum" (The whole world is her seat). 
— " The Two Babylons" Rev. Alexander Hislop, p. 6. London: 8. W. 
Partridge & Co., 1907. 




MEDAL 

Struck by 
Pope Leo XII 
in 1825 



Babylon, a Mystery. — Heathen Rome doing the work of heathen- 
ism in persecuting the church was no mystery. But a Christian church, 
calling herself the Mother of Christendom, and yet drunken with the 
blood of saints — this is a mystery. A Christian church boasting 
herself to be the bride, and yet being the harlot; styling herself Sion, 
and being Babylon — this is a mystery. A mystery indeed it is, that, 
when she says to all, " Come unto me," the voice from heaven should 
cry, " Come out of her, my people." A mystery indeed it is, that she 
who boasts herself the city of saints, should become the habitation of 
devils: that she who claims to be infallible should be said to corrupt 
the earth: that a self-named "Mother of Churches," should be called 
by the Holy Spirit the "Mother of Abominations:" that she who 
boasts to be indefectible, should in one day be destroyed, and that 
apostles should rejoice at her fall: that she who holds, as she says, in 
her hands the keys of heaven, should be cast into the lake of fire by 
him who has the keys of hell. All this, in truth, is a great mystery. 

Nearly eighteen centuries have passed away since the Holy Spirit 
prophesied, by the mouth of St. John, that this mystery would be 
revealed in that city which was then the queen of the earth, the city 
on seven hills, — the city of Rome. 

The mystery was then dark, dark as midnight. Man's eye could 
not pierce the gloom. The fulfilment of the prophecy seemed im- 
probable, almost impossible. Age after age rolled away. By degrees, 
the mists which hung over it became less thick. The clouds began to 
break. Some features of the dark mystery began to appear, dimly at 
first, then rrti & clearly, like mountains at daybreak. Then the form of 
the mystery Vecame more and more distinct. The seven hills, and 
the woman sitting upon them, became more and more visible. Her 
voice was heard. Strange sounds of blasphemy were muttered by her. 
Then they became louder and louder. And the golden chalice in her 
hand, her scarlet attire, her pearls and jewels were seen glittering in 
the sun. Kings and nations were displayed prostrate at her feet, and 
drinking her cup. Saints were slain by her sword, and she exulted 
over them. And now the prophecy became clear, clear as noonday; 
and we tremble at the sight, while we read the inscription, emblazoned 
in large letters, " Mystery, Babylon the Great," written by the hand 



BAPTISM, MODE OF. 



67 



of St. John, guided by the Holy Spirit of God, on the forehead of the 
Church of Rome. — " Union with Rome," Chr. Wordsworth, D. D., pp. 
61-63. London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1909. 

Babylon, Transfek of Religion of, to Pergamos (Rev. 2: 13). — 
The Chaldean Magi enjoyed a long period of prosperity at Babylon. 
A pontiff appointed by the sovereign ruled over a college of seventy- 
two hierophants. They were also established at Memphis and at Tibet, 
where the costume is preserved by the priests to this day; they also 
extended their influence and doctrines into Etruria. When the Medes 
and Persians overthrew the reigning power at Babylon, they put down 
the old mythology, and set up their own religion. The Chaldeans, to 
recover their lost influence, brought in one of their own number, 
Smerdis, the Magian, as king; but the imposture was detected, and 
he was slain. After this they revolted in the absence of the Persian 
king, and set up a Babylonian of their own choice; but Xerxes re- 
turned, the city was taken and sacked, and the people slaughtered 
(b. c. 487). The defeated Chaldeans fled to Asia Minor, and fixed 
their central college at Pergamos, and took the palladium of Babylon, 
the cubic stone, with them. Here, independent of state control, they 
carried on the rites of their religion, and plotted against the peace of 
the Persian Empire, caballing with the Greeks for that ^ purpose.— 
" Lares and Penates," William B. Barker, pp. 232, 233. London: Ingram, 
Cooke & Co., 1853. 

Babylon. — See Idolatry, 215, 216; Medo-Persia. 

Babylonish Captivity of Papacy. — See Papacy, 338. 

Balaam. — See Seven Churches, 489. 

Balkan States. — See Eastern Question, 150. 

Bamfield, Francis. — See Sabbath, 469. 

Baptism, Mode of. — " Baptism [says Calvin] was administered by 
John and Christ, by the submersion of the whole body." Tertullian, the 
great Latin Father, a. d. 200, also says: " Nor is there any material dif- 
ference between those whom John dipped in the Jordan, and those whom 
Peter dipped in the Tiber." So Lightfoot: That the baptism of John was 
by the immersion of the body, seems evident from those things which 
are related concerning it; namely, that he baptized in the Jordan, and in 
^non, because there was much water, and that Christ being baptized 
went up out of the water." MacKnight says the same thing: "Christ 
submitted to be baptized, that is, to be buried under the water by John, 
and to be raised out of it again." Olshausen agrees with these interpre- 
ters, for he says: "John, also, was baptizing in the ^neighborhood, be- 
cause the water there being deep, afforded conveniences forr submersion." 
De Wette bears the same testimony: "They were baptized, immersed, 
submerged. This is the proper meaning of the frequentative form of 
oapto, to immerse." And Alford, on Matthew 3: 6, says: "The baptism 
was administered in the daytime by immersion of the whole person." 

These authorities abundantly show that our Lord, in requiring the 
first act of obedience on the part of his new disciple, employed a Greek 
word in common use for expressing the most familiar acts of everyday 
life. And the testimony of the Septuagint, the Greek version of the Old 
Testament, completed b. c. 285, harmonizes exactly with this use. When 



68 



BAPTISM, MODE OF. 



quoting the Hebrew Scriptures, Jesus and his apostles generally used 
this version. Here the Greek word ebaptisato is used to translate the 
Hebrew word taval (2 Kings 5: 14), where the English version also 
renders it by the word " dipped," to express the act of Naaman in the 
river Jordan. The word taval is used fifteen times in the Old Testa- 
ment, and is rendered in our common English version fourteen times by 
"dip," and once (Job 9: 31) by "plunge." In Genesis 37: 31, the Jew- 
ish scholars who made the Septuagint Version rendered moluno, to 
stain, the effect of dipping, as in dyeing, this being the chief thought 
which the translator would express. It is also worthy of note that the 
preposition en is rendered " in " before Jordan in all the commonly 
received versions of the English New Testament (Matt. 3: 6); namely, 
in that of Wiclif, 1380; Tyndal, 1534; Cranmer, 1539; Geneva, 1557; 
Rheims, 1582; and King James, 1611. In the last named "with" was 
afterward substituted for " in," but it is restored by the late Anglo- 
American revisers, in various passages of the Gospels. — " A History of 
the Baptists" Thomas Armitage, D. D., LL. D., p. 35. New York: Bryan, 
Taylor d Co., 1887. 

Baptism by Water. — The law and history of the Jews abound with 
illustrations and baptisms of different sorts. Moses enjoined the people 
to wash their garments, and to purify themselves, by way of prepara- 
tion for the reception of the law. Ex. 19 : 10. The priests and Levites, 
before they exercised their ministry, washed themselves. Ex. 29: 4; 
Lev. 8 : 6. All legal pollutions were cleansed by baptism, or by plunging 
into water. Certain diseases and infirmities, natural to men and to 
women, were to be purified by bathing. To touch a dead body, to be 
present at funerals, etc., required purification. But these purifications 
were not uniform: generally, people dipped themselves entirely under 
the water, and this is the most simple notion of the word " baptize." 
— Dictionary of the Holy Bible, Calmet, revised by Edward Robinson, 
art. "Baptism," p. 142. New York: N. Tibbals & Sons, 1832. 

Baptism, Conybeare and Howson on Immersion. — It is needless to 
add that baptism was (unless in exceptional cases) administered by 
immersion, the convert being plunged beneath the surface of the water. 

— " The Life and Epistles of the Apostle Paul," Gonybeare and Howson, 
(1 vol. edition) p. 361. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell & Co. 

Baptism, as Originally Instituted. — In respect to the form of 
baptism, it was in conformity with the original institution and the orig- 
inal import of the symbol, performed by immersion. — " General History 
of the Christian Religion and Church," Dr. Augustus Neander, transla- 
tion by Joseph Torrey, Vol. I, p. 310, 7th edition. Boston: Crocker & 
Brewster, 1854. 

Baptism, Luther on Meaning of Word. — Baptism is a Greek word; 
in Latin it can be translated immersion, as when we plunge something 
into water tkiat./i't may be completely covered with water. — Luther, 
" Opera Lutheri," " De Sac." Bap. 1, p. 319 (Baptist Encyclopedia, art. 
" Baptism "J. 

Baptism, Cardinal Puleus (12th Century) on Meaning of. — 
Whilst the candidate for baptism in water is immersed, the death of 
Christ is suggested; whilst immersed and covered with water, the burial 
of Christ is shown forth; whilst he is raised from the waters, the resur- 
rection of Christ is proclaimed. — Patrol. Lat., Vol. CXXX, p. 315 (Bap- 
tist Encyclopedia, art. " Baptism "). 



BAPTISM, DEFINITION OF. 



61) 



Baptism, John Wesley on Ancient Practice. — " Buried with him," 
alluding to the ancient practice of baptizing by immersion. — " Notes on 
New Testament," John Wesley, on Rom. 6:4. 

Baptism, Calvin on Meaning of Word. — The very word " baptize," 
however, signifies to immerse; and it is certain that immersion was ob- 
served by the ancient church. — " Calvin's Institutes," lib. 4, cap. 15 
(Baptist Encyclopedia, art. "Baptism"). 

Baptism, Definition of Term in Lexicons. — 

/3d7TTw : . . . 1. Trans, to dip in water. ... 2. To dip in dye, to dye. 
. . . 3. To draw water by dipping a vessel. — Liddell and Scott's Greek- 
English Lexicon, 7th edition, 1882. Neiv York: American Book Com- 
pany.^ 

pair™ : ... To dip, plunge, immerse: to dye or stain; ... to tem- 
per, by dipping in water; ... to wash; ... to fill by drawing up; 
. . . to bathe one's self; to be submerged, sunk; ... to be lost as a ship. 
— Greek-English Lexicon, George Dunbar, A. M., F. R. S. E., Professor of 
Greek in the University of Edinburgh. Edinburgh: Maclachlan and 
Stewart, 1850. 

pairTU): 1. To dip. ... 2. To dye. ... 4. To plunge a knife. — 
Greek Lexicon of the Greek and Byzantine Periods (from B. 0. 146 to 
A. D. 1100), E. A. Sophocles. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1900. 

PairTtafxa (/3a7rrtfw) , a word peculiar to the New Testament and eccle- 
siastical writers, immersion, submersion. ... 1. Used tropically of ca- 
lamities and afflictions with which one is quite overwhelmed. ... 2. Of 
John's baptism. ... 3. Of Christian baptism; this according to the 
view of the apostles, is a rite of sacred immersion, commanded by Christ. 
— A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament, being Grimm's 
Wilke's Clavis Novi Testamenti, translated, revised, and enlarged by 
■Joseph Henry Thayer, D. D., Hon. Litt. D., Dublin, late professor of New 
Testament Criticism and Interpretation in the Divinity School of Har- 
vard University, 4th edition. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1901. 

Note. — Bapto is the root whence comes the word Tjaptizo, the Anglicized 
form of which, " baptize,'' is a familiar word in our English speech. — Eds. 

Baptism, Dean Stanley on Change in Practice. — For the first 
thirteen centuries the almost universal practice of baptism was that of 
which we read in the New Testament, and which is the very meaning 
of the word " baptize," — that those who were baptized were plunged, 
submerged, immersed into the water. That practice is still, as we have 
seen, continued in Eastern churches. In the Western church it still 
lingers amongst Roman Catholics in the solitary instance of the Cathe- 
dral of Milan; amongst Protestants in the numerous sevst o£ tne Baptists. 
It lasted long into the Middle Ages. . . . But since the beginning of 
the seventeenth century, the practice has become exceedingly rare. With 
the few exceptions just mentioned, the whole of the Western churches 
have now substituted for the ancient bath the ceremony of letting fall a 
few drops of water on the face. . . . Not by any decree of council or par- 
liament, but by the general sentiment of Christian liberty, this remark- 
able change was effected. Beginning in the thirteenth century, it has 
gradually driven the ancient catholic usage out of the whole of Europe. 
— " Christian Institutions," Dean Stanley, of Westminster, pp. 21, 22. 



70 



BIBLE, WRITERS OF. 



Baptism, Infant, Not an Apostolic Institution. — Originally bap- 
tism was administered to adults; nor is the general spread of infant 
baptism at a later period any proof to the contrary; for even after 
infant baptism had been set forth as an apostolic institution, its intro- 
duction into the general practice of the church was but slow. Had it 
rested on apostolic authority, there would have been a difficulty in ex- 
plaining its late approval, and that even in the third century it was 
opposed by at least one eminent Father of the church. Paul's language, 
in 1 Cor. 7: 14, is also against its apostolic origin, where he aims at 
proving that a Christian woman need not fear living in wedlock with 
a heathen, since the unbeliever would be sanctified by tbe believing 
wife; as a proof of this he adds, otherwise the children of Christians 
would be unclean, but now are they holy, therefore, the children of 
Christian parents are called holy, on account of the influence of Chris- 
tian fellowship. Had infant baptism been practised at that time, the 
argument would have had no force; for they would have been holy by 
means of their baptism. Infant baptism, therefore, cannot be regarded 
as an apostolic institution. — " Lectures on the History of Christian Dog- 
mas," Dr. Augustus Neander, Vol. I, pp. 229, 230. London: George Bell 
& Sons, 1882. 

Whereas, in the early ages, adult baptism was the rule, and infant 
baptism the exception, in later times infant baptism is the rule, and 
adult baptism the exception. "What is the justification of this almost 
universal departure from the primitive usage? There may have been 
many reasons, some bad, some good. One, no doubt, was the super- 
stitious feeling already mentioned which regarded baptism as a charm, 
indispensable to salvation, and which insisted on imparting it to every 
human being who could be touched with water, however unconscious. 
— " Christian Institutions" Dean Stanley, p. 24. 

Baptism. — See Justification, 278. 

Baptist Missionary Society. — See Two Witnesses, 575. 

Bavarians. — See Rome, Its Barbarian Invaders, 442. 

Belisarius.— >See Papal Supremacy, 359, 360, 361; Rome, Its Bar- • 
barian Invaders, 445, 447-449, 457; Ten Kingdoms, 555. 

Belshazzar. — See Babylon, 54-58. 

Bible, the Writers of Its Sixty-six Books. — The authorship of 
this book is wonderful. Here are words written by kings, by emperors, 
by princes, by poets, by sages, by philosophers, by fishermen, by states- 
men; by men learned in the wisdom of Egypt, educated in the schools 
of Babylon, trained up at the feet of rabbis in Jerusalem. It was 
written by men in exile, in the desert, in shepherds' tents, in " green 
pastures " and beside " still waters." Among its authors we find the 
tax-gatherer, the herdsman, the gatherer of sycamore fruit; we find 
poor men, rich men, statesmen, preachers, exiles, captains, legislators, 
judges; men of every grade and class are represented in this wonderful 
volume, which is in reality a library, filled with history, genealogy, 
ethnology, law, ethics, prophecy, poetry, eloquence, medicine, sanitary 
science, political economy, and perfect rules for the conduct of personal 
and social life. It contains all kinds of writing; but what a jumble it 
would be if sixty-six books were written in this way by ordinary men! 
— "Will the Old Book Stand?" H. L. Hastings, p. 19. Boston: H. L. 
Hastings & Sons, 1916. 



BIBLE, AUTHORSHIP OF. 



71 



Bible, About Fokty Penmen Used in Its Writing. — Altogether 
about forty persons, in all stations of life, were engaged in the writing 
of these oracles, the work of which was spread over a period of about 
1,600 years, viz., from about 1500 b. c, when Moses commenced to write 
the Pentateuch amid the thunders of Sinai, to about a. d. 97, when the 
apostle John, himself a son of thunder (Mark 3: 17), wrote his Gospel 
in Asia Minor— "All About the Bible," Sidney Gollett, pp. 11, 12. New 
York: Fleming H. Revell Company, 9th edition. 

Bible, Its Authorship. — 

Hast thou ever heard 
Of such a book? The Author, God himself; 
The subject, God and man, salvation, life 
And death — eternal life, eternal death — 
Dread words! whose meaning has no end, no bounds. 
Most wondrous Book! bright candle of the Lord! 
Star of eternity! the only star 
By which the bark of man could navigate 
The sea of life, and gain the coast of bliss 
Securely! only star which rose on time, 
And on its dark and troubled billows, still, 
As generation, drifting swiftly by, 
Succeeded generation, threw a ray 
Of heaven's own light, and to the hills of God, 
The eternal hills, pointed the sinner's eye. 
By prophets, seers, and priests, and sacred bards, 
Evangelists, apostles, men inspired, 
And by the Holy Ghost anointed, set 
Apart, and consecrated to declare 
To earth the counsels of the Eternal One 
This Book, this holiest, this sublimest Book, 
Was sent. Heaven's will, heaven's code of laws entire, 
To man, this Book contained;* defined the bounds 
Of vice and virtue, and of life and death; 
And what was shadow, what was substance taught. 

This Book, this holy Book, on every line 
Marked with the seal of high divinity, 
On every leaf bedewed with drops of love 
Divine, and with the eternal heraldry 
And signature of God Almighty stamped 
From first to last, this ray of sacred light, 
This lamp, from off the everlasting throne, 
Mercy took down, and, in the night of time 
Stood, casting on the dark her gracious bow; 
And evermore beseeching men, with tears 
And earnest sighs, to read, believe, and live. 
— " The Course of Time," Robert Pollok, book 2, pars. 27, 19. 

Bible, the Pentateuch Written by Moses. — The unanimous tra- 
dition of the Jews ascribes the Pentateuch to Moses, and among Chris- 
tians the Mosaic authorship was not called into question until a com- 
paratively recent period. The evidence of the genuineness of the Pen- 
tateuch rests on direct testimony. If it had perished, most of its ordi- 
nances could have been gathered from the later books of the Bible; and 
the chain of evidence is completed by the testimony of Christ and his 
apostles, who without hesitation ascribe the composition of the Penta- 
teuch to Moses. — " The Bible and Its Transmission," Walter Arthur 
Copinger, p. 10. London: Henry Sotheran & Co., 1897 * 



72 



BIBLE, INSPIRATION OF. 



Bible, Its Inspiration and Authenticity. — On what ground do we 
believe that the Bible is inspired? Some will give the ready answer. 
" We believe that the Bible is inspired because the church says so." 
. . . Others there are who, when asked why they believe the Bible to 
be inspired, would reply, " It is because we have found it to be so 
practically; by reading it we found our way to God; by searching it 
the. will of God has become clearer to us; by living according to its 
precepts we have proved that they are divine; and now its words move 
us as no other words do: other books delight us, instruct us, thrill us, 
but this book is a prophetic voice discoursing about eternity and the 
unseen in the same breath that it speaks with a demonstrable truth- 
fulness concerning the temporal and the seen." . . . The people who 
answer in this way certainly seem to render a more solid reason than 
those who found their assertion about inspiration upon the tradition of 
an authoritative church. — "Inspiration and the Bible," Robert F. Hor- 
ton, M. A., pp. 2, 4, 5. London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1891. 

There are, it is well known, many theories of inspiration. But what- 
ever view or theory of inspiration men may hold, plenary, verbal, dy- 
namical, mechanical, superintendent, or governmental, they refer either 
to the inspiration of the men who wrote, or to the inspiration of what 
is written. In one word, they imply throughout the work of God the 
Holy Ghost, and are bound up with the concomitant ideas of authority, 
veracity, reliability, and truth divine. — Canon Dyson Hague, M. A., in 
" The Fundamentals,'" Vol. I, p. 105. Chicago: Testimony Publishing 
Company. 

The present Hebrew text is admitted by the most able scholars of 
the day to be substantially accurate, the great majority of the errors 
discovered being of a trivial description, such as the misspelling or 
transposing of words, the omission of insignificant particles or their 
insertion, and errors of the like description. The variations of the MSS. 
of the New Testament are very much more numerous than those which 
have been discovered in the Old, and yet we have the authority of two 
of the greatest textual critics of the New Testament (Drs. Westcott and 
Hort) for saying that the New Testament variations of any importance, 
if all put together, would not exceed one thousandth part of the whole 
text. — "The Bible and Its Transmission," Walter Arthur Copinger, pp. 
4, 5. London: Henry Sotheran cC- Co., 1897 * 

Inspiration is not affected by minor differences in various narra- 
tives. While God used men as media of communication, they were not 
mere machines, but were left to use their faculties in individual free- 
dom. Hence arose peculiarities, not only of style, but of treatment, 
according as the same utterances or occurrences might impress each 
observer or narrator. But this, instead of impairing, rather increases 
the trustworthiness of the record, as it proves that there could have 
been no prior agreement or conspiracy among the various writers. 

Most so-called discrepancies or disagreements disappear when the 
various records are regarded as partial, rather than complete, as each 
of the four Gospel narratives may present some feature not found in the 
rest, but capable of being combined with the others in one full state- 
ment. For example, the complete inscription over the cross was, " This 
is Jesus of Nazareth, the King of the Jews." Of this inscription of ten 
words, Matthew records eight, Mark five, Luke seven, and John eight, 
and not the same in any two cases; but the full inscription includes all 
the words found in any record. There is, therefore, no antagonism or 
contradiction. — " Knowing the Scriptures," Dr. Arthur T. Pierson, p. 18. 
New York: Gospel Publishing House, 1910. 



BIBLE, CREDIBILITY OF. 



73 



The revelations of prophecy are facts which exhibit the divine 
omniscience. So long as Babylon is in heaps; so long as Nineveh lies 
empty, void, and waste; so long as Egypt is the basest of kingdoms; so 
long as Tyre is a place for the spreading of nets in the midst of the 
sea; so long as Israel is scattered among all nations; so long as Jeru- 
salem is trodden underfoot of the Gentiles; so long as the great em- 
pires of the world march on in their predicted course, — so long we have 
proof that one Omniscient Mind dictated the predictions of that book, 
and " prophecy came not in old time by the will of man." — " Will the 
Old Book Stand? " H. L. Hastings, p. 19. Boston: H. L. Hastings d- Sons, 
1916. 

Respecting the particular manner of divine inspiration, there are 
two opinions extant: 

1. That the Spirit of God inspired the thoughts; but that the writ- 
ers were left to express themselves in their own words and phrases, 
but they were so guided that they were kept from theological errors. 

2. That every word was suggested to them by the Spirit of God, 
and that the writers did nothing but write. This is verbal inspira- 
tion. . . . Both views secure the Scriptures from all error. — " Theolog- 
ical Compend," Improved, Amos Binney, pp. 21, 22. New York: The 
Methodist Book Concern, 1902. 

Bible, History in, Differs from Other Histories. — Niebuhr says 
that the Old Testament history is the only exception to ancient history, 
in that it is free from what he calls all " national patriotic falsehood." 
... In other histories we see the great tendency to hero worship. The 
historian has some favorite character. He wants to show what a grand 
man that was. The Bible never wants to show what a grand man any- 
body was. There is no hero worship in the Bible. — " The Divine Unity 
of Scripture,'' Adolph Saphir, pp. 213, 214. London: Hodder and Stough- 
ton, 1804. 

Bible, Credibility of. — The main facts of the history they [books 
of the Pentateuch] contain have received strong confirmation from Egyp- 
tian and Eastern research. — " The Impregnable Rock of Holy Scripture," 
Wm. E. Gladstone, pp. 14, 15. London: Wm. Isbister, 1890. 

It is of no use to say that Christ, as exhibited in the Gospels, is 
not historical — who among his disciples or among their proselytes 
was capable of inventing the sayings ascribed to Jesus, or of imagining 
the life and character revealed in the Gospels? Certainly not the fisher- 
men of Galilee, as certainly not St. Paul. — "Essays," John Stuart Mill, 
p. 233 ; quoted in " The Bible, Its Origin and Nature," Marcus Dods. 
D. D., p. 208. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1905. 

Bible, Credibility of: Archeological and Geographical Confirma- 
tions. — This is the century of romance, — romance in exploration, in 
discovery, in invention, in thought, and in life. . . . Through a series of 
marvelous discoveries and romantic events we have been let into the 
secrets of wonderful centuries of hitherto unknown peoples and events. 
. . . Now through the co-operation of explorer, archeologist, and lin- 
guist, we are the heirs of what was formerly regarded as prehistoric 
times. . . . These marvelous revelations from the archives of the na- 
tions of the past have painted for us a new background, in fact, our first 
background, of the Old Testament. — " The Monuments and the Old Tes- 
tament," Ira Maurice Trice, Ph. D., pp. 17, 18. Philadelphia: American 
Baptist Publication Society, 1899. 



BIBLE, POPES ON. 



Almost every year ancient records are brought to light which con- 
firm some statement of the Old Testament which the scholars supposed 
to be a mistake. One of the most familiar is that with reference to the 
location of Ur of the Chaldees. Scholars knew of only one Ur, and it 
was at Oorfah, six hundred miles away from Chaldea. So they said the 
Bible must be mistaken. But Lenormant and Smith have identified 
Mughier as the site of the home of Terah and Abraham. The scholars 
were wrong because they did not have the facts in hand. When the 
facts came to light, the Scriptures proved to be exactly correct. The 
more light men bring to bear upon the Old Testament, the more certain 
becomes the accuracy of its historic statements. — " Scientific Faith," 
Howard Agnew Johnston, pp. 117, 118. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 
1910. 

Bible, St. Basil (329-379) on. — Without doubt it is a most mani- 
fest fall from faith, and a most certain sign of pride, to introduce any- 
thing that is not written in the Scriptures, our blessed Saviour having 
said, " My sheep hear my voice, and the voice of strangers they will 
not hear; " and to detract from Scripture, or to add anything to the 
faith that is not there, is most manifestly forbidden by the apostle, 
saying, " If it be but a man's testament, no man addeth thereto."— 
" Be Fide," Gamier 's edition, Vol. II, p. 313; quoted in " The Infallibil- 
ity of the Church," George Salmon, B. D., pp. 143, 144. New York: 
E. P. Button & Co., 1914. 

Bible, St. Jerome (340-420) on. — As we accept those things that 
are written, so we reject those things that are not written. — On Matt. 
23:35 ; quoted in " The Infallibility of the Church," George Salmon, 
p. 147. 

Bible, Pope Pius VI (1778-1799) on. — At a time when a great num- 
ber of bad books . . . are circulated among the unlearned, . . . you 
judge exceedingly well that the faithful should be excited to the reading 
of the Bible; for this is the most abundant source which ought to be 
left open to every one to draw from it purity of morals and doctrine. 
. . . This you have seasonably effected ... by publishing the Bible in 
the language of your country [viz., Italian] suitable to every one's 
capacity. — Quoted in " The Catholic Church and the Bible" (pamphlet), 
p. 1. Brooklyn: International Catholic Truth Society.* 

Bible, Pope Pius VII on Bible Societies, 1816. — We have been 
truly shocked at this most crafty device, by which the very foundations 
of religion are undermined: and having, because of the great impor- 
tance of the subject, convened for consultation our venerable brethren, 
the cardinals of the holy Roman Church, we have, with the utmost care 
and attention, deliberated upon the measures proper to be adopted by 
our Pontifical authority, in order to remedy and abolish this pestilence 
as far as possible. — Letter of Pope Pius VII, June 29, 1816, to the Arch- 
bishop of Gnezn, Primate of Poland; cited in "A Bissertation on the 
Seals and Trumpets of the Apocalypse," William Cuninghame, Esq., 
Preface, p. xiii. London: 1843. 

Bible, Pope Leo XIII (1898) Proclaims Indulgence for Reading.— 
His Holiness Leo XIII, at an audience on Dec. 13, 1898, with the under- 
signed Prefect of the Congregation of Indulgences and Relics, made 
known that he grants to all the faithful who shall have devoutly read 



BIBLE, CATHOLIC OPINIONS ON. 



75 



the Scriptures for at least a quarter of an hour, an indulgence of three 
hundred days, to be gained once a day, provided that the edition of the 
Gospel has been approved by legitimate authority. — Quoted in " The 
Catholic Church and the Bible" (pamphlet), p. 2. Brooklyn: Interna- 
tional Catholic Truth Society * 

Bible, Cardinal Wiseman on Reading of, by Common People. — 
Years of experience, and observation not superficial, have only strength- 
ened our conviction that this course must be fearlessly pursued. We 
must deny to Protestantism any right to use the Bible, much more to 
interpret it. — " The Catholic Doctrine on the Use of the Bible" Cardinal 
Wiseman, p. 11. London. 

It is not too much to say, that God, who could have given us a 
Bible as easy to read as a child's primer, a Bible in words of two syl- 
lables, has, on the contrary, chosen to give us a work more difficult to 
understand than any other perhaps in existence. — Id., p. 13. 

We answer, therefore, boldly, that we give not the Word of God 
indiscriminately to all. because God himself has not so given it. He has 
not made reading an essential part of man's constitution, nor a congeni- 
tal faculty, nor a term of salvation, nor a condition of Christianity. 
But hearing he has made such, and then has told us that " faith cometh 
from hearing, and hearing from the Word of God." Rom. 10: 16, 17. He 
has not made paper and ink (2 John 12) the badges of his apostles' 
calling, but the keys of his kingdom. — id., p. 20. 

In Catholic countries, such as can read, or do read, have access to 
the Latin Version without restraint. . . . But though the Scriptures 
may be here permitted [in Great Britain, with notes] we do not urge 
them on our people; we do not encourage them to read them; we 
do not spread them to the utmost among them. Certainly not. — 
Id., p. 26. 

Bible, Catholic Editor on Substitute for Old Testament. — Bible 
histories drawn up by skilled theologians, and giving the substance of 
the Bible narrative, are just as useful for the practical effect as the 
original words, and have the advantage of greater conciseness in the 
narratives they select. — Editorial in The Month (London), December, 
1888 (Vol. LXIY, p. 485). 

Bible, Catholic Encyclopedia on Circulation of, by Bible Socie- 
ties. — The attitude of the church toward the Bible societies is one of 
unmistakable opposition. Believing herself to be the divinely appointed 
custodian and interpreter of Holy Writ, she cannot without turning 
traitor to herself, approve the distribution of Scripture " without note 
or comment." The fundamental fallacy of private interpretation of the 
Scriptures is presupposed by the Bible societies. It is the impelling 
motive of their work. But it would be likewise the violation of one of 
the first principles of the Catholic faith — a principle arrived at through 
observation as well as by revelation — the insufficiency of the Scriptures 
alone to convey to the general reader a sure knowledge of faith and 
morals. Consequently, the Council of Trent, in its fourth session, after 
expressly condemning all interpretations of the sacred text which con- 
tradict the past and present interpretation of the church, orders all 
Catholic publishers to see to it that their editions of the Bible have the 
approval of the bishop. 



76 BIBLE, CONFESSIONS OF FAITH ON. 



Besides this and other regulations concerning Bible reading in gen- 
eral, we have several acts of the Popes directed explicitly against the 
Bible societies. Perhaps the most notable of these are contained in the 
Encyclical Ubi Primum of Leo XII, dated 5 May, 1824, and Pius IX's 
Encyclical Qui Pluribus, of 9 November, 1846. Pius VIII in 1829 and 
Gregory XVI in 1844, spoke to similar effect. It may be well to give 
the most striking words on the subject from Leo XII and Pius IX. 
To quote the former floe. cit.J: 

" You are aware, venerable brothers, that a certain Bible society is 
impudently spreading throughout the world, which, despising the tradi- 
tions of the holy Fathers and the decree of the Council of Trent, is 
endeavoring to translate, or rather to pervert the Scriptures into the 
vernacular of all nations. ... It is to be feared that by false interpre- 
tation, the gospel of Christ will become the gospel of men, or still worse, 
the gospel of the devil." 

The Pope then urges the bishops to admonish their flocks that owing 
to human temerity, more harm than good may come from indiscrim- 
inate Bible reading. 

Pius IX says (loc. cit.J: "These crafty Bible societies, which renew 
the ancient guile of heretics, cease not to thrust their Bibles upon all 
men, even the unlearned,— their Bibles, which have been translated 
against the laws of the church, and often contain false explanations of 
the text. Thus, the divine traditions, the teaching of the Fathers, and 
the authority of the Catholic Church are rejected, and every one in his 
own way interprets the words of the Lord, and distorts their meaning, 
thereby falling into miserable errors." — The Catholic Encyclopedia, 
Vol. Ill, art. " Bible Societies," p. 545. 

Bible, Greek Church on. — III. Everything necessary to salvation 
is stated in the Holy Scriptures with such clearness, that every one, 
reading it with a sincere desire to be enlightened, can understand it. — 
"Russia: or, Miscellaneous Observations on the Past and Present State 
of That Country and Its Inhabitants," Robert Pinkerton, D. D., pp. 42, 
43; chap. 3, section on " Comparison of the Differences in the Doctrines 
of Faith Betwixt the Eastern and Western Churches,'''' by Philaret, 
Metropolitan of Moscow. London: Seeley d- Sons, 1833. 

Bible, The French Confession of Faith (a. d. 1559) on. — Art. V. 
We believe that the Word contained in these books has proceeded from 
God. ... It is not lawful for men, nor even for angels, to add to it, to 
take away from it, or to change it. Whence it follows that no authority, 
whether of antiquity, or custom, or numbers, or human wisdom, or 
judgments, or proclamations, or edicts, or decrees, or councils, or visions, 
or miracles, should be opposed to these Holy Scriptures. — " The Creeds 
of the Evangelical Protestant Churches, ," Philip Schaff, p. 362. London: 
Hodder and Stoughton, 1877. 

Bible, The Belgic Confession (a. d. 1561) on. — Art. VII. We be- 
lieve that these Holy Scriptures fully contain the will of God, and that 
whatsoever man ought to believe unto salvation, is sufficiently taught 
therein. — Id., pp. 387, 388. 

Bible, The Westminster Confession of Faith (1647) on. — VI. 
The whole counsel of God, concerning all things necessary for his own 
glory, man's salvation, faith, and life, is either expressly set down in 
Scripture, or by good and necessary consequence may be deduced from 
Scripture: unto which nothing at any time is to be added, whether by 
new revelations of the spirit, or traditions of men. — Id., p. 603. 



BIBLE, CONFESSIONS OF FAITH ON. 



77 



IX. The infallible rule of interpretation of Scripture is the Scripture 
itself; and therefore, when there is a question about the true and full 
sense of any Scripture (which is not manifold, but one), it must be 
searched and known by other places that speak more clearly. — Id., p. 605. 

Bible, The Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England on. 
— VI. Holy Scripture containeth all things necessary to salvation: so 
that whatsoever is not read therein, nor may be proved thereby, is not to 
be required of any man, that it should be believed as an article of the 
faith, or be thought requisite or necessary to salvation. — Id., p. 489. 

XX. It is not lawful for the church to ordain anything that is con- 
trary to God's Word written, neither may it so expound one place of 
Scripture, that it be repugnant to another. — Id., p. 500. 

Bible, The New Hampshire Baptist Confession (a. d. 1833) on. 
— We believe that the Holy Bible was written by men divinely inspired, 
and is a perfect treasure of heavenly instruction; that it has God for its 
author, salvation for its end, and truth without any mixture of error for 
its matter; that it reveals the principles by which God will judge us; 
and therefore is, and shall remain to the end of the world, the true 
center of Christian union, and the supreme standard by which all human 
conduct, creeds, and opinions should be tried. 

[This confession was drawn up by the Rev. John Newton Brown, 
D. D., of New Hampshire (b. 1803, d. 1868), about 1833, and has been 
adopted by the New Hampshire Convention and widely accepted by 
Baptists, especially in the Northern and Western States, as a clear and 
concise statement of their faith, in harmony with the doctrines of older 
confessions, but expressed in milder form. The text is taken from the 
" Baptist Church Manual," published by the American Baptist Publica- 
tion Society, Philadelphia.] — Id., p. 742. 

Bible, Confession of the Freewill Baptists (a. d. 1834, 1868) on 
the Holy Scriptures. — These are the Old and New Testaments; they 
were written by holy men, inspired by the Holy Spirit, and contain 
God's revealed will to man. They are a sufficient and infallible guide in 
religious faith and practice. 

[This confession was adopted and issued by the General Conference 
of the Freewill Baptists of America in 1834, revised in 1848, and again 
in 1865, and 1868. The text is taken from the "Treatise on the Faith 
and Practice of the Freewill Baptists," written under the direction of 
the General Conference, Dover, N. H.] — Id., p. 749. 

Bible, Methodist Articles of Religion (1784) on. — V. The Holy 
Scriptures contain all things necessary to salvation; so that whatsoever 
is not read therein, nor may be proved thereby, is not to be required of 
any man that it should be believed as an article of faith, or be thought 
requisite or necessary to salvation. . . . 

VI. The Old Testament is not contrary to the New; for both in the 
Old and New Testament everlasting life is offered to mankind by Christ, 
who is the only Mediator between God and man, being both God and 
man. Wherefore they are not to be heard who feign that the old fathers 
did look only for transitory promises. Although the law given from God 
by Moses, as touching ceremonies and rites, doth not bind Christians, 
nor ought the civil precepts thereof of necessity be received in any com- 
monwealth, yet, notwithstanding, no Christian whatsoever is free from 
the obedience of the commandments which are called moral. — Id., 
p. 808. 



78 



BIBLE, RULE OF FAITH. 



Bible, Congregation alists on. — Standing by the rock where the 
Pilgrims set foot upon these shores, upon the spot where they wor- 
shiped God, and among the graves of the early generations, we, elders 
and messengers of the Congregational churches of the United States in 
National Council assembled — like them acknowledging no rule of faith 
but the Word of God — do now declare our adherence to the faith and 
order of the apostolic and primitive churches. — Declaration of Faith of 
the National Council of the Congregational Churches, held at Boston, 
Mass., June 14-24, 1865, par. 1; cited in " The Creeds of the Evangelical 
Protestant Churches,'" Philip Schaff, p. 734. London: Hodder and 
Stoughton, 1877. 

Bible, St. Chrysostoai (a. d. 347-407) on Ignorance of. — And so 
ye also, if ye be willing to apply to the reading of him with a ready 
mind, will need no other aid. For the word of Christ is true which 
saith, " Seek, and ye shall find; knock, and it shall be opened unto you " 
(Matt. 7: 7). . . . From this it is that our countless evils have arisen 
— from ignorance of the Scriptures; from this it is that the plague 
of heresies has broken out. — " Homilies on Romans," preface; " Nicene 
and Post-Nicene Fathers," Vol. XI, p. 335. New York: Charles Scribner's 
Sons, 1899. 

Bible, Pope Gregory the Great on Study of. — What is Sacred 
Scripture but a kind of epistle of Almighty God to his creature? And 
surely, if Your Glory were resident in any other place, and were to 
receive letters from an earthly emperor, you would not loiter, you would 
not rest, you would not give sleep to your eyes, till you had learned what 
the earthly emperor had written. 

The Emperor of heaven, the Lord of men and angels, has sent thee 
his epistles for thy life's behoof; and yet, glorious son, thou neglectest 
to read these epistles ardently. Study them, I beseech thee, and daily 
meditate on the words of thy Creator. Learn the heart of God in the 
words of God, that thou mayest sigh more ardently for the things that 
are eternal. — "Epistle to Theodorus," book 4, epistle 31; "Nicene and 
Post-Nicene Fathers" Vol. XII, p. 156. New York: The Christian Litera- 
ture Company, 1895. 

Bible, St. Chrysostom on Rule of Doctrine. — " For doctrine." For 
thence [from the Scriptures] we shall know whether we ought to learn 
or to be ignorant of anything. And thence we may disprove what is 
false. ... 

" That the man of God "may be perfect." For this is the exhorta- 
tion of the Scripture given, that the man of God may be rendered perfect 
by it; without this therefore he cannot be perfect. Thou hast the Scrip- 
tures, he says, in place of me. If thou wouldst learn anything, thou 
mayest learn it from them. And if he thus wrote to Timothy, who was 
filled with the Spirit, how much more to us! — "Homilies on Timothy," 
Homily 9, 2 Tim. 3:16, 17; "Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers" Vol. XIII, 
p. 510. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1905. 

Bible, Declared Rule of Faith in the " Protest of the Princes," 
at Spires (1529). — Moreover, ... as the new edict declares that the 
ministers shall preach the gospel, explaining it according to the writ- 
ings accepted by the Holy Christian church; we think that, for this reg- 
ulation to have any value, we should first agree on what is meant by 
the true and holy church. Now, seeing that there is great diversity of 
opinion in this respect; that there is no sure doctrine but such as is 



BIBLE, RULE OF FAITH. 



79 



conformable to the Word of God; that the Lord forbids the teaching of 
any other doctrine; that each text of the Holy Scriptures ought to be 
explained by other and clearer texts; and that this Holy Book is in all 
things necessary for the Christian, easy of understanding, and calcu- 
lated to scatter the darkness: we are resolved, with the grace of God, 
to maintain the pure and exclusive preaching of his only Word, such 
as it is contained in the Biblical books of the Old and New Testament, 
without adding anything thereto that may be contrary to it. This Word 
is the only truth; it is the sure rule of all doctrine and of all life, and 
can never fail or deceive us. He who builds on this foundation shall 
stand against all the powers of hell, whilst all the human vanities that 
are set up against it shall fall before the face of God. 

For these reasons, most dear lords, uncles, cousins, and friends, we 
earnestly entreat you to weigh carefully our grievances and our motives. 
If you do not yield to our request, we Protest by these presents, before 
God, our only Creator, Preserver, Redeemer, and Saviour, and who will 
one day be our Judge, as well as before all men and all creatures, that 
we, for us and for our people, neither consent nor adhere in any man- 
ner whatsoever to the proposed decree, in anything that is contrary to 
God, to his Holy Word, to our right conscience, to the salvation of our 
souls, and to the last decree of Spires. — "History of the Reformation," 
J. H. Merle D'Aubigne, D. D., book 13, chap. 6, pars. 13, 14. 

Bible, Chillingworth's Famous Statement Concerning. — The 
Bible, I say, the Bible only, is the religion of Protestants ! ... I for my 
part, after a long and (as I verily believe and hope) impartial search 
of " the true way to eternal happiness," do profess plainly that I cannot 
find any rest for the sole of my foot but upon this rock only. 

I see plainly and with mine own eyes that there are popes against 
popes, councils against councils, some Fathers against others, the same 
Fathers against themselves, a consent of the Fathers of one age against 
a consent of the Fathers of another age. . . . 

There is no sufficient certainty but of Scripture only for any con- 
sidering man to build upon. This, therefore, and this only, I have rea- 
son to believe: this I will profess; according to this I will live, and 
for this, if there be occasion, I will not only willingly, but even gladly, 
lose my life, though I should be sorry that Christians should take it 
from me. Propose me anything out of this Book, and require whether 
I believe it or no, and seem it never so incomprehensible to human 
reason, I will subscribe it with hand and heart, as knowing no demon- 
stration can be stronger than this: God hath said so, therefore it is 
true. — " The Religion of Protestants a Safe Way to Salvation," William 
Chillingivorth, M. A., p. 463. London: Bell and Daldy, 1870. 

Bible, Reform and Revival Synchronize with Its Study. — History 
showed that the periods of reform and revival synchronized with the 
increase of attention to the Word of God. — Sir George Smith, in London 
Times, March 8, 1904; quoted in "All About the Bible," Sidney Collett, 
p. 44. New York: Fleming H. Revell Company, 9th edition. 

Bible, Old Testament Recognized as Authority. — The Old Tes- 
tament is not contrary to the New; for both in the Old and New 
Testament everlasting life is offered to mankind by Christ, who is the 
only Mediator between God and man. — Article VII of the Thirty-nine 
Articles of the Church of England; quoted in " The Creeds of the Evan- 
gelical Protestant Churches," Philip Schaff, p. 491 (American Revision, 
1801). London: Rodder and Stoughton, 1877. 



80 



BIBLE, EULOGIES OF. 



It is a very strange thing that there are not a few who, professing 
to believe in the Scriptures of the New Testament, regard the Old Tes- 
tament with a feeling of perplexity and doubt, not to say of antipathy; 
and the objections which are brought forward by them against the Old 
Testament, I endeavored to show, were rooted in their insufficient under- 
standing of the teaching of the New Testament. — " The Divine Unity of 
Scripture,'" Adolph Saphir, pp. 160, 161. London: Hodder and Stough- 
ton, 1909. 

There is a persistent attempt in some quarters to depreciate the Old 
Testament, with the lamentable result that it is comparatively neglected. 
Yet the New Testament itself unmistakably teaches the organic unity of 
the two Testaments, and in various ways exhibits their mutual relations. 
— "Knowing the Scriptures," Arthur T. Pierson, p. 53. New York: Gos- 
pel Publishing House, 1910. 

Bible, Eulogies of. — 

John Quincy Adams: So great is my veneration for the Bible that 
the earlier my children begin to read it, the more confident will be my 
hope that they will prove useful citizens to their country and respectable 
members of society. — Quoted in "Biblical Authenticity," L. L. Shearer, 
p. 68. Neiv York: Fleming H. Revell Company, 1899 * 

Dr. Adam Clarke: This Bible, or the Scriptures of the Old and New 
Testaments, are the only complete guide to everlasting blessedness: men 
may err, but the Scripture cannot; for it is the word of God himself, 
who can neither mistake, deceive, nor be deceived. 2 Tim. 3: 16, 17. 

Prom this word all doctrines must be derived and proved; and from 
it every man must learn his duty to God, to his neighbor, and to him- 
self. Isa. 8: 20. — " Clavis Biblica" ("The Preacher's Manual"), p. 64. 
New York: Carlton and Lanahan, 1820. 

Samuel Taylor Coleridge: For more than a thousand years the Bible, 
collectively taken, has gone hand in hand with civilization, science, law, 
— in short, with the moral and intellectual cultivation of the species, 
always supporting, and often leading the way. — " Confessions of an In- 
quiring Spirit," Letter VI, p. 100. Boston: James Munroe & Co., 1841 * 

Benjamin Franklin: Young man, my advice to you is that you cul- 
tivate an acquaintance with and firm belief in the Holy Scriptures, for 
this is your certain interest. I think Christ's system of morals and 
religion, as he left them with us, the best the world ever saw or is 
likely to see. — " The Fundamentals," Vol. II, p. 120. Chicago: Testimony 
Publishing Company. 

W. E. Gladstone: Revelation [the Scripture] not only illuminates, 
but binds. Like the credentials of an earthly ambassador, it is just and 
necessary that the credentials of that revelation should be tested. But 
if it be found genuine, if we have proofs of its being genuine equal to 
those of which, in the ordinary concerns of life, reason acknowledges the 
obligatory character, then we find ourselves to be not independent beings 
engaged in an optional inquiry, but the servants of a Master, the pupils 
of a Teacher, the children of a Father. — " The Impregnable Rock of 
Holy Scriptures," pp. 293, 294. London: Wm. Isbister, 1890. 

U. S. Grant: Hold fast to the Bible as the sheet anchor of our liber- 
ties; write its precepts in your hearts, and practice them in your lives. 



BIBLE, EULOGIES OF. 



81 



To the influence of this Book we are indebted for the progress made in 
true civilization, and to this we must look as our guide in the future. 
— Quoted in "Biblical Authenticity L. L. Shearer, p. 68. Neiv York: 
Fleming H. Revell Company, 1899 * 

J. R. Green, English Historian: As a mere literary monument the 
English version of the Bible remains the noblest example of the Eng- 
lish tongue, while its perpetual use made it, from the instant of its ap- 
pearance, the standard of our language. — "Short History of the English 
People," book 7, chap. 1, par. 6. 

St. Gregory: The Bible changes the heart of him who reads, draw- 
ing him from worldly desires, to embrace the things of God. — Mag. 
Moral. 1. 20, c. 1; quoted in "The Catholic Church and the Bible" 
(pamphlet), p. 4. Brooklyn: The International Catholic Truth Society. 

Patrick Henry: There is a Book worth all other books that were 
ever published. — Quoted in "Biblical Authenticity" L. L. Shearer, p. 68. 
New York: Fleming H. Revell Company, 1899 * 

Sir John Herschel: All human discoveries seem to be made only for 
the purpose of confirming more and more strongly the truths contained 
in the sacred Scriptures. — Quoted in "Bible Criticism and the Aver- 
age Man" Howard Agneiv Johnston, p. 26. New York: Fleming H. 
Revell Company, 1902. 

Thomas Jefferson: I have said and always will say that the studious 
perusal of the Sacred Volume will make better citizens, better fathers, 
and better husbands. — Quoted in "The Fundamentals," Vol. II, p. 120. 
Chicago: Testimony Publishing Company. 

Dr. Howard A. Kelley : I believe the Bible to be God's Word, be- 
cause, as I use it day by day as spiritual food, I discover in my own 
life, as well as in the lives of those who likewise use it, a transforma- 
tion correcting evil tendencies, purifying affections, giving pure desires, 
and teaching that concerning the righteousness of God which those who 
do not so use it can know nothing of. It is as really food for the spirit 
as bread is for the body. 

Perhaps one of my strongest reasons for believing the Bible is that 
it reveals to me, as no other book in the world could do, that which 
appeals to me as a physician, a diagnosis of my spiritual condition. It 
shows me clearly what I am by nature — one lost in sin and alienated 
from the life that is in God. I find in it a consistent and wonderful 
revelation, from Genesis to Revelation, of the character of God, a God 
far removed from any of my natural imaginings. 

It also reveals a tenderness and nearness of God in Christ which 
satisfies the heart's longings, and shows me that the infinite God, Cre- 
ator of the world, took our very nature upon him that he might in 
infinite love be one with his people to redeem them. I believe in it 
because it reveals a religion adapted to all classes and races, and it is 
intellectual suicide knowing it not to believe it. — Id., Vol. I, p. 125. 

Abraham Lincoln: In regard to the Great Book, I have only this to 
say: It is the best gift which God has given to man. All the good from 
the Saviour of the world is communicated through this Book. But for 
this Book we could not know right from wrong. All those things de- 
sirable to man are contained in it. — Quoted in " Biblical Authenticity," 
L. L. Shearer, p. 71. Neiv York: Fleming H. Revell Company, 1899 * 
6 



82 



BIBLE, STUDY OF. 



Dr. C. B. McAfee: From the literary point of view the Bible stands 
as an English classic, indeed, as the outstanding English classic. To ac- 
knowledge ignorance of it is to confess oneself ignorant of our greatest 
literary possession. — " The Greatest English Classic," pp. 93, 94. New 
York: Harper & Brothers, 1912. 

Sir Isaac Newton: I account the Scriptures of God to be the most 
sublime philosophy. — Quoted in " Biblical Authenticity," L. L. Shearer, 
p. 67. New York: Fleming H. Revell Company, 1899 * 

Daniel Webster: If we abide by the principles taught in the Bible, 
our country will go on prospering and to prosper; but if we and our 
posterity neglect its instructions and authority, no man can tell how 
sudden a catastrophe may overwhelm us and bury all our glory in pro- 
found obscurity. — Quoted in " The Fundamentals" Vol II, p. 120. Chi- 
cago: Testimony Publishing Company. 

If there be aught of eloquence in me, it is because I learned the 
Scripture at my mother's knee. — Quoted in " The Fascination of the 
Book," Rev. E. W. Work, p. 150. New York: Fleming H. Revell Com- 
pany, 1906. 

Woodrow Wilson: I have a very simple thing to ask of you. I ask 
of every man and woman in this audience that from this night on they 
will realize that part of the destiny of America lies in their daily pe- 
rusal of this great book of revelations — that if they would see America 
free and pure, they will make their own spirits free and pure by this 
baptism of the Holy Scripture. — Extract from address of Hon. Wood- 
row Wilson, Governor of New Jersey, in the Auditorium at Denver, Colo., 
on the occasion of the Tercentenary Celebration of the Translation of the 
Bible into the English Language, May 7, 1911; quoted in the Congres- 
sional Record, Aug. 13, 1912. 

Bible, Methods of Studying. — No investigation of Scripture, in its 
various parts and separate texts, however important, must impair the 
sense of the supreme value of its united witness. There is not a form 
of evil doctrine or practice that may not claim apparent sanction and 
support from isolated passages; but nothing erroneous or vicious can 
even find countenance from the Word of God when the whole united 
testimony of Scripture is weighed against it. Partial examination will 
result in partial views of truth which are necessarily imperfect; only 
careful comparison will show the complete mind of God. — "Knowing 
the Scriptures," Arthur T. Pierson, p. 214. New York: Gospel Publish- 
ing House, 1910. 

Bible, Not to Be Studied as Other Books. — So there never was or 
will be another book that combines the human and divine elements as 
this Book does. When therefore we are told that it must be studied 
just as other books are, that is exactly what we may deny. It must be 
studied as no other book is, because it constitutes a class by itself, and 
can be classed with no others. — " The Bible and Spiritual Criticism," 
Arthur T. Pierson, p. 14. New Yo?"k: The Baker and Taylor Co., 1905* 

Bible, Correct Attitude Toward. — Look not into the Bible for 
what God never put in it — look not there for mathematics or mechan- 
ics, for metaphysical distinctions or the abstruse sciences; but look 
there simply for the way of spiritual life and salvation, and you will 
find enough, an abundance for all your spiritual needs. — " Origin and 
History of the Books of the Bible," Prof. C. E. Stowe, D. D., pp. 32, S3. 
Hartford Publishing Company, 1867. 



BIBLE, ATTITUDE TOWARD. 



83 



Bible, Not an Arsenal, but a Temple. — I use the Scripture, not as 
an arsenal to be resorted to only for arms and weapons to defend this 
party or defeat its enemies, but as a matchless temple, where I delight 
to be, to contemplate the beauty, the symmetry, and the magnificence of 
the structure, and to increase my awe and excite my devotion to the 
Deity there preached and adored. — " The Works of the Hon. Robert 
Boyle" (6 vol. edition, Vol. II, p. 21/7), art. " Some Considerations Touch- 
ing the Style of the Holy Scriptures," 3d Obj., 8. London: Johnson & 
Others, 1772. 

Bible, Consoles in Trouble. — Weary human nature lays its head 
on the bosom of the Divine Word, or it has nowhere to lay its head. 
Tremblers on the verge of the dark and terrible valley, which parts the 
land of the living from tne untried hereafter, take this hand of human 
tenderness, yet of godlike strength, or they totter into the gloom with- 
out prop or stay. They who look their last upon the beloved dead, 
listen to this voice of soothing and peace, or else death is ... an infi- 
nite tragedy, maddening and sickening, a blackness of darkness forever. 
— Quoted in " Origin and History of the Books of the Bible," Prof. C. E. 
Stowe, D. D., p. 35. Hartford Publishing Company, 1867. 

Bible, Safety Where It Is Found. — Years ago, a young infidel was 
traveling in the West with his uncle, a banker, and they were not a 
little anxious for their safety when they were forced to stop for a night 
in a rough wayside cabin. There were two rooms in the house; and 
when they retired for the night, they agreed that the young man should 
sit with his pistols and watch until midnight, and then awaken his 
uncle, who should watch until morning. Presently they peeped through 
the crack, and saw their host, a rough-looking old man, in his bearskin 
suit, reach up and take down a book — a Bible; and after reading it 
awhile, he knelt ana began to pray; and then the young infidel began 
to pull off his coat and get ready for bed. The uncle said, " I thought 
you were going to sit up and watch." But the young man knew there 
was no need of sitting up, pistol in hand, to watch all night long in a 
cabin that was hallowed by the Word of God and consecrated by the 
voice of prayer. Would a pack of cards, a rum bottle, or a copy of the 
" Age of Reason," have thus quieted this young infidel's fears? — " Will 
the Old Book Stand? " H. L. Hastings, vp. 8-10. Boston: H. L. Hastings 
d Sons, 1916. 

Bible, the Reading of It Makes for Liberty. — Up to the time of 
the translation of the Bible into English, it was a book for long ages 
withheld from the perusal of the peoples of other languages and of other 
tongues, and not a little of the history of liberty lies in the circum- 
stance that the moving sentences of this book were made familiar to 
the ears and the understanding of those peoples who have led mankind 
in exhibiting the forms of government and ine impulses of reform 
which have made for freedom and for self-government among mankind. 

For this is a book which reveals men unto themselves, not as crea- 
tures in bondage, not as men under human authority, not as those 
bidden to take counsel and command of any human source. It reveals 
every man to himself as a distinct moral agent, responsible not to men, 
not even to those men whom he has put over him in authority, but 
responsible through his own conscience to his Lord and Maker. When- 
ever a man sees this vision, he stands up a free man, whatever may be 
the government under which he lives, if he sees beyond the circum- 
stances of his own life. — Extract from address of Hon. Woodrow Wilson, 
on the occasion of the Tercentenary Celebration of the Translation of 
the Bible into the English Language, Denver, Colo., May 7, 1911; quoted 
in the Congressional Record, Aug. 13, 1912. 



8 4 



BIBLE, INTERPRETATION OF. 



Bible Interpretation, Literal Meaning of. — Theologians are right 
. . . when they affirm the literal sense, or that which is derived from 
the knowledge of words, to be the only true one; for that mystical sense, 
which indeed is incorrectly called a sense, belongs altogether to the 
thing and not to the words. ... In fact, there is but one and the same 
method of interpretation common to all books, whatever be their subject. 
And the same grammatical principles and precepts ought to be the com- 
mon guide in the interpretation of all. — "Biblical Repertory," Charles 
Hodge, editor, Vol. Ill, pp. 128, 136, article by Prof. J. A. Ernesti. New 
York: G. & C. Garvill, 1827* 

Let the Christian reader's first object always be to find out the lit- 
eral meaning of the Word of God; for this, and this alone, is the whole 
foundation of faith and of Christian theology. It is the very substance 
of Christianity. . . . Allegories are often of a doubtful nature, depend- 
ing on human conjecture and opinion; for which reason Jerome and 
Origen, and other Fathers of the same stamp, nay, I may add, all the 
old Alexandrian school, should be read with the greatest caution. An 
excessive esteem for these has gradually introduced a most mischievous 
taste among later writers; who have gone such lengths as to support 
the most extravagant absurdities by Scriptural expressions. — From 
Luther's Exposition of Deuteronomy; given in " The 'History of the 
Church of Christ,'" Rev. Joseph Milner, A. M., (5 vols.) Vol. V, p. 263. 
Boston: Samuel T. Armstrong and Crocker d Brewster, 1822. 

The words and sentences of the Bible are to be translated, inter- 
preted, and understood according to the same code of laws and prin- 
ciples of interpretation by which other ancient writings are translated 
and understood; for when God spoke to man in his own language, he 
spoke as one person converses with another, in the fair, stipulated, and 
well-established meaning of the terms. This is essential to its character 
as a revelation from God; otherwise it would be no revelation, but 
would always require a class of inspired men to unfold and reveal its 
true sense to mankind. — " The Christian System," A. Campbell, pp. 15, 
16. Pittsburgh: Forrester and Campbell, 1839 * 

Metaphors and parables prove nothing; they only illustrate, and are 
never allowed to be produced in support of any doctrine. This is a 
maxim in theology to which all polemic divines are obliged to bow. — 

" A Letter to a Preacher " (" The Preacher's Manual "), Adam Clarke, 
p. 90. New York: Carlton and Lanahan, 1820. 

Bible, To be Understood by All. — VII. All things in Scripture are 
not alike plain in themselves, nor alike clear unto all; yet those things 
ivhich are necessary to be known, believed, and observed for salvation, 
are so clearly propounded and opened in some place of Scripture or 
other, that not only the learned, but the unlearned, in a due use of the 
ordinary means, may attain unto a sufficient understanding of them. — 
Westminster Confession of Faith, 1647, chap. 1, "Of Holy Scripture ;" 
cited in " The Creeds of the Evangelical Protestant Churches" Philip 
S chaff, p. 604. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1877. 

IX. The infallible rule of interpretation of Scripture is the Scrip- 
ture itself; and therefore, when there is a question about the true and 
full sense of any Scripture (which is not manifold, but one), it must 
be searched and known by other places that speak more clearly. — Id., 

p. 605. 



BIBLE, HARMONY OF. 



85 



Bible, Its Own Interpreter. — To know in what specific sense words 
and terms are employed by any writer, is to have, so far, keys to unlock 
his meaning. It pleases the author of Holy Scripture to provide, in the 
Bible itself, the helps to its understanding and interpretation. If all 
doors to its secret chambers are not left open, the keys are to be found; 
and part of the object of leaving some things obscure, instead of obvious, 
is to incite and invite investigation, to prompt us to patient and 
prayerful search. Its obscurities awaken curiosity and inquiry, and 
study is rewarded by finding the clew to what was before a maze of 
perplexity. — " Knowing the Scriptures" Arthur T. Pierson, p. 106. Neiv 
York: Gospel Publishing House, 1910. 

Bible, Roman Catholic Church Claims Sole Right to Interpret. 
— No one, relying on his own skill, shall, in matters of faith, and of 
morals pertaining to the edification of Christian doctrine, wresting the 
sacred Scripture to his own senses, presume to interpret the said sacred 
Scripture contrary to that sense which holy Mother Church, to whom 
it belongs to judge of the true sense and interpretation of the Holy 
Scriptures, hath held and doth hold; or even contrary to the unani- 
mous consent of the Fathers. — "Dogmatic Canons and Decrees," p. 11; 
The Council of Trent, Session IV, April 8, 1546, in the " Decree Concern- 
ing the Edition and the Use* of the Sacred Books." New York: The 
Devin-Adair Company, 1912. 

If any one has the interpretation of the Church of Rome concerning 
any text of Scripture, although he does not understand how the inter- 
pretation suits the text, yet he possesses the identical word of God. — 
Cardinal Hosius, " De Expresso Yerbo Dei" p. 623, edition 1584; quoted 
in "The Novelties of Romanism," C. H. Collette, p. 22. London: Wm. 
Penny, 1869. 

Bible, Best Understood Now. — The apostle Paul declares in his 
epistle to the Romans that all these things happened for our example, 
and were written for our admonition, upon whom the ends of the world 
have come. Seeing, therefore, that we have the fulness of the gospel 
light, and that there have been manifested to us these histories, it is 
for us to enter into the consideration of Moses and the prophets, in the 
full assurance and expectation that the Holy Ghost has there treasured 
up for us all that is profitable and needful for our instruction and guid- 
ance, in connection with that fuller development of history and teaching 
which we now possess. — " The Divine Unity of Scripture," Adolph Sa- 
phir, p. 200. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1904. 

Bible, Era of Composition. — About the close of the first two thou- 
sand years, God called Abram out from the idolatrous surroundings of 
his native home (Gen. 12: 1; Joshua 24: 2, 15), changed his name to 
Abraham (Gen. 17: 5; Neh. 9: 7),' and constituted him the head of a 
people (Gen. 12: 2; 15: 5), known as the Hebrews or Jews, whom he 
was pleased to call his own peculiar possession (Deut. 14: 2), and whom 
he specially fitted and prepared during many generations, that they 
might in due time become the depositaries of a revelation committed to 
writing (Rom. 3:2), which would at once be more permanent in its 
nature and less liable to be either forgotten or corrupted. . . . • 

Accordingly, about five hundred years after the call of Abram — 
i. e., about 1500 b. c. — the time came to have this written revelation 
accomplished, which was to embody a history of the preceding 2,500 



86 



BIBLE, LANGUAGE OF. 



years, including an account of the creation, together with God's laws, 
precepts, promises, prophecies, etc. — "All About the Bible,'" Sidney Col- 
lett, p. 6. New York: Fleming H. Revell Company, 9th edition. 

Bible, Dates of the Composition of the Books of the New Tes- 
tament. — The precise time when the several books of the New Testa- 
ment were written, cannot in every case be determined certainly, but 
the following table will show the facts with a very close approximation 
to the true state of the case: 





Yrs. after 








Jti.. JJ. 


IVTa ttlipw 


(3 


39 


Mark 


. , . 10 


43 


1 Peter 


... 19 


52 


1 Thessalonians . 


...19 


52 


2 Thessalonians . 


...19 


52 


Luke 


23 


56 


Galatians 


23 


56 


1 Corinthians . . . 


24 


57 


2 Corinthians . . . 


24 


57 


Romans 


24 


57 


Philippians 


29 


62 


Philemon 


, , 29 


62 


Colossians 


, 29 


62 


Bphesians 


. 29 


62 





Yrs. after 






Christ 


A. JJ. 




29 


62 




30 


63 


1 Timothy 


30 


63 


2 Timothy 


30 


63 


Titus 


, 30 


63 


2 Peter 


30 


63 


James 


. ... 33 


66 


Jude 


33 


66 


Revelation . , . 


61 


94 


John 


.63 


96 


1 John 


65 


98 


2 John 


65 


98 


3 John . . 


. .... 65 


98 



— " The Revised New Testament and History of Revision," Isaac H. 
Hall, pp. 17, 18. San Francisco: J. Dewing & Co.* 

Bible, Original Languages of. — Tne Old Testament — at least, al- 
most the whole of it — was written in Hebrew. The f ollowing three 
small sections, however, were written in Chaldean, viz., Jer. 10: 11; Dan. 
2: 4 to 7: 28; and Ezra 4: 8 to 6: 18. — "All About the Bible," Sidney 
Collett, p. 22. New York: Fleming H. Revell Company, 9th edition. 

Bible, How the Hebrew Language was Written. — The Hebrew 
language was originally written, not only entirely in consonants, without 
any vowels at all (thus Jehovah was simply written JHVH), but there 
was no spacing to divide one word from another, as if we should write 
the Lord's prayer thus: 

RFTHRWHCHRTNHVNHLLWDBTHNM, etc.i 

It was not until after the return of the Jews from the Babylonish 
captivity that words were divided from one another, and the Hebrew 
Old Testament generally was arranged into verses and paragraphs. . . . 
The vowel points were introduced very much later — about a. d. 500 or 
600.— Id., p. 16. 

Bible, Quotations from the Old Testament in the New. — A con- 
siderable difference of opinion exists among som^ learned men, whether 
evangelists and other writers of the New Testament quoted the Old 
Testament from the Hebrew, or from the venerable Greek version, usu- 
ally called the Septuagint. Others, however, are of opinion that they 
did not confine themselves exclusively to either; and this appears most 
probable. The only way by which to determine this important question, 
is to compare and arrange the texts actually quoted. — " Introduction to 



1 Aside from the omission of the vowels, the same might be said of the New 

Testament as originally written. — Eds. 



BIBLE, LANGUAGE OF. 



87 



the Critical Study and Knowledge of the Holy Scriptures," Thomas 
Hartwell Home, Vol. I, p. 293. New York: Robert Garter & Brothers, 
1854. 

Westcott and Hort, in their edition of the Greek New Testament, 
have done a great service by indicating in capitals the quotations of 
sentences and phracec from the Old Testament in the New. They have 
traced more than fifteen hundred such in the twenty-seven New Testa- 
ment books. It is both a curious and significant fact that frequently 
these citations are in the very center of some paragraph and are a sort 
of turning point of the whole argument or mark the heart of the treat- 
ment, as in Paul's great portrait of charity, in 1 Corinthians 13, where 
the phrase, " Thinketh no evil," from Zech. 8 : 17, marks the central 
feature in the portrait. — "Knowing the Scriptures,'' Arthur T. Pierson, 
pp. 54, 55. New York: Gospel Publishing House, 1910. 

Bible, Fkee Oriental Style of Language. — The Rev. James Neil, 
an experienced Eastern resident, in his " Strange Scenes," says, in rela- 
tion to what are sometimes looked upon as coarse or immodest state- 
ments : 

" No Eastern could possibly see any objection on this score. They 
still, as in ancient times, use the greatest plainness of speech through- 
out Syria. As soon as one acquires a knowledge of common Arabic the 
ear is assailed by a plain speaking on the most delicate subjects which 
is extremely embarrassing, until such time as one learns to become 
accustomed to it. Things that are never mentioned among us, are 
spoken of publicly in tne East, even by ladies of the highest class, and 
of the greatest respectability, refinement, and purity. 

" This explains at once the naturalness and innocency of the use of 
expressions and the mention of matters in the Bible which our trans- 
lators have softened down in some instances, and public readers have 
tacitly, and as I believe wrongly, agreed to omit in others. The purest- 
minded Eastern woman would smile at an objection to the Bible on this 
score! " — "All About the Bible," Sidney Collett, pp. 146, 147. New York: 
Fleming H. Revell Company. 

Bible, No Vital Doctrine Rests on Disputed Readings. — No fun- 
damental doctrine of the Christian faith rests on a disputed reading. 
Constant references to mistakes and divergencies of reading, such as 
the plan of this book necessitates, might give rise to the doubt whether 
the substance, as well as the language, of the Bible is not open to ques- 
tion. It cannot be too strongly asserted that in substance the text of 
the Bible is certain. — " Our Bible and the Ancient Manuscripts" Fred- 
eric G. Kenyon, M. A., Litt. D., p. 10. London: Eyre and Spottisiooode, 
1903. 

The Bible is a book which has been refuted, demolished, overthrown, 
and exploded more times than any other book you ever heard of. . . . 
They overthrew the Bible a century ago, in Voltaire's time — entirely 
demolished the whole thing. In less than a hundred years, said Vol- 
taire, Christianity will have been swept from existence, and will have 
passed into history. . . . But the Word of God " liveth and abideth for- 
ever." — " Will the Old Book Stand? " H. L. Hastings, p. 5. Boston: H. L. 
Hastings & Sons, 1916. 

Bible, Unity of. — The Bible is characterized by the unity of its 
theme. It unfolds a series of acts, all contributing to one design or end. 
This is the more remarkable on account of the variety in its authorship. 



88 



BIBLE, MANUSCRIPTS OF. 



Had the Bible been written in one age, or by one person, its unity might 
not so much surprise us. But the Bible is a collection of books which 
were written by different persons, in different languages, in different 
lands, and at different times. Seventeen centuries were employed in its 
composition. The subjects it embraces are so numerous as to give it a 
cyclopedic character. Yet from first to last that marvelous collection of 
books is occupied with one subject, animated by one Spirit, directed to 
one object or end. — " Creation Centred in Christ,'" H. Grattan Guin- 
ness, D. D., p. 84. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1896. 

On the whole, the unity of Scripture has been universally recog- 
nized. Moreover, this unity is obviously not designed and artificial; it 
is not even conscious; the writers of the several parts had no intention 
to contribute nor any idea that they were contributing to one whole. 
. . . And yet when these various writings are drawn together, their unity 
becomes apparent. — " The Bible: Its Origin and 'Nature,'" Marcus Bods, 
D. D., p. 18. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1905. 

Here is a book coming from all quarters, written by men of all 
classes, scattered through a period of fifteen hundred years; and yet this 
book is fitted together as a wondrous and harmonious whole. How was 
it done? " Holy men of God spake as they were moved by the Holy 
Ghost." One mind inspired the whole book, one voice speaks in it all, 
and it is the voice of God speaking with resurrection power. — " Will the 
Old Book Stand?" H. L. Hastings, p. 20. Boston: H. L. Hastings & 
Sons, 1916. 

Bible, Multitude of Manuscripts. — There are in existence today 
many thousands of Hebrew and Greek manuscripts, which have been 
copied from earlier manuscripts by Jewish scribes, etc., from time to 
time. These are the documents generally referred to when the " orig- 
inals " are now spoken of. . . . 

For the sake of simplicity, however, these existing manuscripts may 
be divided thus: 

1. Hebrew manuscripts of the Old Testament; the earliest of these 
date back to the eighth century of the Christian era. 

2. Greek manuscripts of the New Testament; the earliest of these 
date back to the fourth century. 

3. Greek manuscripts of the Old Testament (known as the Septua- 
gint), translated from the Hebrew about 277 b. c; these also date back 
to the fourth century. 

4. Early translations of the Scriptures, or parts thereof, in Syriac, 
Latin, German, and other languages, of various dates. — "All About the 
Bible," Sidney Collett, p. 1£. New York: Fleming H. Revell Company. 

Bible, Oldest Greek Manuscripts. — N' : Codex Sinaiticus, found by 
Tischendorf (1844 and 1859) in the Convent of St. Catherine at the foot 
of Mt. Sinai, now preserved in St. Petersburg. Forty-three leaves of the 
Old Testament portion of the manuscript, known as the Codex Friderico- 
Augustanus, are in the library of Leipsic University. Besides twenty- 
six books of the Old Testament, of which five form the Codex Friderico- 
Augustanus, the manuscript contains the entire New Testament without 
the least break, the Epistle of Barnabas, and the first third of the Shep- 
herd of Hermas — The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious 
Knowledge, Vol. Ill, art. "Bible Text," p. 103. 

A: Codex Alexandrinus, now in the British Museum, presented in 
1628 by Cyril Lucar, patriarch of Constantinople, to Charles I. The 



BIBLE, VERSIONS OF. 



89 



New Testament begins with Matt. 25: 6, and contains the whole except 
John 6: 50-8: 52, and 2 Cor. 4: 13-12: 6, with the First Epistle of Clem- 
ent and part of the Second — lb id. 

B x : Codex Vaticanus, No. 1209, in the Vatican Library. The manu- 
script contains, besides the Old Testament, the entire New Testament, 
with the exception of Heb. 9: 14 to end and 2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon, 
and Revelation. — Ibid. 

B 2 : Codex Vaticanus 2066 (eighth century), formerly Basilian Co- 
dex 105, contains Revelation. — Ibid. 

C: Codex Ephraemi (fifth century), now No. 9 in the National Li- 
brary at Paris; its text was altered in the sixth century and again in 
the ninth. In the twelfth century the original writing was washed 
off to make room for the Greek text of several ascetic works of Eph- 
raem Syrus (d. 373). Pierre Allix, at about the close of the seven- 
teenth century, noticed the traces of the old writing under the later 
characters. Wetstein in 1716 collated the New Testament part so far as 
it was legible. In 1834 and 1835 the librarian Carl Hase revived the 
original writing by the application of the Giobertine tincture (prussiate 
of potash). Tischendorf, after great labor, brought out in 1843 an edi- 
tion of the New Testament part of the manuscript, and in 1845, of the 
Old Testament fragments, representing the manuscript line for line, in 
facsimile. The codex contains portions of the Old Testament on sixty- 
four leaves, and five eighths of the New Testament. — Idem, pp. 103, 
104. 

Bible, Ancient Versions. — The principal ancient versions which 
illustrate the Scriptures are the Chaldee Paraphrases, generally called 
Targums, the Septuagint, or Alexandrian Greek version, and the Vul- 
gate, or Latin version. — " Notes, Critical and Practical, on the Book of 
Genesis," George Bush, Vol. I, p. ix of Introduction. New York: Mark 
H. Newman, 1843. 

Targums: The Chaldee word 2*1310 (targum) signifies in general any 
version or explanation; but the appellation is more particularly re- 
stricted to the versions or paraphrases of the Old Testament, executed 
in the East Aramean or Chaldee dialect, as it is usually called. . . . 
There are at present extant ten of these Chaldee paraphrases on differ- 
ent parts of the Old Testament, three of which, and those by far the 
most important, comprise the Pentateuch, viz. (1) The Targum of Onke- 
los; (2) That falsely ascribed to Jonathan, and usually cited as the 
Targum of the Pseudo-Johanthan; (3) The Jerusalem Targum. — Id., 
pp. ix, x. 

Septuagint: The early Greek version was probably termed "the 
Septuagint" because it was looked upon with favor, and possibly offi- 
cially recognized, by the Jewish Sanhedrin at Jerusalem, which was 
composed of seventy persons. In later times, when the Jews of Pales- 
tine and Egypt became estranged from one another, and when the Greek 
version had become interwoven with the religious life of the Egyptian 
Jews, an attempt was made to claim divine sanction for the Greek trans- 
lation. The name " Septuagint " was then expounded as containing a 
reference to the number of the supposed translators, who, according to 
the legend, were divinely assisted in their task. Those translators are 
said each to have produced a translation identical in phraseology, al- 
though they had been carefully secluded and shut off from intercourse 



90 



BIBLE, VERSIONS OF. 



with one another during the performance of the work. — " Daniel and 
His Prophecies" Charles H. H. Wright, pp. 59, 60. London: Williams 
and Norgate, 1906. 

The autograph or original copy of the Septuagint Version, was, most 
probably, consumed in the fire which destroyed the Alexandrian Library, 
in the time of Julius Caesar, about fifty years before the Christian era; 
but the translation was preserved by the numerous transcripts taken for 
the use of the different synagogues in Egypt, Greece, and Italy, and 
which were sure to be copied with the utmost accuracy and care — 
" Illustrations of Biblical Literature," Rev. James Townley, D. D., Vol. 
I, p. 64. New York: Lane and Scott, 1852. 

Samaritan: The version of the Old Testament which possesses the 
longest pedigree is that which owes its existence to the Samaritans. 
Strictly speaking, it is not a version at all, as it is in the Hebrew tongue, 
though written [probably in the second century b. c] in a different 
character from that of the extant Hebrew MSS. — " Our Bible and the 
Ancient Manuscripts " Frederic G. Kenyon, M. A., Litt. D., p. 44. Lon- 
don: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1903. 

Peshitto, or Syriac: This is the great standard version of the an- 
cient Syriac Church, made not later than the third century (those schol- 
ars who hold it older than the Curetonian would say the second), and 
certainly current and in general use from the fourth century onwards. 
The name means "simple" or "common," but the origin of it is un- 
known. — Id., p. 157. 

Palestinian Syriac: There is yet another version of the New Testa- 
ment in Syriac, known to us only in fragments, in a different dialect of 
Syriac from all the other versions. It is believed to have been made in 
the fifth or sixth century, and to have been used exclusively in Pales- 
tine. — Id., p. 159. 

Coptic: [Dating probably from the middle of the third century.] 
The two most important of the Coptic versions are (a) the Memphitic 
or Bohairic Version, current in Lower or Northern Egypt; and (b) the 
Thebaic or Sahidic Version, current in Upper or Southern Egypt [prob- 
ably neither earlier than the fourth century]. Of these the Bohairic 
alone is complete, having been ultimately adopted as the standard Bible 
for all Egypt— Id., p. 76. 

Old Latin or Italic: The importance of the Old Latin Version, as 
it is called, to distinguish it from the later version of St. Jerome, is 
much greater in the New Testament than in the Old. In the former, it 
is the earliest translation of the original Greek which we possess, and is 
an important evidence for the state of the text in the second century. 
In the latter it is only a version of a version, being made from the 
Septuagint, not from the original Hebrew. — Id.+ pp. 77, 78. 

Vulgate Versions: The Latin Vulgate [was] made by St. Jerome 
from the older Latin, Hebrew, and Greek versions about the year 400. 
This version of St. Jerome, called the Vulgate, was declared by the 
Council of Trent [1563] to be authentic. It was revised by Pope Sixtus 
V (1585) and by Pope Clement VIII (1593) .— " Catholic Belief," Joseph 
Fad Di Bruno, p. 16. New York: Benziger Brothers, 1884. 

English Versions: About the year 1320, John Wycliffe, the great Re- 
former, was born. He was the first to translate the whole Bible into 



BIBLE, VERSIONS OF. 



91 



the English language; this translation, which occupied about twenty-two 
years, was made from the Latin Vulgate; the Hebrew and Greek origi- 
nals being then practically unknown. — "All About the Bible" Sidney 
Collett, p. 32. New York: Fleming H. Revell Company. 

In 1525, William Tyndale, one of the great Protestant Reformers, 
and a contemporary of Luther, made another English translation from 
Erasmus's Greek, . . . and was the first to publish an English New 
Testament in print. This was done under great difficulties, partly at 
Cologne and partly at Worms, in exile, poverty, and distress; as he 
found it impossible to carry out this work in England, owing to Romish 
opposition. — Id., pp. 33, 34. 

In 1535 the whole Bible, Old Testament and New, was for the first 
time printed in English by Miles Coverdale, who made his translation 
from the German and Latin. This contained also the apocryphal books. 
— Id., p. 35. 

The first English Bible printed in England was the translation of 
John Hollybushe, which was issued in 1538 by John Nicholson, in South- 
ward The great Cranmer Bible was printed between 1539 and 1541, the 
funds for its publication being supplied by Cranmer and Cromwell. — 

" The Censorship of the Church of Rome," George Haven Putnam, Litt. 
D., Vol. II, p. 31. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1906. 

The English New Testament was translated by the English College 
at Rheims, France, in 1582; and the Old Testament by the English Col- 
lege, Douay, France, in 1609. Both, as revised in the last century by 
Bishop Challoner and others, have been republished, with notes, from 
time to time, with the approbation of the Catholic bishops. This version 
is commonly called the Douay Bible. — " Catholic Belief," Joseph Fad Di 
Bruno, p. 16. New York: Benziger Brothers, 1884. 

Hebrew New Testament: In 1876 Professor Delitzsch completed his 
translation of the New Testament into Hebrew. It has been his dream 
to produce such a text as the apostles themselves might have penned, 
had tney written in the " language of Canaan." — "A History of the Brit- 
ish and Foreign Bible Society," William Canton, Vol. Ill, pp. 151, 152. 
London : John Murray, 1910* 

Bible, Modern Vernacular Translations. — One of the most impor- 
tant phases of the work of the American Bible Society is the work of 
translating and revising the Scriptures, either in co-operation with other 
Bible societies and missionary organizations, or acting independently 
when necessary. This task is fundamental and of the utmost impor- 
tance. It is estimated that the Scriptures are circulated today in over 
500 languages. The Bible or some portion of it has, therefore, been 
translated into all of the great languages of the world: and it is esti- 
mated that " seven out of every ten of the human population have had 
provided for them the gospel story in their own tongue," but it is prob- 
able that there are still 1,000 minor languages or dialects spoken by a 
limited number of people into which no portion of the Bible has yet 
been translated. In British India, according to the census of 1911, 
147 languages are spoken, and in Africa it is said there are about 850 
languages or dialects in use. Into some of the minor languages it will 
not be necessary to translate the Scriptures, as many tribal, unwritten 
dialects will gradually disappear or be combined with others. When 



!J2 



BIBLE — EASTERN SACRED BOOKS. 



these facts are borne in mind, one realizes how great a task still con- 
fronts the Bible societies of the world. — " Story of the American Bible 
Society," pp. 10-12. Published in 1914. 

Bible, Compared with Saceed Books of the East. — These sacred 
books are, roughly speaking, five in number, i. e., they are the only ones 
worth taking into consideration. All others are extremely insignificant 
and unimportant. 

I. The Veda of the Brahmans or Hindus. 

II. The Zend-Avesta of the Parsees or Zoroastrians. 

III. The King, or Confucian Texts, of the Chinese. 

IV. The Tripitaka, or three collections, of Buddhist writings. 

V. The Koran, the code of Islam, or Mohammedanism. 
Translations of these were published some few years ago by the 

University of Oxford in forty stately volumes, but these are, of course, 
not within reach of the multitude. — "All About the Bible," Sidney Col- 
lett, pp. 289, 290. New York: Fleming H. Revell Company, 9th edition. 

Veda is a Sanscrit word meaning " knowledge," or " sacred science." 
The writings consist of four collections of hymns, detached verses, 
and sacrificial formulae; viz., (1) the Rigveda, or Veda, of praises or 
hymns, of which there are 1,028; (2) the Samaveda, or Veda of chants 
or tunes; (3) the Yajurveda, or Veda of prayers, of which there are 
only a few preserved; and (4) the Atharvaveda, or Veda of the Athar- 
vians, consisting of about twenty books of hymns to certain divine pow- 
ers, and incantations against evil powers. — Id., p. 290. 

Avesta means " text " or " lore," and represents the original writ- 
ings; Zend means "commentary," and represents the comments which 
have grown around the original writings, just as the Brahmana com- 
mentaries grew around the original Sanhita of the Veda. 

Zoroaster, the celebrated sage of ancient Persia, was the supposed 
founder or reformer of the religion embodied in the Zend-Avesta. He 
flourished, according to the Parsees (who are about the only representa- 
tives of»ancient Persia) about 500 b. c. He probably, however, lived — 
if, indeed, he lived at all — many centuries earlier. For " not only has 
his date been much debated; but the very fact of his historical exist- 
ence has been denied." However, some of the oldest writings of the 
Zenda-Avesta are said to date some 700 or 800 b. c. — Id., pp. 294, 295. 

In addition to the actual writings of Confucius there are what are 
called the Confucian Analects, or Extracts, compiled soon after his 
death from the reminiscences of his disciples. 

Confucianism inculcates the worship of no God, and can scarcely, 
therefore, be called a religion. . . . There is no confession of sin; no 
seeking of forgiveness; no communion with God. . . . One of his tenets, 
not often referred to — viz., that it was right to tell lies on certain 
occasions — has left its terrible mark on the four hundred millions of 
China.— Id., pp. 297, 298. 

Buddha is said to have lived about 500 or 600 b. c, was a prince 
of one of the ruling military tribes of India, but was of Persian origin. 
His personal name was Gautama, the title " Buddha " being a Sanscrit 
word, meaning the " Enlightened One." He early discovered that all 
that life could offer was vanity and vexation of spirit; that ignorance 
was the cause of all suffering and misery, as it was the ultimate cause 
of existence itself. 



BIBLE, TEACHING OF. 



93 



He therefore separated himself from his family and friends, and 
gave himself up to years of lonely contemplation. At length, while 
sitting under a tree near Gaya Town in Bengal, he professed to attain 
perfect wisdom by the extinction of all desires and passions of every 
kind, whether good or bad. . . . First, extinction of all desires and pas- 
sions; and secondly, extinction of individual existence — complete anni- 
hilation. This is the highest state it is possible for a Buddhist to 
reach. . . . 

He himself wrote nothing. In course of time, however, his teaching 
. . . was, however, ultimately committed to writing by his disciples, and 
approved by various councils long after his death. These writings are 
called the " Tripitaka " — triple basket, or three collections. — Id., pp. 
298, 299. 

Muhammad (the Praised One), commonly called Mohammed, the 
celebrated false prophet of Arabia, was born at Mecca a. d. 570. He 
claimed to teach his followers the doctrines of Islam, i. e., resignation 
or entire submission to the will of God, as a successor to Abraham, 
Moses, and Christ, of whom he claimed to be the greatest. . . . 

At the age of forty he had his first " divine " communication. In 
this, and later visions at Mecca and Medina, extending over a period of 
twenty-three years, he received those " revelations " which are contained 
in the Koran, the sacred book of the Mohammedans, who believe that 
it has been in existence, like God, from all eternity. — Id., pp. 306, 307. 

Bible, Teaching of, Compaeed with Othee Saceed Books. — The 
one keynote, the one diapason, the one refrain which is found running 
through all those sacred books, is salvation by works. They all de- 
clare that salvation must be purchased, must be bought with a price, 
and that the sole price, the sole purchase-money, must be our own 
works and deservings. — Sir M. Monier-Williams: quoted in "All About 
the Bible," Sidney Collett, p. 313. New York: Fleming H. Revell 
Company. 

Bible. — See Rule of Faith; Scriptures; Tradition; Two Witnesses. 

Bible Societies. — See Bible, 74-76; Increase of Knowledge, 233; 
Two Witneises, 576. 

Bishop, Univeesal, Views of Geegoey I. — Writing to the patriarchs 
of Alexandria and Antioch, St. Gregory says: "This name 'Universal' 
was offered during the Council of Chalcedon to the Pontiff of the 
Apostolic See. . . . But no one of my predecessors ever consented to 
use so profane a title, plainly because if a single patriarch be called 
Universal, the name of patriarch is taken from the rest. . . . Where- 
fore presume not ever to give or receive letters with this title 
Universal." (Ep. v. 43.) 

To the Patriarch of Alexandria he writes again: "You are my 
brother in rank, my father in character, and I said that you were 
not to write any such thing to me or to any one else; . . . and behold, 
in the very heading of your letter, directed to me, the very person 
who forbade it, you set that haughty title, calling me Universal Bishop, 
which I beg Your Holiness to do no more." (Ep. viii. 30.) 

To the Patriarch of Antioch he says that this title is " profane, 
superstitious, haughty, and invented by the first apostate; . . . and 



94 



CALENDAR. 



that if one bishop be called Universal, the whole church falls if he 
fall." (Ep. vii. 27.) 

To the emperor Maurice he writes twice: "St. Peter is not called 
Universal Apostle. . . . The whole church falls from its place when 
he who is called Universal falls. . . . But far from Christian hearts 
be that blasphemous name. ... I confidently affirm that whoso calls 
himself, or desires to be called, Universal Priest, in his pride goes 
before Antichrist." (Bp. v. 20; vii. 33.) 

It is important to add that the offer of this title during the Council 
of Chalcedon was not made by that synod itself, nor with its authority, 
though often cited as if such were the case. It was the private and 
unofficial act of certain Alexandrian petitioners (one priest and two 
deacons) against Dioscorus, who endeavored thus to conciliate the 
favor of the Roman legates. (See Baron. "Ann." 451, lxxxi.) — "Plain 
Reasons Against Joining the Church of Rome" Richard Frederick 
Littledale, LL. D., D. C. L., pp. 176, 177. London: Society for Promoting 
Christian Knowledge, 1905. 

Bishop of Rome. — See Antichrist; Little Horn; Papacy; Papal 
Supremacy; Pope. 

Boniface VIII. — See Indulgences, 236; Infallibility, 250; Papacy, 
Builders of, 337, 338, 340, 353-355; Pope, 382. 

Book of Enoch. — See Azazel, 44. 

Borgias, The — See Papacy, 338-340. 

Bottomless Pit. — See Two Witnesses, 573. 

Brownists. — See Sunday Laws, 541. 

Buddha.— See Bible, 92. 

Burgundians. — See Rome, Its Barbarian Invaders, 442, 443; Ten 
Kingdoms, 552. 

Calendar, The Week of Creation. — The week, another primeval 
measure, is not a natural measure of time, as some astronomers and 
chronologers have supposed indicated by the phases or quarters of the 
moon. It was originated by divine appointment at the creation, six 
days of labor and one of rest being wisely appointed for man's physical 
and spiritual well-being. — " Analysis of Sacred Chronology" S. Bliss, 
p. 10. Oakland, Cal.: Pacific Press Publishing House, 1887. 

Calendar, Antiquity of the Week. — There can be no doubt about 
the great antiquity of measuring time by a period of seven days (Gen. 
8: 10; 29: 27). The origin of this division of time is a matter which 
has given birth to much speculation. Its antiquity is so great, its 
observance so widespread, and it occupies so important a place in 
sacred things, that it must probably be thrown back as far as the crea- 
tion of man. The week and the Sabbath are thus as old as man himself. 
— "A Dictionary of the Bible,'" William Smith, art. "Week" p. 745. 
New York: Fleming H. Revell Company. 

Calendar, The Week Primeval. — This primeval measure of time 
[was] instituted as a memorial of the work of creation in six days, 
and of the ensuing Sabbath. ... It was therefore universally observed 



CALENDAR. 



95 



by Noah's descendants during the prevalence of the patriarchal reli- 
gion; but when mankind degenerated, and sunk into idolatry, the prim- 
itive institution was neglected, and at length lost. And the days of the 
week were dedicated by the Egyptians, Chaldeans, Syrians, etc., to the 
heavenly host, the sun, moon, and planets. — " A New Analysis of Chro- 
nology and Geography," William Hales, Vol. I. p. 18. London: C. J. 
O. d F. Rivington, 1830. 



Calendar, The Week Fixed by the Sabbath Institution. — This is 
evident from the word Sabbat, or Sabbata, denoting a week among the 
Syrians, Arabians, Christian Persians, and Ethiopians; as in the follow- 
ing ancient Syriac calendar, expressed in the Chaldee alphabet: 

XrOT""" One of the Sabbath, or week Sunday 

XnDt£?"pn Two of the Sabbath Monday 

XrOTTlSn Three of the Sabbath Tuesday 

NrOT"Nl?:nN 4 Four of the Sabbath Wednesday 

NrdBTMHSn Five of the Sabbath Thursday 

KrQBTitf Eve of the Sabbath Friday 

WOT The Sabbath Saturday 

The high antiquity of this calendar is evinced by the use of the 
cardinal numbers, one, two, three, etc., instead of the ordinals first, 
second, third, etc., following the Hebrew idiom; as in the account of 
the creation, where we read in the original, " One day," which the Sep- 
tuagint retains, calling it ijfMepa fxia. It is remarkable that all the evan- 
gelists follow the Syriac calendar, both in the word <ra/3/3aT<x, used for 
" a week," and also in retaining the cardinal number /xia o-afiparuv, " one 
of the week," to express the day of the resurrection. Matt. 28: 1; Mark 
16: 2; Luke 24: 1; John 20: l.— Id., Vol. I, pp. 19, 20. 



Calendar, Week Not Asteonomical. — The week is a period of 
seven days, having no reference whatever to the celestial motions, — a 
circumstance to which it owes its unalterable uniformity. Although it 
did not enter into the calendar of the Greeks, and was not introduced 
at Rome till after the reign of Theodosius, it has been employed from 
time immemorial in almost all Eastern countries; and as it forms 
neither an aliquot part of the year nor of the lunar month, those who 
reject the Mosaic recital will be at a loss, as Delambre remarks, to as- 
sign to it an origin having much semblance of probability. — The En- 
clopedia Britannica, Vol. IV, art. " Calendar," p. 988, 11th edition. 



Calendar, Bible Day feom Sunset to Sunset. — The Jews reckoned 
their days from evening to evening, according to the order which is 
mentioned in the first chapter of Genesis, in the account of the work 
of creation: "The evening and the morning were the first day." Their 
Sabbath, therefore, or seventh day, began at sunset on the day we 
call Friday, and lasted till the same time on the day following. — " A 
Summary of Biblical Antiquities," John W. Nevin, D. D., Assistant 
Teacher in the Theological Seminary of Princeton, chap. 8, sec. 4 (Vol. 
I. p. 171). Philadelphia: American Sunday School Union, 1849. 



According to the Jewish computation of time, the day commences 
at sunset. On Friday evening, and about one hour before sunset on this 
evening, all business transactions and secular occupations cease, and 
the twenty-four hours following are devoted to the celebration of the 
holy Sabbath. — " The History of the Jews," Matthew A. Berk, Appendix, 
p. 421. Boston: M. A. Berk, 1849. 



96 



CALENDAR. 



One of the priests stood, of course, and gave a signal beforehand, 
with a trumpet, at the beginning of every seventh day, in the evening 
twilight, as also at the evening when the day was finished, giving notice 
to the people when they were to leave off work, and when they were to 
go to work again. — "Wars of the Jeivs," Flavins Josephus, book 4, 
chap. 9, sec. 12, p. 565. London: Milner and Company. 

Calendar, Day, The Roman Midnight Plan. — The only trace of 
the ancient manner of dating a festival from the eve, or vesper, of the 
previous day, — a practice discontinued since the twelfth century, when 
the old Roman way of counting the day from midnight to midnight 
was reintroduced, — survives in the " ringing in " of certain days of 
special solemnity on the night before, and in the fasts of the vigils. — 
Chambers's Encyclopedia, art. "Festivals,'" Vol. IV, p. 596. London: 
William and Robert Chambers, 1898. 

Calendar, Days as Designated in Scbiptube. — The Jews had not 
particular names for the first six days of the week, but distinguished 
them merely by their order; thus, what we now call Sunday was 
termed the first day of the week, Monday was the second, Tuesday the 
third, and so of the rest. The seventh day, which we name Saturday, 
was styled among them the Sabbath, that is, the day of rest. And 
because this was the most important day of all in the week, the whole 
week came to be called, from its name, a Sabbath; whence the other days 
were called also the first day of the Sabbath, the second day of the 
Sabbath, and so on in their order. — " A Summary of Biblical Antiqui- 
ties" John W. Nevin, Assistant Teacher in the Theological Seminary of 
Princeton, chap. 8, sec. 4 (Vol. I, p. 174). Philadelphia: American Sun- 
day School Union, 1849. 

Calendar, Planetaby Names of Days feom Egypt. — The weekly 
calendar of seven days was unknown to the early Greeks. Their week 
consisted of ten days. The early Romans divided the year into months 
and the months into three unequal and varying parts, the Kalends, of 
thirteen to fifteen days, the Ides, of seven to nine days, and the Nones, 
of nine days. The Egyptians, like the Assyrians and Babylonians, 
were advanced astronomers, and in very remote time, but how early 
is not known, had their weeks of seven days each. How they came to 
have weeks of seven days like the Akkadians, the Assyrians, and the 
Babylonians, is not known. Nor is it known why they also called 
their days for the sun, the moon, and five of the planets. This Egyptian 
division of time was introduced into Rome and supplanted the Roman 
calendar, but the time of the innovation is not certainly known, some 
authorities placing it in the second and others in the fourth century 
of the Christian era. — The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Reli- 
gious Knowledge, Vol. XI, art. "Week," p. 147. New York: Funk & 
Wagnalls, 1911. 

Dion Cassius, who wrote in the second century, and speaks of it 
[the week] as both universal and recent in his time. He represents 
it as coming from Egypt. — McClintock and Strong's Cyclopedia, Vol. 
XII, p. 897 * 

Calendar, English Names of Days. — The English names of the 
days are derived from the Saxon. The ancient Saxons had borrowed the 
week from some Eastern nation, and substituted the names of their 
own divinities for those of the gods of Greece. In legislative and 
justiciary acts the Latin names are still retained. 



CANON, DEFINITION OF. 



9 7 



' Latin English 

Dies Solis Sunday 

Dies Lunas Monday 

Dies Martis Tuesday 

Dies Mercurii Wednesday 

Dies Jovis Thursday 

Dies Veneris Friday 

Dies Saturni Saturday 
— Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. IV, art. 



Calendar, 



Saxon 
Sun's day 
Moon's day 
Tiw's day 
Woden's day 
Thor's day 
Frigg's day 
Seterne's day 
988, 11th ed. 



Calendar, The Months in the Old Testament. — Moses named the 
first month of the year Abib (Ex. 12: 2; 13: 4), signifying "green" from 
the green ears of corn at that season; for it began about the vernal 
equinox. The second month was named Zif, signifying in Chaldee, 
" Glory," or " splendor," in which the foundation of Solomon's temple 
was laid. 1 Kings 6: 1. The seventh month was styled Ethanim, which 
is interpreted "Harvests" by the Syriac Version. 1 Kings 8: 2. The 
eighth month, Bui, from "the fall" of the leaf. *1 Kings 8: 2. 

Besides these names, given before the Babylonian captivity, there 
were others after. The first month was also called Nisan, signifying 
"flight" [Esther 3: 7; Neh. 2: 1]; because in that month the Israelites 
were thrust out of Egypt. Ex. 12: 39. The third month, Sivan, signify- 
ing "a bramble." [Esther 8: 9.] The sixth month, JElul, signifying 
" mourning; " probably because it was the time of preparation for the 
great day of atonement, on the tenth day of the seventh month. Neh. 
G: 15. The ninth month was called Chisleu, signifying "chilled; " when 
the cold weather sets in, and fires are lighted. Zech. 7:1; Jer. 36: 22. 
The tenth month was called Tebeth, signifying "miry." Esther 2: 16. 
The eleventh, Shebet, signifying a "staff," or a "scepter." Zech. 1: 7. 
And the twelfth, Adar, signifying a "magnificent mantle," probably from 
the profusion of flowers and plants with which the earth then begins to 
be clothed in warm climates. Ezra 6: 15; Esther 3:7. It is said to be a 
Syriac term. 2 Mac. 16: 36. — " Neiv Analysis of Chronology and Geog- 
raphy," William Hales, p. 26. London: C. J. O. & F. Rivington, 1830. 



Note. — Previous to the Babylonish captivity, the Hebrews gave all the months 
Jewish names, only four of which have come down to us, namely, Abib or Nisan. 
the 1st ; Zif of Ivar, the 2nd ; Ethanim or Tisri, the 7th ; Bui or Marchesvan, the 
Sth. In the Bible the months are usually designated by numbers, but during 
the exile Babylonian names were introduced, and these are still in use among 
the Jews. The names now generally used, with their approximate corresponding 
months, are as follows : 



Abib, or Nisan April 

Zif, or Tyar May 

Sivan June 

Thammuz July 

Ab August 

Elul September 



Tisri, or Ethanim October 

Bui, or Marchesvan November 

Chisleu December 

Tebeth January 

Shebat February 

Adar March 



Vender Intercalary 

— Table compiled from the Oxford Bible, Cyclopedic Concordance,, art. "Months. 
Jewish Calendar." 



Calendar. — See Sabbath; Week; Year-day Principle, 587. 



Calvin, John. — See Protestantism, 398, 400; Servettis. 



Canon, Definition of. — The term " canon " properly signifies a 
measuring reed or rule; and is sometimes applied to the tongue of a 
balance, which indicates by its position whether the scales are in equi- 
librium. Hence, canonical books are those which form the divine rule, 
7 



98 



CANON, OLD TESTAMENT. 



by which men ascertain whether they are walking orderly in the 
straight path of God's law, and by which they examine themselves, 
whether they are in the faith, and weigh their lives, as it were, in the 
balance of the sanctuary. In a word, the canon of Scripture is the 
divinely inspired code of belief and practice. — " On the Inspiration of 
the Holy Scripture,'" Ghr. Wordsworth, D. D., pp. 5, 6. London: Fran- 
cis & John Rivington, 1851, 

Canon, Old Testament, How Anciently Classified. — The Old Tes- 
tament, according to our Bibles, comprises thirty-nine books. . . . But, 
among the ancient Jews, they formed only twenty-two books, according 
to the letters of their alphabet, which were twenty-two in number; reck- 
oning Judges and Ruth, Ezra and Nehemiah, Jeremiah and his Lamenta- 
tions, and the twelve minor prophets (so called from the comparative 
brevity of their compositions), respectively as one book. — "An Intro- 
duction to the Critical Study and Knowledge of the Holy Scriptures," 
Thomas Hartwell Home, B. D., Vol. I, p. 29. New York: Robert Carter 
tC- Brothers, 1854. 

Canon, Old Testament, Josephus on. — We have not an innumer- 
able multitude of books among us, disagreeing from and contradicting 
one another [as the Greeks have], but only twenty-two books, which 
contain the records of all the past times; which are justly believed to 
be divine; and of them five belong to Moses, which contain his laws 
and the traditions of the origin of mankind till his death. This interval 
of time was little short of three thousand years; but as to the time 
from the death of Moses till the reign of Artaxerxes king of Persia, 
who reigned after Xerxes, the prophets, who were after Moses, wrote 
down what was done in their times in thirteen books. The remaining 
four books contain hymns to God, and precepts for the conduct of human 
life. It is true, our history hath been written since Artaxerxes very 
particularly, but hath not been esteemed of the like authority with the 
former by our forefathers, because there hath not been an exact suc- 
cession of prophets since that time; and how firmly we have given 
credit to these books of our own nation is evident by what we do; for 
during so many ages as have already passed, no one has been so bold as 
either to add anything to them, to take anything from them, or to make 
any change in them; but it is become natural to all Jews immediately, 
and from their very birth, to esteem these books to contain divine doc- 
trines, and to persist in them, and, if occasion be, willingly to die for 
them. — ''Against Apion" Flavins Josephus, book 1, par.' 8. 

Canon, Old Testament, How Preserved and Authenticated. — Our 
present concern is with the Old Testament; and I would now proceed to 
show that its books, as soon as they were written, were delivered by 
Almighty God to the keeping of his own people, the Jews; that by them 
they were received as inspired, and preserved pure and entire till the 
coming of Christ; that they, and they alone, were acknowledged by him 
as the sincere word of God; that, being so authenticated by Christ, they 
passed into the hands of the Christian church; and have been preserved 
unadulterated and unmutilated, and conveyed by an uninterrupted suc- 
cession even to ourselves at this day. — " On the Inspiration of Holy 
Scripture," Chr. Wordsworth, D. D., p. 29. London: Francis & John 
Rivington, 1851. 

Canon, Old Testament, Christ's Relation to. — Our blessed Lord 
was a constant attendant at the worship of the synagogue, and he took 
part in the public reading and exposition of the sacred books of the 



CANON, OLD TESTAMENT. 



99 



Jews: thus he gave a practical testimony and a personal sanction to 
the tenets of the Jews concerning those books. He, the Son of God. 
received as divinely inspired Scripture what the Jews received and 
delivered to him as such. He affirmed those books to be written by the 
Holy Ghost; and claimed to be received as the Messiah on the author- 
ity of their prophecies. He frequently called those books, " The Scrip- 
ture's; " he commanded the Jews to search their Scriptures; he said, 
" It is easier for heaven and earth to pass, than one tittle of the law 
to fail; " and again, "Verily I say unto you, Till heaven and earth 
pass, one jot or one tittle [that is, one yod, the smallest letter, and one 
point of a letter] shall in no wise pass from the law, till all be ful- 
filled; " and again, "The Scripture cannot be broken." 

He declared that the Sadducees erred by not understanding the 
Scriptures. "They have Moses and the prophets: let them hear them." 
He defined the prophetical age between the limits of Abel and Zacha- 
rias. In his walk with the two disciples to Emmaus, after his resur- 
rection, " beginning at Moses and all the prophets, he expounded unto 
them in all the 'Scriptures the things concerning himself." He said to 
his apostles, " These are the words which I spake unto you while I 
was yet with you, that all things must be fulfilled which were written 
in the law of Moses, and in the prophets, and in the psalms, concerning 
me." So spake the Lord of life. And, therefore, the writings of Moses 
and all the prophets, and the psalms, — that is, all the books received 
by the Jews under these names, were " all the Scriptures " to Christ. 

It is therefore clear that our blessed Lord joined with the Jews in 
receiving what they received as Scripture. And therefore he joined 
with them also in not receiving what they did not receive as such. He 
therefore did not receive the Apocrypha as inspired. — Id., pp. 51, 52. 

Canon, Roman Catholic View of Manner of Determining. — Tra- 
dition we have hitherto described as the consciousness of the church, 
as the living word of faith, according to which the Scriptures are to 
be interpreted and to be understood. The doctrine of tradition con- 
tains, in this sense, nothing else than the doctrine of Scripture; both, 
as to their contents, are one and the same. But, moreover, it is asserted 
by the Catholic Church that many things have been delivered to her 
by the apostles, which Holy Writ either doth not at all comprise, or 
at most, but alludes to. This assertion of the church is of the greatest 
moment, and partially indeed, includes the foundations of the whole 
system. Among these oral traditions must be included the doctrine of 
the canonicity and the inspiration of the Sacred Scriptures; for in no 
part of the Bible do we find the books belonging to it designated; and 
were such a catalogue contained in it, its authority must first be made 
matter of inquiry. In like manner, the testimony as to the inspiration 
of the Biblical writings is obtained only through the church. It is 
from this point we first discern, in all its magnitude, the vast impor- 
tance of the doctrine of church authority, and can form a notion of the 
infinite multitude of things involved in that doctrine. — " Symbolism; or 
Exposition of the Doctrinal Differences Between Catholics and Prot- 
estants," John Adam Moehler, D. D. (R. C.J, 5th ed., pp. 292, 293. Lon- 
don: Thomas Baker, 1906. 

Canon, Old Testament, Additions to, by the Church of Rome. — 
The Church of Rome at the Council of Trent placed other books [the 
Apocrypha] on an equal footing with those thus delivered to the church 
of the Jews by God, and which alone were treated as divine by Christ 
and his apostles; and the Church of Rome anathematized, and still 
anathematizes, all who do not and cannot receive these other books as 



100 



CANON, NEW TESTAMENT. 



of equal authority with those whose inspiration is guaranteed by Christ. 
What is this but with profane irreverence to dictate to the Supreme 
Being himself? Must we not say to you, "Apud vos de humano arbi- 
tratu Deus pensitatur; nisi homini Deus placuerit, Deus non eritf " 
[With you is God considered according to human judgment; unless God 
be acceptable to man, will he not be God?] What is it but to elevate 
human authors into divine, and, after the manner of ancient Rome, a3 
St. Chrysostom says, x et P OTOVe ^ v ^ eo ^ [choose gods by vote — hand rais- 
ing] to create gods by a show of hands? — " Letters to M. Gondon" Chr. 
Wordsworth, D. D., pp. 120, 121. London: Francis & John Rivington, 
1848. 

Canon, Old Testament, The Roman Catholic. — The most explicit 
definition of the Catholic canon is that given by the Council of Trent, 
Session IV, 1546. For the Old Testament its catalogue reads as follows: 
" The five books of Moses (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deu- 
teronomy), Josue, Judges, Ruth, the four books of Kings, two of Para- 
lipomenon, the first and second of Esdras (which latter is called Nehe- 
mias), Tobias, Judith, Esther, Job, the Davidic Psalter (in number one 
hundred and fifty psalms), Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, the Canticle of Can- 
ticles, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Isaias, Jeremias, with Baruch, Ezechiel, 
Daniel, the twelve minor prophets (Osee, Joel, Amos, Abdias, Jonas, 
Micheas, Nahum, Habacuc, Sophonias, Aggeus, Zacharias, Malachias), 
two books of Machabees, the first and second." The order of books 
copies that of the Council of Florence, 1442, and in its general plan is 
that of the Septuagint. — The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. Ill, art. 
" Canon," p. 270. 

Canon, New Testament, When Established. — The voice of the 
universal church, ever unanimous, from apostolic times, on the first 
canon, and unanimous, from the date of the Council of Nice, on the 
second, finally became, in the course of the fourth century, unanimous 
on the second-first likewise. The temporary and late hesitations of the 
churches of the West regarding the epistle to the Hebrews had already 
almost entirely disappeared; and the temporary and late hesitations of 
the churches of the East regarding the Apocalypse, had, from the early 
part of the fourth century, disappeared likewise. The canon was thus, 
universally and forever, recognized in all the churches of Christendom. 
— " The Canon of the Holy Scriptures" L. Gaussen, D. D., p. 82. Lon- 
don: James Nisbet & Co., 1862. 

Many persons speak of the list of Sacred Scriptures as if it had 
furnished nothing but uncertainty to Christians for three centuries, and 
as if the divine authority of the books of the New Testament had never 
been distinctly recognized till the end of the fourth. It is, however, 
on the contrary, an incontestable fact, that the first canon was, at no 
time, anywhere an object of any uncertainty to the churches of God, 
and that all the writings of which it consists, that is, eight ninths of 
the New Testament, were from the moment of their appearance, and 
through all succeeding ages have been, universally recognized by all 
the churches of Christendom. — Id., p. 84. 

Canon, New Testament, How Made. — The books of the New Tes- 
tament were given by the Holy Spirit into the hands of the church, 
they were forthwith publicly read: this was their canonization. 

Let us apply the essayist's principle to profane authors. The works 
of Horace and Martial were not published at once, by their respective 
authors, but at intervals of several years. Now that they are collected 



CANON, NEW TESTAMENT. 



101 



together in one volume, we have what may be called a Canon of Horace 
and Martial. But how was this formed? Did a junta of grammarians 
sit down at a table and decide what books were to be received as 
making it? No: the Canon of Horace and Martial made itself, by the 
general reception of their books, as the works of their respective au- 
thors, as soon as they were written. So, much more the canon of the 
New Testament made itself by the public usage of the church in all 
parts of the world. — " Letters to M. Gondon," Chr. Wordsworth, D. D., 
p. 91. London: Francis & John Rivington, 1848. 

Canon, New Testament, When Commenced and Completed. — The 
whole canon of the Scriptures of the New Testament was commenced 
and completed during the latter half of the first century. It was dur- 
ing this period that the church, already formed and unceasingly extend- 
ing, reached the extremities of the earth, through the incomparable 
labors of Paul, Peter, John, Thomas, and other apostles, as well as of 
so many other witnesses, whose names, unknown to us, are recorded 
in heaven. 

21. It is, therefore, necessary we should distinctly understand that 
the primitive church, during her militant and triumphant march 
through the first half-century of her existence, saw her New Testament 
canon forming in her hand, as a nosegay is gradually formed in the 
hand of a lady walking through plots of flowers with the proprietor 
of the garden by her side. As she advances, the latter presents to her 
flower after flower, till she finds herself in possession of an entire 
bunch. And, just as the nosegay attracts admiring attention before it 
is filled up, and as soon as the few first flowers have been put together, 
so the New Testament canon began to exist for the Christian church 
from the moment the earliest portions of inspired Scriptures had been 
put into her hands. — " The Canon of the Holy Scriptures," L. Gaussen, 
D. D., pp. 14, 15. London: James Nisbet & Co., 1862. 

Canon, New Testament, Not Settled by Councils. — We allow 
that no catalogue of the books of the New Testament is found in the 
extant decrees of any council of the church more ancient than those of 
Laodicea and Carthage, toward the close of the fourth century. But, 
waiving the argument that the decrees of many earlier councils have 
been lost, and that such catalogues may have existed in them, we affirm, 
and shall proceed to prove, that the books of the New Testament had 
been received as inspired not only long before that age, but in and 
from the time in which they were written; and that those two councils, 
in publishing these lists, did not imagine that they were making, or 
could make, any book to be canonical which was not canonical before. 
They did not intend to enact anything new, but only to declare what 
was old; just as the Church of England, in the sixteenth century, when 
she published a list of the canonical books of the Old Testament in her 
Sixth Article, did not pretend to give any new authority to those books, 
but only affirmed what the church had believed concerning them from 
the beginning. — " On the Inspiration of Holy Scripture," Chr. Words- 
worth, D. D., pp. 134, 135. London: Francis & John Rivington, 1851. 

Not one author, either of the fourth, or fifth, or sixth century, ap- 
peals, on the subject of the canon, to the decisions of any council. Thus, 
when Cyril, patriarch of Jerusalem, who was born (it is believed) 
twenty years after Athanasius, gives us his catalogue of inspired books, 
he refers to no council, and only appeals to " the apostles, and the 
ancient bishops who presided over the churches, and transmitted to us 
those books as inspired.'" 



CANON, NEW TESTAMENT. 



Likewise, when Augustin, about the end of the same century, or 
rather the beginning of the fifth, wrote an answer to certain persons 
who had inquired of him " which books were truly canonical," he sim- 
ply referred to the testimony of the various churches of Christendom, 
and not to any council whatever. 

Likewise, when Rufinus, a presbyter of Aquileia, about the year 
340, gives his catalogue (also identical with ours), he simply pro- 
fesses to present " the tradition of their ancestors, who had transmitted 
these books to the churches of Christ, as divinely inspired," and he 
declares that he gives it just as he had copied it from the records of 
the Fathers. 

Lastly, when Cassiodorus, a Roman consul in the sixth century, 
gives us three catalogues of the books of the New Testament (one from 
Jerome, another from Augustin, and another from an ancient version), 
he, too, makes no reference to any decree or to any council. 

Let it, then, be no longer said that the authority of councils fixed 
the canon of Scripture. It was, indeed, fixed; but the authority of 
councils had nothing to do with it. It was the will of God that Chris- 
tians individually, and Christian congregations, enlightened by the tes- 
timony of successive generations of believers, should form their opin- 
ions on the subject of the canon with entire liberty of judgment, that 
the authenticity of the sacred books might be rendered more manifest. 
— " The Canon of the Holy Scriptures," L. Gaussen. D. D., pp. 88, 89. 
London: James Nisbet & Co., 1862. 

Canon, New Testament, Relation of Church to. — It is said that 
the church is more ancient than Scripture; that there was a church of 
God on earth before the Old Testament; and that the Christian church 
existed before any of the New Testament was written; and therefore, 
it is said, Scripture depends upon the church. But this proceeds on 
the false assumption that the authority of Scripture is grounded on 
the fact of its being written; whereas it is wholly derived from its 
being the word of God. Scripture is God's word written; the writing 
of the word is no necessary condition of its existence, though it is a 
quality very useful for the preservation and diffusion of the word. . . . 

The church, then, is a divinely instituted society of believers, who 
are born by water and the word; the church is cleansed and sanctified 
by the word, for " Christ loved the church, and gave himself for it, 
that he might sanctify and cleanse it with the washing of water by 
the word." She therefore owes all her being and her beauty to the 
word; and she is, therefore, posterior to the word, though not to the 
writing of the word. This word proceeds from Christ, the Alpha and 
Omega of all God's revelations; and by God's will, for our salvation, it 
was consigned to writing, and it has been committed by God to the 
custody of the church, who is commanded to preach the same; but it is 
as preposterous to affirm that it owes its authority to the church, as it 
would be to say that a royal writ depends for its validity on the Keeper 
of the Great Seal; or that the power of the monarch is derived from the 
herald who proclaims his accession to the throne. 

It is to be observed, also, that, by resolving our belief in the canon 
of Scripture into the tradition of the church, as the sufficient and final 
cause of our assent to the same, we should, in fact, be undermining the 
foundations of the church herself, and leave ourselves without any 
ground for belief in her teaching; for this belief rests on the word of 
God. But if the word of God is to depend entirely for its authority 
on the witness of the church, then we shall have, in fine, the church 
bearing testimony to herself, — a kind of evidence which no one can be 
bound to receive. And this objection is much stronger against the 



CANON LAW. 



103 



Romish theory, when we remember that it would require us to resolve 
our faith in the canon of Scripture, not into the tradition of the prim- 
itive universal church, but into that of the existing Roman branch of 
it, which is at variance with that of the catholic church; so that, in 
fact, it would leave us without any sure ground for belief, either in 
Scripture or the church. — " On the Inspiration of Holy Scripture," Chr. 
Wordsworth, D. D., pp. 16-19. London: Francis & John Rivington, 1851. 

Canon, New Testament, Accepted at Nice. — The discussions which 
took place at Nice were in accordance with the principle thus laid 
down, if the history of Gelasius be trustworthy. Scripture was the 
source from which the champions and assailants of the orthodox faith 
derived their premises; and among other books, the Epistle to the 
Hebrews was quoted as written by St. Paul, and the catholic epistles 
were recognized as a definite collection. But neither in this nor in the 
following councils were the Scriptures themselves ever the subjects of 
discussion. They underlie all controversy, as a sure foundation, known 
and immovable. — " A General Survey of the History of the Canon of 
the New Testament," Brooke Foss Westcott, M. A., p. 495. Cambridge: 
Macmillan & Co., 1855. 

Canon, New Testament, How Guaranteed. — Thus we perceive 
that the reception of the New Testament, by the primitive church, as 
the unerring word of God, is guaranteed by irrefragable proofs. It is 
evinced by catalogues; it is proclaimed by councils; it is shown by the 
fury of persecutors, and by the fraud of heretics; by the courage of 
martyrs, and by the zeal of the church. It is declared by a continued 
succession of writers, from the age of the apostles to our own. — " On 
the Inspiration of Holy Scripture," Chr. Wordsworth, D. D., p. 153. 
London: Francis & John Rivington, 1851. 

Canon, New Testament, erom Apostolic Times. — We, therefore, 
proceed to observe that we possess an uninterrupted series of writings 
from the apostolic times to the present day; and that these contain 
quotations from the books of the New Testament; and that we have 
commentaries upon it, reaching downward to us, in unbroken succession, 
from the third and fourth centuries; and that many of these commen- 
taries exhibit the text of these books; and that we have hundreds of 
ancient manuscripts of these books from all parts of the world; that we 
have ancient versions of them in numerous languages; and that these 
various and independent witnesses coincide with each other, and concur 
in testifying the fact that the Scriptures of the New Testament existed 
in primitive times as they exist now, and have been transmitted, pure 
and entire, from the hands of the apostles to our own. — Id., pp. 141, 142. 

Canon, Roman Catholic View of. — Pope Gregory VII, in the 
eleventh century, said very boldly, " Not a single book or chapter of 
Scripture shall be held canonical without the Pope's authority." — 
"Letters to M. Gondon" Chr. Wordsworth, D. D., p. 108. London:' 
Francis & John Rivington, 1848. 

Canon Law (Corpus Juris). — Various collections of church law 
were made from an early period in her history, but those which are 
contained in the Corpus Juris are the most celebrated. The Corpus 
Juris is usually divided into two volumes. The first contains the 
Decretum of Gratian, a Benedictine monk, who composed his work 
about the middle of the twelfth century. It is a private collection, and 
so the documents of which it is composed have only the authority de- 



104 



CANON LAW. 



rived from their origin, unless custom or subsequent approbation has 
given special canons greater weight. The second volume, on the con- 
trary, contains several official collections, made by the authority of the 
Holy See. These are the Decretals of Gregory IX, the Sext, and the 
Clementines. Any papal constitution contained in these collections has 
authority from the very fact of its insertion in the Corpus Juris. The 
second volume also contains the Extravagants of John XXII, and the 
Common Extravagants, both of which are private collections, although 
inserted in the Corpus Juris. 

The Corpus Juris contains the ancient law of the Catholic Church, 
which has been modified and accommodated to the times by more recent 
councils and constitutions of the Holy See. The Council of Trent espe- 
cially made many changes demanded by the altered circumstances of 
the times, and the popes have at different times issued a great number 
of constitutions and laws to meet the constantly changing wants of the 
church. The constitutions are usually quoted by giving the Pope's name 
and the initial words, together with the date of the document. — " A 
Manual of Moral Theology," Rev. Thomas Slater, 8. J. (R. C), Vol. I, 
p. 120. New York: Benziger Brothers, 1908. 

Canon Law, Contents of. — The first great collection of canons 
and decretals which the world was privileged to see was made by 
Gratian, a monk of Bologna, who about 1150 published his work entitled 
Decretum Gratiani. Pope Eugenius III approved his work, which im- 
mediately became the highest authority in the Western Church. The 
rapid growth of the papal tyranny soon superseded the Decretum Gra- 
tiani. Succeeding popes flung their decretals upon the world with a 
prodigality with which the diligence of compilers who gathered them 
up, and formed them into new codes, toiled to keep pace. Innocent III 
and Honorius III issued numerous rescripts and decrees, which Greg- 
ory IX commissioned Raymond of Pennafort to collect and publish. 
This the Dominican did in 1234; and Gregory, in order to perfect this 
collection of infallible decisions, supplemented it with a goodly addi- 
tion of his own. This is the more essential part of the canon law, and 
contains a copious system of jurisprudence, as well as rules for the 
government of the church. 

But infallibility had not exhausted- itself with these labors. Boni- 
face VIII in 1298 added a sixth part, which he named the Sext. A fresh 
batch of decretals was issued by Clement V in 1313, under the title 
of Clementines. John XXII in 1340 added the Extravagantes, so called" 
because they extravagate, or straddle, outside the others. Succeeding 
pontiffs, down to Sixtus IV, added their extravagating articles, which 
came under the name of Extravagantes Communes. The government of 
the world was in some danger of being stopped by the very abundance 
of infallible law; and since the end of the fifteenth century nothing has 
been formally added to this already enormous code. — " The Papacy; Its 
History, Dogmas, Genius, and Prospects," Rev. J. A. Wylie, p. 130. 

Canon Law. — Corpus Juris Canonici [Roman Canon Law]. — 
I. Definition: The term corpus here denotes a collection of documents; 
corpus juris, a collection of laws, especially if they are placed in system- 
atic order. It may signify also an official and complete collection of 
a legislation made by the legislative power, comprising all the laws 
which are in force in a country or society. The term, although it never 
received legal sanction in either Roman or canon law, being merely the 
phraseology of the learned, is used in the above sense when the Corpus 
Juris Civilis of the Roman Christian emperors is meant. The expres- 
sion corpus juris may also mean, not the collection of laws itself, but 



CARDINAL. 



105 



the legislation of a society considered as a whole. Hence Benedict 
XIV could lightly say that the collection of his bulls formed part of 
the Corpus Juris (Jam fere sextus, 1746). 

We cannot better explain the signification of the term Corpus Juris 
Canonici than by showing the succes-ive meanings which were assigned 
to it in the past and which it usually bears at the present day. Under 
the name of Corpus Canonum were designated the collection of Dio- 
nysius Exiguus and the Collectio Anselmo Dedicata. The Decree of Gra- 
tian is already called Corpus Juris Canonici by a glossator of the twelfth 
century, and Innocent IV calls by this name the Decretals of Gregory IX 
(Ad Expediendos. 9 Sept., 1253). 

Since the second half of the thirteenth century, Corpus Juris Ca- 
nonici, in contradistinction to Corpus Juris Civilis, or Roman law, 
generally denoted the following collections: (1) the Decretals of Greg- 
ory IX; (2) those of Boniface VIII (Sixth Book of the Decretals); 
(3) those of Clement V (Clementines), i. e., the collections which at that 
time, with the Decree of Gratian, were taught and explained at the 
universities. At the present day, under the above title are commonly 
understood these three collections with the addition of the Decree of 
Gratian, the Extravagantes of John XXII, and the Extravagantes Com- 
munes. — The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. IV, art. " Canon Law," p. 391. 

Canon Law, Content of. — The Corpus Juris Canonici is the col- 
lection of ecclesiastical laws in five parts. The first part contains the 
Decretum of Gratian divided into three parts. The second contains the 
Decretals divided into five books. The third contains the sixth book of 
the Decretals, which is also divided into five books. The fourth con- 
tains the Clementines, also in five books. The fifth contains the Ex- 
travagantes of John XXII, and the Communes, or the Decretals of 
John XXII, and of other pontiffs from Urban IV to Sixtus IV. The 
Decretum of Gratian has no force of law except that which the decretals 
contained in it have of themselves. But the other parts of the canon 
law have the force of law, and are universally binding, for they contain 
the pious utterances of the pontiffs and the decrees of the councils. — 
" Theologia Moralis," Ligorio (R. C.J, 3d edition, Vol. I, p. 32. Venice, 
1885. 

Canon Law, Decree of Gratian. — It was about 1150 that the Ca- 
maldolese monk, Gratian, professor of theology at the University of 
Bologna, to obviate the difficulties which beset the study of practical, 
external theology (theologia practica externa), i. e., canon law, com- 
posed the work entitled by himself Concordia Discordantium Canonum, 
but called by others Nova Collectio, Beer eta, Corpus Juris Canonici, also 
Decretum Gratiani, the latter being now the commonly accepted name. 
In spite of its great reputation, the Decretum has never been recognized 
hy the church as an official collection. . . . 

Considered as collections, the Decree of Gratian, the Extravagantes 
Joannis XXII, and the Extravagantes Communes have not, and never 
had, a legal value, but the documents which they contain may possess, 
and as a matter of fact, often do possess, very great authority. More- 
over, custom has even given to several apocryphal canons of the Decree 
of Gratian the force of law. The other collections are official, and 
consist of legislative decisions still binding, unless abrogated by sub- 
sequent legislation. — The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. IV, art. " Corpus 
Juris Canonici," pp. 392, 393. 

Cardinal. — The word was first used of any cleric regularly settled 
(incardinatus, "hinged into") in a church; but it soon became the 



106 



CELIBACY. 



peculiar designation of a counselor of the Pope. . . . After many fluc- 
tuations, the number of cardinals was fixed at seventy by Sixtus V in 
1586. Of these, six are cardinal bishops, fifty are cardinal priests, and 
fourteen are cardinal deacons. In 1907 the Sacred College consisted of 
fifty-four members, sixteen short of the plenum, which has not been 
reached for one hundred and fifty years. 

The appointment (creatio) of cardinals rests with the Pope, who 
generally consults the existing cardinals, and often receives proposals 
from secular governments. . . . The cardinals in conclave elect the new 
Pope, have constant access to him, and form his chief council. . . . 
They have had since Urban VIII the title of " Eminence." The body of 
cardinals is called the Sacred College. . . . We must add that the chief 
affairs of the Roman Catholic Church are in the hands of the cardinals. 
But the cardinals possess no constitutional rights under the absolute 
government of the Papacy. They cannot even meet together without 
the Pope's leave. — Standard Encyclopedia of the World's Knowledge, 
Vol. VI, art. " Cardinal," p. 71. Neio York: Funk and Wagnalls 
Company. 

Carey, William. — See Increase of Knowledge, 232. 
Catholic Church. — See Roman Catholic. 
Cawnpore Massacre. — See Popery, 388. 

Celibacy. — Celibacy, in the Roman Catholic Church, means the 
permanently unmarried state to which men and women bind themselves 
either by a vow or by the reception of the major orders which implies 
personal purity in thought and deed. . . Very early in the history of 
the church the idea grew up that the unmarried state was preferable 
(Hermas, I. ii. 3; Ignatius to Poly carp, v), and grew into a positive 
contempt of marriage (Origen, Horn. vi. in Num.; Jerome, Ad J ovinia- 
num, i. 4). As early as the second century examples of voluntary vows 
of virginity are found, and the requirement of continence before the 
performance of sacred functions. By the fourth century canons began 
to be passed in that sense (Synod of Neocaesarea. 314 a. d., canon i; 
Synod of Ancyra, 314 a. d., canon x). Unmarried men were preferred 
for ecclesiastical offices, though marriage was still not forbidden; in 
fact, the clergy were expressly prohibited from deserting a lawfully 
married wife on religious grounds (Apostolic Canons, v). . . . 

Within its own boundaries the Latin Church has held more and 
more strictly to the requirement of celibacy, though not without con- 
tinual opposition on the part of the clergy. The large number of can- 
ons on this subject enacted from the eighth century on, shows that their 
enforcement was not easy. After the middle of the eleventh century 
the new ascetic tendency whose champion was Gregory VII had a strong 
influence in this matter. Even before Hildebrand's accession to the 
Papacy, the legislation of Leo IX (1054), Stephen IX (1058), Nicho- 
las II (1059), and Alexander II (1063), had laid down the principles 
which as Pope he was to carry out. In the synod of 1074 he renewed 
the definite enactment of 1059 and 1063, according to which both the 
married priest who said mass and the layman who received communion 
at his hands were excommunicate. . . . 

After the Reformation had done its work, Charles V endeavored by 
the Interim of 1548 to bring about the abolition of these rules, and with 
several other princes requested the discussion of the question at the 
Council of Trent. The council, however, maintained the system as a 



CELIBACY, EVILS OF. 



107 



whole, and the following rules are now in force: (1) Through the 
reception of major orders or the taking of monastic or other solemn 
vows, celibacy becomes so binding a duty that any subsequent marriage 
is null and void. (2) Any one in minor orders who marries loses his 
office and the right to go on to major orders, but the marriage is valid. 
(3) Persons already married may receive the minor orders if they have 
the intention of proceeding to the major, and show this by taking a vow 
of perpetual abstinence; but the promotion to the higher orders can 
only take place when the wife expresses her willingness to go into a 
convent and take the veil. The Council of Trent further lays down that 
the functions of the minor orders may be performed by married men 
in default of unmarried — though not by those who are living with a 
second wife. 

In the nineteenth century attempts were not lacking, even within 
the Roman Catholic Church, to bring about the abolition of celibacy. 
They were rather hindered than helped by temporal governments, and 
always firmly rejected by Rome. Celibacy has been abolished among 
the Old Catholics; and modern legislation in Germany, France, Bel- 
gium, Italy, and Switzerland authorizes the marriage both of priests 
and of those who have taken a solemn vow of chastity. Austria, Spain, 
and Portugal still forbid it. The evangelical churches at the very outset 
released their clergy from the obligation of celibacy, professing to find 
no validity in the arguments adduced in its favor on the Roman side. 
— The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, Vol. II, 
art. " Celibacy," pp. 465, 466. Neiv York: Funk and Wagnalls Company. 

Celibacy, Canon on. — Canon X. If any one saith that the marriage 
state is to be placed above the state of virginity or of celibacy, and that 
it is not better and more blessed to remain in virginity or in celibacy 
than to be united in matrimony; let him be anathema. — " Dogmatic 
Canons and Decrees," p. 164. New York: The Devin- Adair Company, 
1912. 

Celibacy, Evils of. — To tell the truth, the parish clergy were not 
in a temper to think of their own moral elevation, being in sad straits 
owing to the oppression practised by the monasteries and cathedral 
chapters, which, after having appropriated most of the parishes, refused 
to give their secular vicars more than the merest pittance. So wide- 
spread was concubinage that a French council complained (Paris, of 
Sens, c. 23, 1429) of the general impression being prevalent that forni- 
cation was merely venial. At Constance and Basel the abrogation of 
clerical celibacy was proposed by no less a person than the emperor 
Sigismund. Even small towns in this age owned their public brothels. 

Faced by all these evils, the heads of the church made proof of 
astounding forbearance, preferring to leave things alone, so long as 
their own right, and claims, and revenues were left untouched. The 
period was deeply conscious of its own irregularities. Throughout it we 
have to listen to complaints, and demands for reform. Though this is, 
of course, a pleasing feature, yet the fact that, in spite of countless 
desires and efforts, two centuries did not suffice to purge the church, is 
a sad witness to the deeply rooted character of the evils. — " Manual 
of Church History," Dr. F. X. Funk, Roman Catholic Professor of The- 
ology in the University of Tubingen, Vol. II, p. 77* 

Note. — This work was published in London in 1910, having the imprimatur 
of Archbishop Bourne's vicar-general, dated May 16, 1910. 

Celibacy. — See Decretal Letters, 143; Marriage. 



108 



CENSORSHIP OF BOOKS. 



Censorship of Books. — After the printing press was invented and 
used to advance the cause of the Reformation, measures for its regu- 
lation were introduced by the church, which first established a formal 
censorship of books. In a letter addressed to the archbishops of Co- 
logne, Mainz, Treves, and Magdeburg, Alexander VI ordered (1501) 
that no book should be printed without special authorization. The 
Lateran Council of 1515 sanctioned the constitution of Leo X, which 
provided that no book should be printed without having been examined 
in Rome by the papal vicar and the master of the sacred palace, in other 
countries by the bishop of the diocese or his deputy and the inquisitor 
of heresies. 

Further and more detailed legislation followed, and the Council of 
Trent decreed (Session IV): "It shall not be lawful to print, or cause 
to be printed, any books relating to religion without the name of the 
author; neither shall any one hereafter sell any such books, or even 
retain them in his possession, unless they have, been first examined and 
approved by the ordinary, on pain of anathema and the pecuniary fine 
imposed by the canon of the recent Lateran Council.' 5 On these regula- 
tions are based a number of enactments in different dioceses which 
are still in force. The council decreed also that no theological book 
should be printed without first receiving the approbation of the bishop 
of the diocese; and this rule is extended in the monastic orders so far 
as to require the permission of superiors for the publication of a book 
on any subject. 

The Council of Trent left the further provision concerning the 
whole subject to a special commission, which was to report to the Pope. 
In accordance with its findings, Pius IV promulgated the rule sub- 
mitted to him and a list of prohibited books in the constitution Domin- 
ici gregis custodies of March 24, 1564. Extensions and expositions of 
this ruling were issued by Clement VIII, Sixtus V, Alexander VII, and 
other popes. The present practice is based upon the constitution Sol- 
licita ac provida of Benedict XIV (July 10, 1753). The maintenance 
and extension of the Index Librorum Prohibitorum was intrusted to a 
special standing committee of cardinals, the Congregation of the Index, 
which from time to time publishes new editions (the latest, Turin, 
1895). There is also an Index Librorum Expurgatorum, containing 
books which are tolerated after the excision of certain passages, and 
another Librorum Expurgandorum, of those which are still in need of 
such partial expurgation. The prohibition to read or possess books thus 
forbidden is binding upon all Roman Catholics, though in special cases 
dispensations from it may be obtained. The most recent regulation of 
the whole matter was made by the bull O/ficiorum ac Munerum of Leo 
XIII, Jan. 25, 1897. — The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious 
Knowledge, Vol. II, art. " Censorship and Prohibition of Books," p. 493. 
New York: Funk and Wagnalls Company. 

Censorship of Books, Index Defined. — Index of Prohibited Books, 
or simply Index, is used in a restricted sense to signify the exact list 
or catalogue of books the reading of which is forbidden to Catholics 
by the highest ecclesiastical authority. This list forms the second and 
larger part of the codex entitled Index Librorum Prohibitorum, which 
contains the entire ecclesiastical legislation relating to books. . . . 

A book is prohibited or put on the Index by decree of the Sacred 
Congregation of the Roman Inquisition, of the Sacred Office, or of the 
Index, which decree, though approved by the Pope (in forma communi), 
always remains a purely congregational decree. It need scarcely be 
mentioned that the Pope alone, without having recourse to any of the 
congregations, may put a book on the Index, either by issuing a bull or 
a brief, or in any other way he chooses. . . . With regard to the Congre- 



CENSORSHIP OF BOOKS. 



109 



gation of the Index, however, Pius X. when reorganizing the Roman 
Curia by the Constitution " Sapienti consilio'' (29 June, 1908), decreed 
as follows: "Henceforth it will be the task of this Sacred Congregation 
not only to examine carefully the books denounced to it, to prohibit them 
if necessary, and to grant permission for reading forbidden books, but 
also to supervise, ex officio, books that are being published, and to pass 
sentence on sucn as deserve to be prohibited." . . . 

The last and best edition of the Index, published by Leo XIII 
(Rome, 1900) and now in force, was reprinted in 1901, and again under 
Pius X in 1904 and 1907 — The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. VII, art. 
"Censorship of Books,'" pp. 721, 722. New York: Robert Appleton 
Company. 

Censorship of Books. — Numerous editions of the Index [Librorum 
Prohibitorum] have appeared from time to time. That issued under 
Benedict XIV (Rome, 1744) contains between nine and ten thousand 
entries of books and authors, alphabetically arranged; of these about 
one third are cross-references. Prefixed to it are the ten rules sanc- 
tioned by the Council of Trent, of which the tenor is as follows: The 
first rule orders that all books condemned by popes or general councils 
before 1515, which were not contained in that Index, should be reputed 
to be condemned in such sort as they were formerly condemned. The 
second rule prohibits all the works of heresiarchs, such as Luther and 
Calvin, and those works by heretical authors which treat of religion; 
their other works to be allowed after examination. The third and 
fourth rules relate to versions of the Scripture, and define the classes 
of persons to whom the reading of the Bible in the vulgar tongue may 
be permitted. The fifth allows the circulation, after expurgation, of 
lexicons and other works of reference compiled by heretics. The sixth 
relates to books of controversy. The seventh orders that all obscene 
books be absolutely prohibited, except ancient books written by hea- 
thens, which were tolerated " propter sermonis elegantiam et proprie- 
tatem," but were not to be used in teaching boys. The eighth rule is 
upon methods of expurgation. The ninth prohibits books of magic and 
judicial astrology; but "theories and natural observations published for 
the sake of furthering navigation, agriculture, or the medical art are 
permitted." The tenth relates to printing, introducing, having, and cir- 
culating books. Persons reading prohibited books incur excommunica- 
tion forthwith (statim). — A Catholic Dictionary, William E. Addis and 
Thomas Arnold (R. C.J, p. 481. New York: Benziger Brothers, 1893. 

Censorship of Books, Classifications of the Index. — The first 
list of forbidden books was drawn up by the Theological Faculty of 
Paris, in 1554, and the first list of this kind which had the sanction of 
law was the one promulgated in Spain in 1558 by Philip II. Subsequent 
to this decree, a much larger Index was authorized in 1559 by Paul IV, 
and possessed a threefold classification: (1) The works of authors whose 
complete writings, also on secular subjects, were forbidden; (2) cer- 
tain particular writings of authors whose remaining productions were 
not prohibited; and (3) anonymous writings, religious and otherwise, 
including every publication of that kind subsequent to the year 1519. 
Among these productions were many which did not touch upon the sub- 
ject of religion and had been in the hands of the learned for hundreds 
of years, and there were some books among them which had been com- 
mended by former popes, as, for example, the " Commentary on the New 
Testament," by Erasmus, which was approved on Sept. 10, 1518, in a 
brief by Pope Leo X. The Bishop of Badajor suggested a fivefold classi- 
fication of the Index: (1) Heretical books, which were to be burned; 
(2) anonymous books, which were to be allowed when unobjectionable; 



110 



CHURCH, DEFINITION OF. 



(3) books of mixed content, which were to be expurgated; (4) trans- 
lations of the Holy Scriptures into the vernacular, and prayer books, 
which were to be forbidden or allowed, according to their character; 
(5) books on magic, black art, and fortune telling. — "Modernism and 
the Reformation," John Benjamin Rust, Ph. D., D. D., p. 175. New 
York: Fleming H. Revell Company. 

Ceremonial Law, Contrasted with Moral Law. — See Law, Cere- 
monial, 280; Law of God, 284, 285. 

Charlemagne. — See Holy Roman Empire, 213; Rome, Its Barbarian 
Invaders, 453, 454, 456; Sunday Laws, 540; Temporal Power of the 
Pope, 549. 

Child Preachers. — See Advent, Second, 18, 19. 
Christ, Date of Crucifixion of. — See Seventy Weeks. 

Chronology. — See Daniel, 129-131; Ptolemy's Canon; Seventy 
Weeks. 

Church, Meaning of. — The church of Christ, therefore, is a body 
of which the Spirit of Jesus is the soul. It is a company of Christlike 
men and women, whom the Holy Spirit has called, enlightened, and 
sanctified through the preaching of the word; who are encouraged to 
look forward to a glorious future prepared for the people of God; and 
who, meanwhile, manifest their faith in all manner of loving services 
done to their fellow believers. 

The church is therefore in some sense invisible. Its secret is its 
hidden fellowship with Jesus. Its roots penetrate the unseen, and draw 
from thence the nourishment needed to sustain its life. But it is a 
visible society, and can be seen wherever the word of God is faithfully 
proclaimed, and wherever faith is manifested in testimony and in 
bringing forth the fruits of the Spirit. 

This is the essential mode of describing the church which has found 
place in the Reformation creeds. Some vary in the ways in which they 
express the thought; some do not sufficiently distinguish, in words at 
least, between what the church is and what it has, between what makes 
its being and what is included in its well-being. But in all there are 
the two thoughts that the church is made visible by the two fundamental 
things — the proclamation of the word and the manifestation of faith. — 
"A History of the Reformation" Thomas M. Lindsay, M. A., D. D., p. 
485. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1906. 

Church, Defined by Bellarmine. — A body of men united together 
by the profession of the same Christian faith, and by participation in 
the same sacraments, under the governance of lawful pastors, more 
especially of the Roman Pontiff, the sole vicar of Christ on earth. — 

" Be Ecclesia Militante" (R. C.J, Tom. II, lib. 3, cap. 2 (On the Church 
Militant, Vol. II, book 3, chap. 2). 

Church, Defined in the Bull " Unam Sanctam." — That there is 
one holy catholic and apostolic church we are impelled by our faith to 
believe and to hold — this we do firmly believe and openly confess — and 
outside of this there is neither salvation nor remission of sins. . . . 
Therefore, in this one and only church there is one body and one head, 
— not two heads as if it were a monster, — namely, Christ and Christ's 
vicar, Peter and Peter's successor. — Corpus Juris Canonici, Extrava- 
gantes Communes, book 1, title 8, ch. 1 . 



CHURCH, HISTORICAL NOTES ON. 



Ill 



Note. — This declaration in the bull of Boniface VIII had reference, not to 
the claims of a rival pope, nor to a temporary dual headship, such as occasionally 
existed, but to what Boniface regarded as usurpations of the papal prerogative 
by Philip the Fair of France, which, had .they been admitted, would have con- 
stituted him, if not the head, at least another, or second, head of the church. 
— Eds. 

Church, Roman Catholic Idea of. — The Roman idea of a church 
was that it was a visible body in communion with the Roman see, and in 
which the ministers derived their whole authority through that see. For 
this conception the reformed principle substituted at once the idea which 
is expressed in the Augsburg Confession, . . . that the visible church is 
a congregation of faithful or believing men, " in which the pure word of 
God is preached, and the sacraments be duly ministered according to 
Christ's ordinance in all those things that of necessity are requisite to 
the same." It was also recognized in all Reformed Churches, including 
the English Church as represented even by such men as Laud and Cosin, 
that episcopal orders, however desirable, were not essential for that 
due ministration. On all hands, therefore, within the Reformed com- 
munions, whether in Germany, Switzerland, France, or England, it was 
acknowledged that a true church might subsist, although the immediate 
and regular connection of its ministry with the ancient episcopal suc- 
cession was broken. — "Principles of the Reformation" Rev. Henry 
Wace, D. D., pp. 103, 104. New York: American Tract Society. 

Church, Head of Roman. — We define . . . that the Roman Pontiff 
himself ... is the head of the whole church. — " The Most Holy Coun- 
cils" Labbe and, Cossart, Vol. XIII, col. 1167. 

Church, Historical Notes on the. — The word "church" (from 
Greek kyriakon, "the Lord's," i. e., "house" or "body") meant in 
original Christian usage either the universal body of Christian believ- 
ers or a local congregation of believers. In the Romance languages the 
idea is expressed by a word from another root (Fr. eglise, Ital. chiesa, 
from Greek ekklcsia "the [body] called together" or "called out"). 
The Old Testament had two words to express the idea, edhah and kahal 
(Lev. 4:13, 14), both meaning "assembly," the latter implying a 
distinctly religious object. — The Neiv Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of 
Religious Knoivledge, Vol. Ill, p. 77. 

In the West, on the other hand, the definite organization of the 
church at large took shape in the papal monarchy; the further history 
of Catholicism and its idea of the church is really a history of the 
Roman primacy. . . . 

The first medieval Christian body which, while holding fast to the 
general Christian faith, abandoned that doctrine of the church sketched 
above [the Roman Catholic view], was the Waldenses. They con- 
sidered themselves members of the church of Christ and partakers of 
his salvation, in spite of their exclusion from organized Christendom, 
recognizing at the same time a " church of Christ " within the organiza- 
tion whose heads were hostile to them. There is not, however, in their 
teaching any clear definition of the nature of the church or any new 
principle in reference to it. 

The first theologian to bring forward a conception of the church 
radically opposed to that which had been developing was Wycliffe; and 
Huss followed him in it. According to him the church is the " totality 
of the predestinated; " there, as in his doctrine of grace, he followed 
Augustine, but took a standpoint contrary as well to Augustine's as to 
that of later Catholicism in his account of the institutions and means 
of grace by which God communicates the blessings of salvation to the 



112 



CHURCH, ROMAN CATHOLIC. 



predestined, excluding from them the polity of priest, bishop, and pope. 
He denied the divine institution both of papal primacy and of the 
episcopate as distinct from the -presbyterate, and attributed infallible 
authority to the Scriptures alone. The idea of both Wycliffe and Huss 
was thus not of an actually existing body of united associates, but 
merely the total of predestined Christians who at any time are living 
holy lives, scattered among those who are not predestined, together 
with those who are predestined but not yet converted, and the faithful 
who have passed away. 

Luther defended Wycliffe's definition at the Leipsic Disputation of 
1519, in spite of its condemnation by the Council of Constance. But 
his own idea was that the real nature of the church was denned by the 
words following its mention in the creed — " the communion of saints," 
taking the word "saints" in its Pauline sense. These (although sin 
may still cling to them) are sanctified by God through his word and 
sacraments — sacraments not depending upon an organized, episcopally 
ordained clergy, but committed to the church as a whole; it is their 
faith, called forth by the word of God, which makes them righteous and 
accepted members of Christ and heirs of eternal life. Thus the Lutheran 
and, in general, the Calvinist conception of the church depended from 
the first upon the doctrine of justification by faith. In harmony with 
L uther's teaching, the Augsburg Confession defines the church as " the 
congregation of saints in which the gospel is rightly taught and the 
sacraments are rightly administered." In one sense the church is in- 
visible, since the earthly eye cannot tell who has true faith and in this 
sense is a " saint," but in another it is visible, since it has its being 
here in outward and visible vital forms, ordained by God, in which 
those who are only " saints " in appearance have an external share. — 
The Neio Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, Vol. Ill, 
pp. 81-83. New York: Funic and Wagnalls Company. 

Church, Roman Catholic, Claims to Make Possible Union with 
Christ. — Catholics believe that our Lord Jesus Christ is alone the great 
center of the Christian religion, the fountain of all grace, virtue, and 
merit, as in the natural world (if the comparison may be allowed) the 
sun is the center and enlivening source of light, heat, and growth. 

This grand truth they believe to be the vital, essential part of 
Christianity, " for other foundation no man can lay but that which is 
laid; which is Christ Jesus," 1 Cor. 3: 11. 

They believe that union with Jesus Christ is the highest and 
noblest aim of man, and that only the Holy Catholic Church supplies 
the means for this union with Jesus Christ. — " Catholic Belief," Rev. 
Joseph Fad di Bruno, D. D. (R. C.J, p. 33. New York: Benziger Brothers. 

Church, Roman Catholic View of the Teaching Authority of. — 
The doctrinal contents of Scripture she [the church] designates in the 
general spirit of Scripture. Hence the earliest ecumenical councils did 
not even adduce any particular Scriptural texts in support of their 
dogmatic decrees; and Catholic theologians teach with general con- 
currence, and quite in the spirit of the church, that even a Scriptural 
proof in favor of a decree held to be infallible, is not itself infallible, 
but only the dogma as defined. The deepest reason for this conduct of 
the church lies in the indisputable truth that she was not founded by 
Holy Writ, but already existed before its several parts appeared. The 
certainty which she has of the truth of her own doctrines, is an im- 
mediate one, for she received her dogmas from the lips of Christ and 
the apostles; and by the power of the divine Spirit, they are indelibly 
stamped on her consciousness, or as Irenseus expresses it, on her heart. 



CHURCH OF ROME. 



113 



If the church were to endeavor, by learned investigation, to seek her 
doctrines, she would fall into the most absurd inconsistency, and anni- 
hilate her very self. — "Symbolism" John Adam Moehler, D. D. (R. C), 
p. 296. London: Thomas Baker, 1906. 

Church, The Catholic, Fiest Use of the Combination. — The com- 
bination " the Catholic Church " is found for the first time in the letter 
of St. Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans, written about the year 110. — The 
Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. Ill, art. "Catholic," p. 449. New York: 
Robert Appleton Company. 

Church and State. — See Holy Roman Empire; Religious Liberty; 
Sunday Laws. 

Church of England. — See Advent, Second, 16; Tradition, 563. 

Church of Rome, Newman on. — We must take and deal with 
things as they are, not as they pretend to be. If we are induced to 
believe the professions of Rome, and make advances towards her as 
if a sister or a mother church, which in theory she is, we shall find 
too late that we are in the arms of a pitiless and unnatural relative, 
who will but triumph in the arts which have inveigled us within her 
reach. No; dismissing the dreams which the romance of early church 
history and the high theory of Catholicism will raise in the guileless 
and inexperienced mind, let us be sure that she is our enemy, and will 
do us a mischief when she can. In saying and acting on this con- 
viction, we need not depart from Christian charity towards her. We 
must deal with her as we would towards a friend who is visited by 
derangement; in great affliction, with all affectionate tender thoughts, 
with tearful regret and a broken heart, but still with a steady eye and 
a firm hand. For in truth she is a church beside herself, abounding in 
noble gifts and rightful titles, but unable to use them religiously; 
crafty, obstinate, wilful, malicious, cruel, unnatural, as madmen are. 
Or rather, she may be said to resemble a demoniac; possessed with 
principles, thoughts, and tendencies not her own, in outward form and 
in outward powers what God made her, but ruled within by an in- 
exorable spirit, who is sovereign in his management over her, and 
most subtle and most successful in the use of her gifts. Thus she is 
her real self only in name, and, till God vouchsafe to restore her, we 
must treat her as if she were that evil one which governs her. — 
"Lectures on the Prophetical Office of the Church," John Henry 
Newman, B. D., pp. 100, 101. London: J. G. & F. Rivington, 1837. 

Note. — This was written before Cardinal Newman joined the Roman Cath- 
olic Church. — Eds. 

Church of Rome, Roman Catholic Teaching Concerning Salva- 
tion Outside of. — • 

8. Who, then, will be saved? 

Christ has solemnly declared that only those will be saved, who 
have done God's will on earth as explained, not by private interpretation, 
but by the infallible teaching of the Roman Catholic Church. . . . 

10. Must, then, all who wish to be saved, die united to the Catholic 
Church? 

All those who wish to be saved, must die united to the Catholic 
Church; for out of her there is no salvation. . . . 

11. What did St. Augustine and the other bishops of Africa, at the 
Council of Zirta, in 412, say about the salvation of those who die out 
of the Roman Catholic Church? 



8 



114 



CHURCH OF HOME. 



" Whosoever," they said, " is separated from the Catholic Church, 
however commendable in his own opinion his life may be, he shall for 
the very reason that he is separated from the union of Christ not see 
life, but the wrath of God abideth on him." John 3: 36. . . . 

13. Who are out of the pale of the Roman Catholic Church? 

Out of the pale of the Roman Catholic Church are all unbaptized 
and all excommunicated persons, all apostates, unbelievers, and here- 
tics. . . . 

28. What is a heretic? 

A heretic is any baptized person, "professing Christianity, and 
choosing for himself what to believe and what not to believe as he 
pleases, in obstinate opposition to any particular truth which he knows 
is taught by the Catholic Church as a truth revealed by God. [Accord- 
ing to this definition all intelligent Protestants are heretics, and this 
is asserted in question 30. — Eds.] . . . 

30. How many kinds of heretics (Protestants) are there? 

There are three kinds of heretics: 

(1) Those who are guilty of the sin of heresy; 

(2) Those who are not guilty of the sin of heresy, but commit 

other grievous sins; 

(3) Those who are not guilty of the sin of heresy and live up 

to the dictates of their conscience. . . . 

38. Can a Christian be saved, who has left the true church of 
Christ, the Holy Catholic Church? 

No; because the church of Christ is the kingdom of God on earth, 
and he who leaves that kingdom, shuts himself out from the kingdom 
of Christ in heaven. 

39. Have Protestants left the true church of Christ? 
Protestants left the true church of Christ, in their founders, who 

left the Catholic Church, either through pride, or through the passion 
of lust and covetousness. . . . 

46. But is it not a very uncharitable doctrine to say that no one can 
be saved out of the church? 

On the contrary, it is a very great act of charity to assert most em- 
phatically, that out of the Catholic Church there is no salvation possible; 
for Jesus Christ and his apostles have taught this doctrine in very plain 
language. He who sincerely seeks the truth, is glad to hear it and 
embrace it, in order to be saved. — " Familiar Explanation of Catholic 
Doctrine," Rev. M. Milller (R. C), pp. 163-179. New York: Benziger 
Brothers. 

Church of Rome, Two Kinds of Teaching. — The Church of Rome 
as an organization has never tolerated individualism amongst its mem- 
bers. It at once affirms and denies the individual conscience, inasmuch 
as that conscience must ever be sought in the dogmas and direction of 
the Institution. 

Now what are the teachings of the Institution? There are two 
distinct sets and headings. First: Those for the uninitiated, or the 
sheep. Second: Those for the initiated, or the shepherds. In other 
words, there is exoteric and esoteric Catholicism. 

With the exoteric doctrines it finds means to defend itself against 
attack, and retreats always behind the bulwarks of Christian ethics. 
It proclaims charity, sincerity, justice, altruism, professes from the 
pulpits the gospel of Jesus Christ, and thus deludes its adversaries, 
who fall back disheartened, and abandon a systematic attack. 

Members of the Roman communion who are the cause of recurring 
scandals, are declared lamentable exceptions to the universal virtuous 
living of the priesthood; they are acknowledged as the stray sheep, 
whom the ever-loving "mother church" would fain recover. 



CONCLAVE. 



115 



The curious searcher, however, who is desirous of reconciling- the 
history of the Roman Church with its avowed doctrine, cannot be satis- 
fied with such inconsistency, and it must, in time, become clear to him 
that only through the existence of an esoteric doctrine can such grave 
discrepancies be explained. — " The Double Doctrine of the Church of 
Rome," Baroness von Zedtwitz, pp. 18-20. New York: Fleming H. 
Revell Company. 

Cicero, Peophecy or. — See Advent, First, 5. 

Cigarettes. — See Health and Temperance, 199, 200, 201. 

Clemens Alexandrinus. — See Fathers, 169, 170. 

Clemens Romanus (Clement I). — See Papacy, 332. 

Clovis. — See Rome, Its Barbarian Invaders, 443, 444, 450, 454. 

Coffee. — See Health and Temperance, 199. 

Columbus. — See Increase of Knowledge, 223. 

Coming of Christ. — See Advent, Second. 

Conclave. — Strictly a room, or set of rooms, locked with a key; in 
this sense the word is now obsolete in English, though the New English 
Dictionary gives an example of its use so late as 1753. 

Its present loose application to any private or close assembly, 
especially ecclesiastical, is derived from its technical application to 
the assembly of cardinals met for the election of the Pope." " Each 
cardinal is accompanied by a clerk or secretary, known for this reason 
as a conclavist, and by one servant only. With the officials of the 
conclave, this makes about two hundred and fifty persons who enter the 
conclave and have no further communication with the outer world save 
by means of turning-boxes. . . . Within the conclave, the cardinals, 
alone in the common hall, usually the Sistine Chapel, proceed morning 
and evening to their double vote, the direct vote and the " accessit." 

Sometimes these sessions have been very numerous; for example, 
in 1740, Benedict XIV was only elected after 255 scrutinies [ballots]; 
on other occasions, however, and notably in the case of the last few 
popes, a well-defined majority has soon been evident, and there have 
been but few scrutinies. Each vote is immediately counted by three 
scrutators [tellers], appointed in rotation, the most minute precau- 
tions being taken to insure that the voting shall be secret and sincere. 
When one cardinal has at last obtained two thirds of the votes, the 
dean of the cardinals formally asks him whether he accepts his election, 
and what name he wishes to assume. 

As soon as he has accepted, the first " obedience " or " adoration " 
takes place, and immediately after the first cardinal deacon goes to the 
Loggia of St. Peter's and announces the great news to the assembled 
people. The conclave is dissolved; on the following day take place 
the two other " obediences," and the election is officially announced to 
the various governments. If the Pope be not a bishop (Gregory XVI 
was not), he is then consecrated; and finally, a few days after his 
election, takes place the coronation, from which the pontificate is offi- 
cially dated. The Pope then receives the tiara with the triple crown, the 
sign of his supreme spiritual authority. The ceremony of the coronation 
goes back to the ninth century, and the tiara, in the form of a high 



116 



CONFESSION, VIEWS OF. 



conical cap, is equally ancient. — The Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. VI, 
art. " Conclave;' pp. 827, 829, 11th edition. 

Confession, Protestant View of. — Confession of sins is an ac- 
knowledgment of sin, which may be made by a Christian either to God 
alone, to a fellow Christian, or to one who holds an ecclesiastical office. 
Confession as an act prescribed or recommended by the church is made 
in accordance with the free decision of the individual (voluntary pri- 
vate confession), in compliance with special rules of church training 
and discipline (confession of catechumens and penitents), and in con- 
formity with general regulations binding on all (a prescribed confes- 
sion, either of individuals or the congregation as a whole). The present 
article is confined to the last-named form; its end is to attain absolution. 

The New Testament knows nothing of confession as a formal in- 
stitution, James 5: 16 referring to the close association with the breth- 
ren, although the words of Jesus in Luke 5: 20; 7: 48, may be compared 
to ecclesiastical absolution. Individual confession as a part of eccle- 
siastical discipline was, of course, customary in ancient times, and also 
served as a voluntary act of a distressed sinner. The confession of sin 
and proclamation of pardon were likewise customary in the service of 
the ancient church. But that confession existed in the earliest time as 
an established ecclesiastical institution is not proved by such isolated 
instances as are occasionally met with. — The New Schaff-Herzog Ency- 
clopedia of Religious Knowledge, Vol. Ill, art. " Confession" p. 221. 

Confession, Roman Catholic View of. — Confession is the avowal 
of one's own sins made to a duly authorized priest for the purpose of 
obtaining their forgiveness through the power of the keys. . . . How 
firmly rooted in the Catholic mind is the belief in the efficacy and ne- 
cessity of confession, appears clearly from the fact that the sacrament 
of penance endures in the church after the countless attacks to which 
it has been subjected during the last four centuries. If at the Reforma- 
tion or since the church could have surrendered a doctrine or aban- 
doned a practice for the sake of peace and to soften a " hard saying," 
confession would have been the first to disappear. Yet it is precisely 
during this period that the church has defined in the most exact terms 
the nature of penance and most vigorously insisted on the necessity 
of confession. . . . 

As the Council of Trent affirms, " the church did not through the 
Lateran Council prescribe that the faithful of Christ should confess — 
a thing which it knew to be by divine right necessary and established 
— but that the precept of confessing at least once a year should be com- 
plied with by all and every one when they reached the age of discre- 
tion " (Session XIV, c. 5). The Lateran edict presupposed the necessity 
of confession as an article of Catholic belief, and laid down a law as to 
the minimum frequency of confession — at least once a year. . . . 

What Sins are to be Confessed. — Among the propositions con- 
demned by the Council of Trent is the following: "That to obtain for- 
giveness of sins in the sacrament of penance, it is not necessary by 
divine law to confess each and every mortal sin which is called to mind 
by due and careful examination, to confess even hidden sins and those 
that are against the last two precepts of the decalogue, together with 
the circumstances that change the specific nature of the sin; such con- 
fession is only useful for the instruction and consolation of the peni- 
tent, and of old was practised merely in order to impose canonical 
satisfaction" (Can. de pwnit., vii). . . . 

Satisfaction. — As stated above, the absolution given by the priest 
to a penitent who confesses his sins with the proper dispositions remits 



CONFIRMATION. 



117 



both the guilt and the eternal punishment (of mortal sin). There re- 
mains, however, some indebtedness to divine justice which must be 
canceled here or hereafter. In order to have it canceled here, the peni- 
tent receives from his confessor what is usually called his " penance," 
usually in the form of certain prayers which he is to say, or of certain 
actions which he is to perform, such as visits to a church, the stations 
of the cross, etc. Almsdeeds, fasting, and prayer are the chief means 
of satisfaction, but other penitential works may also be enjoined. — 
The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. XI, art. "Penance," pp. 625-628. 

Confession, Auricular, Established by Innocent III. — Not only 
did Innocent III thus provide himself with an ecclesiastical militia 
suited to meet the obviously impending insurrection, he increased his 
power greatly but insidiously by the formal introduction of auricular 
confession. It was by the fourth Lateran Council that the necessity of 
auricular confession was first formally established. Its aim was that 
no heretic should escape, and that the absent prfest should be paramount 
even in the domestic circle. In none but a most degraded and super- 
stitious society can such an infamous institution be tolerated. It in- 
vades the sacred privacy of life — makes a man's wife, children, and 
servants his spies and accusers. When any religious system stands 
in need of such a social immorality, we may be sure that it is irre- 
coverably diseased, and hastening to its end. 

Auricular confession led to an increasing necessity for casuistry, 
though that science was not fully developed until the time of the 
Jesuits, when it gave rise to an extensive literature, with a lax system 
and a false morality, guiding the penitent rather with a view to his 
usefulness to the church than to his own reformation, and not hesitat- 
ing at singular indecencies in its portion having reference to married 
life. — " History of the Intellectual Development of Europe" John Wil- 
liam Draper, M. D., LL. D., Vol. II, pp. 65, 66. New York: Harper & 
Brothers. 

Confession. — See Keys, 279. 

Confirmation, Canons on. — Canon I. If any one saith that the 
confirmation of those who have been baptized is an idle ceremony, and 
not rather a true and proper sacrament; or that of old it was nothing 
more than a kind of catechism whereby they who were near adolescence 
gave an account of their faith in the face of the church; let him be 
anathema. 

Canon II. If any one saith that they who ascribe any virtue to the 
sacred chrism of confirmation offer an outrage to the Holy Ghost; let 
him be anathema. — "Dogmatic Canons and Decrees," p. 66. New York: 
The Devin-Adair Company, 1912. 

Confirmation. — Confirmation, a sacrament in which the Holy 
Ghost is given to those already baptized in order to make them strong 
and perfect Christians and soldiers of Jesus Christ. . . . With reference 
to its effect it is the " Sacrament of the Holy Ghost," the " Sacrament of 
the Seal" fsignaculum, sigillum, a<f>payls). From the external rite it is 
known as the "imposition of hands" (iirldevu x € <-P&i>), or as "anoint- 
ing with chrism" (unctio, chrismatio, xpfoi**, nfyov) . The names at 
present in use are, for the Western Church, confirmatio, and for the 
Greek, t6 ixtipov. 

In the Western Church the sacrament is usually administered by 
the bishop. At the beginning of the ceremony there is a general im- 
position of hands, the bishop meantime praying that the Holy Ghost 



118 



COUNCIL OF TRENT. 



may come down upon those who have already been regenerated: " Send 
forth upon them thy sevenfold Spirit, the Holy Paraclete." He then 
anoints the forehead of each with chrism, saying: " I sign thee with 
the sign of the cross and confirm thee with the chrism of salvation, in 
the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost." Finally 
he gives each a slight blow on the cheek, saying: " Peace be with thee." 
A prayer is added that the Holy Spirit may dwell in the hearts of those 
who have been confirmed, and the rite closes with the bishop's blessing. 

The Eastern Church omits the imposition of hands and the prayer 
at the beginning, and accompanies the anointing with the words: "The 
sign [or seal] of the gift of the Holy Ghost." These several actions 
symbolize the nature and purpose of the sacrament: the anointing sig- 
nifies the strength given for the spiritual conflict; the balsam contained 
in the chrism, the fragrance of virtue and the good odor of Christ; the 
sign of the cross on the forehead, the courage to confess Christ before 
all men; the imposition of hands and the blow on the cheek, enrolment 
in the service of Christ, which brings true peace to the soul. — The 
Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. TV, art. " Confirmation," p. 215. 

Constantine. — See Apostasy, 35, 36, 37; Apostolic Christianity, 38; 
Councils, 119; Eastern Question, 148; Forgeries, 170, 171; Heretics, 208, 
209; Inquisition, 251; Paganism, 323; Sabbath, Change of, 473; Sunday, 
537, 538; Sunday Laws, 538, 539. 

Constitution of the United States. — See Religious Liberty, 414. 
Copernican Theory. — See Galileo. 
Corpus Juris Canonici. — See Canon Law. 

Council of Trent, Its Relation to Protestantism. — The work of the 
Council of Trent completed the preparations of the Roman Church for 
the great fight with Protestantism. Armed at all points she took the 
field against her foe, under the command too of a peerless captain. Pope 
Pius IV did not long outlive the assembly which he had so vigorously 
wielded, and in 1565 made way for Pius V (Michael Ghislieri), the per- 
fect and pattern pontiff. In him the Roman Church enjoyed a fervent, 
vigilant, devoted, laborious, self-denying, and consummate head; in 
him the Reformation encountered a watchful, unweary, implacable, 
and merciless enemy. . . . 

Amidst the multitude of pontifical cares and duties, all diligently 
attended to and exactly fulfilled, he gave closest heed to the supreme 
care and duty of- extirpating heretics, and as the head of the Roman 
Church outdid his deeds and outnumbered his trophies as the head of 
the Holy Office. He conducted the operations of the Roman Catholic 
reaction with great skill, astonishing energy, and much success. He 
carried the war against Protestantism into every land and pressed into 
the service every mode of assault, every form of seduction and violence; 
teaching, preaching, imprisonment and torture, fire and sword, Jesuits, 
inquisitors, and soldiers. — " The Papal Drama," Thomas H. Gill, pp. 245, 
246. London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1866. 

Councils, Reasons for Calling. — Six grounds for the convocation 
of great councils, particularly ecumenical councils, are generally enu- 
merated : 

1. When a dangerous heresy or schism has arisen. 

2. When two popes oppose each other, and it is doubtful which is 
the true one. 

3. When the question is, whether to decide upon some great and 
universal undertaking against the enemies of the Christian name. 



COUNCILS, DECREES OF. 119 




4. When the Pope is suspected of heresy or of other serious faults. 



5. When the cardinals have been unable or unwilling to undertake 
the election of a pope. 

6. When it is a question of the reformation of the church, in its 
head and members. — " A History of the Christian Councils," Rev. 
Charles Joseph Hefele, D. D. (R. C.J, To A. D. 325 (first volume), p. 5. 
Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1872. 

Councils, Confirmation of Decrees of. — The decrees of the ancient 
ecumenical councils were confirmed by the emperors and by the popes; 
those of the later councils by the popes alone. On the subject of the 
confirmation of the emperors we have the following facts: 

1. Constantine the Great solemnly confirmed the Nicene Creed im- 
mediately after it had been drawn up by the council, and he threatened 
such as would not subscribe it with exile. At the conclusion of the 
synod he raised all the decrees of the assembly to the position of laws 
of the empire; declared them to be divinely inspired; and in several 
edicts still partially extant, he required that they should be most faith- 
fully observed by all his subjects. 

2. The second ecumenical council expressly asked for the confirma- 
tion of the emperor Theodosius the Great, and he responded to the 
wishes of the assembly by an edict dated the 30th July, 381. 

3. The case of the third ecumenical council, which was held at 
Ephesus, was peculiar. The emperor Theodosius II had first been on 
the heretical side, but he was brought to acknowledge by degrees that 
the orthodox part of the bishops assembled at Ephesus formed the true 
synod. However, he did not in a general way give his confirmation to 
the decrees of the council, because he would not approve of the deposi- 
tion and exclusion pronounced by the council against the bishops of 
the party of Antioch. Subsequently, however, when Cyril and John of 
Antioch were reconciled, and when the party of Antioch itself had 
acknowledged the Council of Ephesus, the emperor sanctioned this 
reconciliation by a special decree, threatened all who should disturb 
the peace; and by exiling Nestorius, and by commanding all the Nes- 
torian writings to be burnt, he confirmed the principal decision given 
by the Council of Ephesus. 

4. The emperor Marcian consented to the doctrinal decrees of the 
fourth ecumenical council, held at Chalcedon, by publishing four edicts 
on the 7th February, 13th March, 6th and 28th July, 452. 

5. The close relations existing between the fifth ecumenical coun- 
cil and the emperor Justinian are well-known. This council merely 
carried out and sanctioned what the emperor had before thought neces- 
sary and decided; and it bowed so obsequiously to his wishes that Pope 
Vigilius would have nothing to do with it. The emperor Justinian 
sanctioned the decrees pronounced by the council, by sending an official 
to the seventh session, and he afterwards used every endeavor to obtain 
the approbation of Pope Vigilius for this council. 

6. The emperor Constantine Pogonatus confirmed the decrees of the 
sixth council, first by signing them (ultimo loco, as we have seen); but 
he sanctioned them also by a very long edict, which Hardouin has 
preserved. 

7. In the last session of the seventh ecumenical council, the em- 
press Irene, with her son, signed the decrees made in the preceding 
sessions, and thus gave them the imperial sanction. It is not known 
whether she afterwards promulgated an especial decree to the same 
effect. 

8. The emperor Basil the Macedonian and his sons signed the acts 
of the eighth ecumenical council. His signature followed that of the 
patriarchs, and preceded that of the other bishops. In 870 he also pub- 



120 



COUNCILS, LIST OF. 



lished an especial edict, making known his approval of the decrees of 
the council. 

The papal confirmation of all these eight first ecumenical councils 
is not so clear and distinct. — Id., pp. 42-44. 

Councils, Relation of the Pope to. — We see from these consider- 
ations, of what value the sanction of the Pope is to the decrees of a 
council. Until the Pope has sanctioned these decrees, the assembly of 
bishops which formed them cannot pretend to the authority belonging 
to an ecumenical council, however great a number of bishops may com- 
pose it; for there cannot be an ecumenical council without union with 
the Pope. 

This sanction of the Pope is also necessary for insuring infalli- 
bility to the decisions of the council. According to Catholic doctrine, 
this prerogative can be claimed only for the decisions of ecumenical 
councils, and only for their decisions in rebus fidei et morum [in mat- 
ters of faith and morals], not for purely disciplinary decrees. — Id., 
p. $2. 

Councils, List of the Ecumenical. — Here, then, we offer a cor- 
rected table of the ecumenical councils: 

1. That of Nicaea in 325. 

2. The first of Constantinople in 381. 

3. That of Ephesus in 431. 

4. That of Chalcedon in 451. 

5. The second of Constantinople in 553. 

6. The third of Constantinople in 680. 

7. The second of Niceea in 787. 

8. The fourth of Constantinople in 869. 

9. The first of Lateran in 112,3. 

10. The second of Lateran in 1139. 

11. The third of Lateran in 1179. 

12. The fourth of Lateran in 1215. 

13. The first of Lyons in 1245. 

14. The second of Lyons in 1274. 

15. That of Vienne in 1311. 

16. The Council of Constance, from 1414 to 1418; that is to say: 
(&) The latter sessions presided over by Martin V (sessions 41-45 in- 
clusive) ; (b) in the former sessions all the decrees sanctioned by Pope 
Martin V, that is, those concerning the faith, and which were given 
conciliariter. 

17. The Council of Basle, from the year 1431; that is to say: (a) 
The twenty-five first sessions, until the translation of the council to 
Ferrara by Eugene IV; (b) in these twenty-five sessions the decrees 
concerning the extinction of heresy, the pacification of Christendom, 
and the general reformation of the church in its head and in its mem- 
bers, and which, besides, do not strike at the authority of the apostolic 
chair; in a word, those decrees which were afterwards sanctioned by 
Pope Eugene IV. 

lib. The assemblies held at Ferrara and at Florence (1438-42) can- 
not be considered as forming a separate ecumenical council. They were 
merely the continuation of the Council of Basle, which was transferred 
to Ferrara by Eugene IV on the 8th January, 1438, and from thence to 
Florence in January, 1439. 

18. The fifth of Lateran, 1512-17. 

19. The Council of Trent, 1545-63,=^ Id., pp. 63, 64. 



COUNCILS, VATICAN. 



121 



The list of ecumenical councils as accepted by the Roman Catholic 
Church is as follows: 1. Nicsea I, 325; 2. Constantinople I, 381; 3. Ephe- 
sus, 431; 4. Chalcedon, 451; 5. Constantinople II, 553; 6. Constantinople 
III (first Trullan), 680-681; 7. Nicsea II, 787; 8. Constantinople IV, 
869; 9. Lateran I, 1123; 10. Lateran II, 1139; 11. Lateran III, 1179; 
12. Lateran IV, 1215; 13. Lyons I, 1245; 14. Lyons II, 1274; 15. Vienne, 
1311-12; 16. Constance, 1414-18; 17. Basel-Ferrara-Florence, 1431-42; 18. 
Lateran V, 1512-17; 19. Trent, 1545-63; 20. Vatican, 1869-70. The first 
seven of these are accepted by the Greeks, the others rejected; they also 
accept the second Trullan Council or Quinisextum, 692 (rejected by the 
West), considering it a continuation of the first Trullan or third Con- 
stantinople. The eighth general council of the Greeks was held in Con- 
stantinople in 879 and rejected by the Latins. — The New Schaff-Herzog 
Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, Vol. Ill, art. " Councils and 
Synods," p. 281, Note. New York: Funic and Wagnalls Company. 

Councils, Present Constitution of. — The principles now accepted 
are that these assemblies may only be called by the Pope and presided 
over by him or his delegates; that their membership is confined to the 
cardinals, bishops, vicars apostolic, generals of religious orders, and 
such dignitaries, to the exclusion of the laity; that the subjects dis- 
cussed must be laid before them by the Pope, and their decisions con- 
firmed by him. They are thus nothing more than assemblies of advisers 
about the Pope, with no independent power of their own. — Id., p. 282. 

Councils, Vatican, Lord Acton on. — The Council of Trent im- 
pressed on the church the stamp of an intolerant age, and perpetuated 
by its decrees the spirit of an austere immorality. The ideas embodied 
in the Roman Inquisition became characteristic of a system which 
obeyed expediency by submitting to indefinite modification, but under- 
went no change of principle. Three centuries have so changed the 
world that the maxims with which the church resisted the Reformation 
have become her weakness and her reproach, and that which arrested 
her decline now arrests her progress. To break effectually with that 
tradition and eradicate its influence, nothing less is required than an 
authority equal to that by which it was imposed. The Vatican Council 
was the first sufficient occasion which Catholicism had enjoyed to re- 
form, remodel, and adapt the work of Trent. This idea was present 
among the motives which caused it to be summoned. — " The History of 
Freedom," John Emerich Edward Dalberg-Acton (R. C), pp. 493, 494. 
London: Macmillan & Co., 1909. 

Before the council had been assembled a fortnight, a store of dis- 
content had accumulated which it would have been easy to avoid. Every 
act of the Pope, the bull Multiplices, the declaration of censures, the 
text of the proposed decree, even the announcement that the council 
should be dissolved in case of his death, had seemed an injury or an 
insult to the episcopate. These measures undid the favorable effect of 
the caution with which the bishops had been received. They did what 
the dislike of infallibility alone would not have done. They broke the 
spell of veneration for Pius IX which fascinated the Catholic episcopate. 
The jealousy with which he guarded his prerogative in the appointment 
of officers, and of the great commission, the pressure during the elections, 
the prohibition of national meetings, the refusal to hold the debates in 
a hall where they could be heard, irritated and alarmed many bishops. 
They suspected that they had been summoned for the very purpose they 
had indignantly denied, — to make the Papacy more absolute by abdicat- 
ing in favor of the official prelature of Rome. Confidence gave way to 



122 



COUNCILS, VATICAN. 



a great despondency, and a state of feeling was aroused which prepared 
the way for actual opposition when the time should come. — Id., pp. 

531, 532. 

When the observations on infallibility which the bishops had sent 
in to the commission appeared in print, it seemed that the minority had 
burnt their ships. They affirmed that the dogma would put an end to 
the conversion of Protestants, that it would drive devout men out of the 
church and make Catholicism indefensible in controversy, that it would 
give governments apparent reason to doubt the fidelity of Catholics, and 
would give new authority to the theory of persecution and of the 
deposing power. They testified that it was unknown in many parts of 
the church, and was denied by the Fathers, so that neither perpetuity 
nor universality could be pleaded in its favor; and they declared it an 
absurd contradiction, founded on ignoble deceit, and incapable of being 
made an article of faith by pope or council. One bishop protested that 
he would die rather than proclaim it. Another thought it would be an 
act of suicide for the church. — Id., pp. 545, 546. 

The debate on the several paragraphs lasted till the beginning of 
July, and the decree passed at length with eighty-eight dissentient votes. 
It was made known that the infallibility of the Pope would be pro- 
mulgated in solemn session on the 18th, and that all who were present 
would be required to sign an act of submission. ... It was resolved 
by a small majority that the opposition should renew its negative 
vote in writing, and should leave Rome in a body before the session. 
Some of the most conscientious and resolute adversaries of the dogma 
advised this course. Looking to the immediate future, they were per- 
suaded that an irresistible reaction was at hand, and that the decrees 
of the Vatican Council would fade away and be dissolved by a power 
mighter than the episcopate and a process less perilous than schism. 
Their disbelief in the validity of its work was so profound that they 
were convinced that it would perish without violence, and they resolved 
to spare the Pope and themselves the indignity of a rupture. Their 
last manifesto, La dernicre Heure, is an appeal for patience, an ex- 
hortation to rely on the guiding, healing hand of God. They deemed that 
they had assigned the course which was to save the church, by teaching 
the Catholics to reject a council which was neither legitimate in con- 
stitution, free in action, nor unanimous in doctrine, but to observe 
moderation in contesting an authority over which great catastrophes 
impend. — Id., pp. 549, 550. 

Councils, Vatican, a Mark of the Age. — Few events of the nine- 
teenth century stand out in bolder relief, and many will be forgotten 
when the Vatican Council will be remembered. It will mark this age 
as the Council of Nicsea and the Council of Trent now mark in history 
the fourth and the sixteenth centuries. — " The True Story of the Vatican 
Council" Henry Edward Manning (R. G.J, p. 2. London: Burns and 
Oates. 

Councils, Vatican, a Remedy fok Evils. — We have entered into a 
third period. The church began not with kings, but with the peoples of 
the world, and to the peoples, it may be, the church will once more re- 
turn. The princes and governments and legislatures of the world were 
everywhere against it at its outset: they are so again. But the hostility 
of the nineteenth century is keener than the hostility of the first. Then 
the world had never believed in Christianity; now it is falling from it. 
But the church is the same, and can renew its relations with what- 



COUNCILS, VATICAN. 



123 



soever forms of civil life the world is pleased to fashion for itself. If, 
as political foresight has predicted, all nations are on their way to de- 
mocracy, the church will know how to meet this new and strange 
aspect of the world. The high policy of wisdom by which the pontiffs 
held together the dynasties of the Middle Age[s] will know how to hold 
together the peoples who still believe. Such was the world on which 
Pius the Ninth was looking out when he conceived the thought of an 
ecumenical council. He saw the world which was once all Catholic 
tossed and harassed by the revolt of its intellect against the revelation 
of God, and of its will against his law; by the revolt of civil society 
against the sovereignty of God; and by the antichristian spirit which is 
driving on princes and governments towards antichristian revolutions. 
He to whom, in the words of St. John Chrysostom, the whole world was 
committed, saw in the Council of the Vatican the only adequate remedy 
for the world-wide evils of the nineteenth century. — Id., pp. 36, 37. 

Councils, Vatican, Summary of Its Doings. — The chief impor- 
tance of the Council of the Vatican lies in its decree on papal supremacy 
and infallibility. It settled the internal dissensions between ultra- 
montanism and Gallicanism, which struck at the root of the fundamental 
principle of authority; it destroyed the independence of the Episcopate, 
and made it a tool of the primacy; it crushed liberal Catholicism; it 
completed the system of papal absolutism; it raised the hitherto dis- 
puted opinion of papal infallibility to the dignity of a binding article 
of faith, which no Catholic can deny without loss of salvation. The 
Pope may now say not only, " I am the tradition " (La tradizione son' 
io), but also, 'I am the church' (Ueglise c'est moi)! — "Rome and the 
Newest Fashions in Religion,''' W. E. Gladstone, p. 65. New York: 
Harper tC- Brothers, 1875. 

Councils, Vatican, Submission to, Explained. — The following con- 
siderations sufficiently explain the fact of submission: 

1. Many of the dissenting bishops were professedly anti-infallibilists, 
not from principle, but only from subordinate considerations of ex- 
pediency, because they apprehended that the definition would provoke 
the hostility of secular governments, and inflict great injury on Catholic 
interests, especially in Protestant countries. Events have since proved 
that their apprehension was well founded. 

2. All Roman bishops are under an oath of allegiance to the Pope, 
which binds them " to preserve, defend, increase, and advance the rights, 
honors, privileges, and authority of the Holy Roman Church, of our 
lord the Pope, and his successors." 

3. The minority bishops defended Episcopal infallibility against 
Papal infallibility. They claimed for themselves what they denied to 
the Pope. Admitting the infallibility of an ecumenical council, and for- 
feiting by their voluntary absence on the day of voting the right of 
their protest, they must either on their own theory accept the decision 
of the council, or give up their theory, cease to be Roman Catholics, and 
run the risk of a new schism. 

At the same time this submission is an instructive lesson of the 
fearful spiritual despotism of the Papacy, which overrules the stubborn 
facts of history and the sacred claims of individual conscience. For the 
facts so clearly and forcibly brought out before and during the council 
by such men as Kenrick, Hefele, Rauscher, Maret, Schwarzenberg, and 
Dupanloup, have not changed, and can never be undone. On the one 
hand we find the results of a life-long, conscientious, and thorough 
study of the most learned divines of the Roman Church, on the other 
ignorance, prejudice, perversion, and defiance of Scripture and tradi- 



124 



CREED OF PIUS IV. 



tion; on the one hand we have history shaping theology, on the other 
theology ignoring or changing history; on the one hand the just exercise 
of reason, on the other blind submission, which destroys reason and 
conscience. — Id., p. 81. 

Councils, Vatican, a Triumph for the Jesuits. — In the strife for 
the Pope's temporal dominion the Jesuits were most zealous; and they 
were busy in the preparation and in the defense of the Syllabus. They 
were connected with every measure for which the Pope most cared; and 
their divines became the oracles of the Roman congregations. The 
papal infallibility had been always their favorite doctrine. Its adop- 
tion by the council promised to give to their theology official warrant, 
and to their order the supremacy in the church. They were now in 
power; and they snatched their opportunity when the council was con- 
voked. — " The History of Freedom," John Emerich Edward Dalberg- 
Acton (R. C), p. 498. London: Macmillan & Co., 1909. 

Creed of Pope Pius IV. — I. I . . . with a firm faith believe and 
profess all and every one of the things contained in the symbol of faith 
which the Holy Roman Church makes use of, namely, 

I believe in one God the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven and 
earth, and of all things visible and invisible: 

And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only begotten Son of God, begot- 
ten of the Father before all worlds; God of God, Light of Light, very 
God of very God, begotten not made, being of one substance with the 
Father; by whom all things were made; 

who for us men and for our salvation came down from heaven 
and was incarnate by the Holy Ghost of the Virgin Mary, and was 
made man; 

he was crucified for us under Pontius Pilate; suffered and was 
buried ; 

and the third day he rose again according to the Scriptures; 

and ascended into heaven; sitteth on the right hand of the Father; 

and he shall come again with glory to judge the quick and the 
dead; whose kingdom shall have no end: 

And in the Holy Ghost, the Lord, and Giver of life; who proceedeth 
from the Father and the Son; who with the Father and the Son together 
is worshiped and glorified; who spake by the prophets: 

and one holy catholic and apostolic church. 

I acknowledge one baptism for the remission of sins: 

and I look for the resurrection of the dead; 

and the life of the world to come. Amen. 

II. I most steadfastly admit and embrace the apostolic and eccle- 
siastical traditions, and all other observances and constitutions of the 
same church. 

III. I also admit the Holy Scriptures according to that sense which 
our Holy Mother Church has held, and does hold, to which it belongs to 
judge of the true sense and interpretation of the Scriptures; neither 
will I ever take and interpret them otherwise than according to the 
unanimous consent of the Fathers. 

IV. I also profess that there are truly and properly seven sacra- 
ments of the new law, instituted by Jesus Christ our Lord, and neces- 
sary for the salvation of mankind, though not all for every one, to wit: 
baptism, confirmation, the eucharist, penance and extreme unction, holy 
orders, and matrimony; and that they confer grace; and that of these 
baptism, confirmation, and ordination cannot be reiterated without sac- 
rilege. I also receive and admit the received and approved ceremonies 



CREED OF PIUS IV. 



125 



of the Catholic Church used in the solemn administration of the afore- 
said sacraments. 

V. I embrace and receive all and every one of the things which 
have been denned and declared in the holy Council of Trent concerning 
original sin and justification. 

VI. I profess likewise that in the mass there is offered to God a 
true, proper, and propitiatory sacrifice for the living and the dead; and 
that in the most holy sacrament of the eucharist there is truly, really, 
and substantially the body and blood, together with the soul and divin- 
ity, of our Lord Jesus Christ; and that there is made a change of 
the whole essence of the bread into the body, and of the whole essence 
of the wine into the blood; which change the Catholic Church calls 
transubstantiation. 

VII. I also confess that under either kind alone Christ is received 
whole and entire, and a true sacrament. 

VIII. I firmly hold that there is a purgatory, and that the souls 
therein detained are helped by the suffrages of the faithful. 

Likewise that the saints reigning with Christ are to be honored 
and invoked, and that they offer up prayers to God for us; and that 
their relics are to be held in veneration. 

IX. I most firmly assert that the images of Christ and of the per- 
petual Virgin, the mother of God, and also of other saints, ought to be 
had and retained, and that due honor and veneration are to be given 
them. 

I also affirm that the power of indulgences was left by Christ in 
the church, and that the use of them is most wholesome to Christian 
people, 

X. I acknowledge the Holy Catholic Apostolic Roman Church as the 
mother and mistress of all churches, and I promise and swear true 
obedience to the Bishop of Rome as the successor of St. Peter, prince of 
the apostles, and as the vicar of Jesus Christ. 

XI. I likewise undoubtingly receive and profess all other things 
delivered, defined, and declared by the sacred canons and ecumenical 
councils, and particularly by the holy Council of Trent; and I condemn, 
reject, and anathematize all things contrary thereto, and all heresies 
which the church has condemned, rejected, and anathematized. 

XII. I do at this present freely profess and truly hold this true 
Catholic faith, without which no one can be saved (salvus esse); and 
I promise most constantly to retain and confess the same entire and 
inviolate, with God's assistance, to the end of my life. And I will take 
care, as far as- in me lies, that it shall be held, taught, and preached by 
my subjects or by those the care of whom shall appertain to me in my 
office. This I promise, vow, and swear: — so help me God, and these 
holy Gospels of God. — " A History of Greeds and Confessions of Faith," 
William A. Curtis, B. D., D. Litt., pp. 116-119. Neiv York: Charles 
Scribner's Sons, 1912. 

The creed of Pope Fius IV, — which contains twelve articles not 
merely unknown to the primitive church, but, for the most part, con- 
trary to what it received from Christ and his apostles, and destructive 
of it, — with an express declaration that " out of this faith " so enforced 
" there is no salvation." — " Letters to M. Gondon," Chr. Wordsworth, 
D. D., p. 6. London: Francis & John Rivington, 1848. 

Pius IV now devoted his undivided attention to the completion of 
the labors of the Council of Trent. . . . Pius had the satisfaction of 
seeing the close of the long-continued council and the triumph of the 
Papacy over the antipapal tendencies which at times asserted them- 



126 



(REFJ>, ROMAN. 



selves. His name is immortally connected with the " Profession of 
Faith," which must be sworn to by every one holding an ecclesiastical 
office. — The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. XII, art. " Pius IV," p. 129. 

Creed of Pope Pius IV, Epitome of Doctrines of Trent. — This 
creed was adopted at the famous Council of Trent, held in the sixteenth 
century, when the doctrines of the Reformation were already widely 
diffused through Europe, and joyfully accepted and held by the young 
Protestant churches of many lands. The Council of Trent was indeed 
Rome's reply to the Reformation. The newly recovered truths of the 
gospel were in its canons and decrees stigmatized as pestilent heresies, 
and all who held them accursed; and in opposition to them this creed 
was prepared and adopted. — "Romanism and the Reformation," H. 
Grattan Guinness, D. D., F. R. A. 8., pp. 77, 78. London: J. Nisoet & Co., 
1891. 

This creed of Pope Pius IV is the authoritative papal epitome of 
the canons and decrees of the Council of Trent. The importance of this 
council " depends upon the considerations, that its records embody the 
solemn, formal, and official decision of the Church of Rome — which 
claims to be the one holy, catholic church of Christ — upon all the 
leading doctrines taught by the Reformers; that its decrees upon all 
doctrinal points are received by all Romanists as possessed of infallible 
authority; and that every popish priest is sworn to receive, profess, and 
maintain everything defined and declared by it." — Id., p. 80. 

Creed, Roman, Authoritative Statement of. — The Apostolic, 
Nicene, and Athanasian Creeds, and in general all the doctrinal de- 
crees which the first four general councils have laid down in respect 
to the Trinity, and to the person of Christ, those Protestants who are 
faithful to their church, recognize in common with Catholics; and on 
this point the Lutherans, at the commencement of the Augsburg Con- 
fession, as well as in the Smalcald Articles, solemnly declared their 
belief. Not less explicit and public were the declarations of the Re- 
formed. These formularies constitute the common property of the sepa- 
rate churches — the precious dowry which the overwise daughters car- 
ried away with them from the maternal house to their new settlements: 
they cannot accordingly be matter of discussion here, where we have 
only to speak of the disputes which occasioned the separation, but not 
of those remaining bonds of union to which the severed yet cling. We 
shall first speak of those writings wherein, at the springing up of dis- 
sensions, the Catholic Church declared her primitive domestic laws. 

1. The Council of Trent. — Soon after the commencement of the 
controversies, of which Luther was the author, but whereof the cause 
lay hidden in the whole spirit of that age, the desire from many quar- 
ters was expressed and by the emperor Charles V warmly represented 
to the papal court, that a general council should undertake the settle- 
ment of these disputes. But the very complicated nature of the matters 
themselves, as well as numerous obstacles of a peculiar kind, which 
have seldom been impartially appreciated, did not permit the opening 
of the council earlier than the year 1545, under Pope Paul III. After 
several long interruptions, one of which lasted ten years, the council, 
in the year 1563, under the pontificate of Pius IV, was, on the close of 
the twenty-fifth session, happily concluded. The decrees regard dogma 
and discipline. Those regarding the former are set forth, partly in the 
form of treatises, separately entitled decretum or doctrina, partly in 
the form of short propositions, called canones. The former describe, 
sometimes very circumstantially, the Catholic doctrine; the latter de- 



CREED, ROMAN. 



127 



clare in terse and pithy terms against the prevailing errors in doctrine. 
The disciplinary ordinances, with the title Decretum de Reformatione, 
will but rarely engage our attention. 

2. The second writing, which we must here name, is the Tridentine, 
or Roman catechism, with the title Catechismus Romanus ex Decreto 
Goncilii Tridentini. The Fathers of the church, assembled at Trent, 
felt, themselves, the want of a good catechism for general use, although 
very serviceable works of that kind were then not altogether wanting. 
These, even during the celebration of the council, increased to a great 
quantity. None, however, gave perfect satisfaction; and it was re- 
solved that one should be composed and published by the council itself. 
In fact, the council examined the outline of one prepared by a commit- 
tee; but this, for want of practical utility and general intelligibleness, 
it was compelled to reject. At length, when the august assembly was 
on the point of being dissolved, it saw the necessity of renouncing the 
publication of a catechism, and of concurring in the proposal of the 
papal legates, to leave to the Holy See the preparation of such a work. 
The Holy Father selected for this important task three distinguished 
theologians, namely, Leonardo Marino, archbishop of Lanciano; Egidio 
Foscarari, bishop of Modena; and Francisco Fureiro, a Portuguese Do- 
minican. They were assisted by three cardinals, and the celebrated 
philologist, Paulus Manutius, who was to give the last finish to the 
Latin diction and style of the work. 

It appeared in the year 1566, under Pope Pius IV, and as a proof of 
its excellence, the various provinces of the church — some even by nu- 
merous synodal decrees — hastened publicly to introduce it. This 
favorable reception', in fact, it fully deserved, from the pure evangelical 
spirit which was found to pervade it, from the unction and clearness 
with which it was written, and from that happy exclusion of scholastic 
opinions, and avoidance of scholastic forms, which was generally de- 
sired. It was, nevertheless, designed merely as a manual for pastors 
in the ministry, and not to be a substitute for children's catechisms, 
although the originally continuous form of its exposition was after- 
wards broken up into questions and answers. 

But now it may be asked, whether it possess really a symbolical 
authority and symbolical character? This question cannot be answered 
precisely in the affirmative; for, in the first place, it was neither pub- 
lished nor sanctioned, but only occasioned, by the Council of Trent. 
Secondly, according to the destination prescribed by the Council of 
Trent, it was not, like regular formularies, to be made to oppose any 
theological error, but only to apply to practical use the symbol i of 
faith already put forth. Hence, it answers other wants, and is accord- 
ingly constructed in a manner far different from public confessions of 
faith. This work, also, does not confine itself to those points of belief 
merely which, in opposition to the Protestant communities, the Catholic 
Church holds; but it embraces all the doctrines of the gospel; and hence 
it might be named (if the usage of speech and the peculiar objects of 
all formularies were compatible with such a denomination), a confes- 
sion of the Christian church in opposition of all non-Christian creeds. 
If, for the reason first stated, the Roman catechism be devoid of a 
formal universal sanction of the church, so it wants, for the second 
reason assigned, all the internal qualities and the special aim which 
formularies are wont to have. In the third place, it is worthy of 
notice that on one occasion, in a controversy touching the relation of 
grace to freedom, the Jesuits asserted before the supreme authorities 
of the church, that the catechism possessed not a symbolical character; 



1 Symbol : . . . 3. Theol. A formal and authoritative statement of religious 
doctrine ; a confession of faith ; creed. — New Standard Dictionary. 



128 



CREED, ROMAN. 



and no declaration in contradiction to their opinion was pronounced. 

But, if we refuse to the Roman catechism the character of a public 
confession, we by no means deny it a great authority, which, even from 
the very circumstance that it was composed by order of the Council of 
Trent, undoubtedly belongs to it. In the next place, as we have said, 
it enjoys a very general approbation from the teaching church, and can 
especially exhibit the many recommendations which on various occa- 
sions the sovereign pontiffs have bestowed on it. We shall accordingly 
often refer to it, and use it as a very important voucher for Catholic 
doctrine; particularly where the declarations of the Council of Trent 
are not sufficiently ample and detailed. 

3. The Professio Fidel Tridentina stands in a similar relation. 

4. Shortly after the times of the Council of Trent, and in part dur- 
ing its celebration, there arose within the Catholic Church doctrinal 
controversies, referring mostly to the relation between grace and free- 
dom, and to subjects of a kindred nature; and hence, even for our 
purposes, they are not without importance. For the settlement of the 
dispute, the apostolic see saw itself forced to issue several constitu- 
tions, wherein it was obliged to enter into the examination of the mat- 
ter in debate. To these constitutions belong especially the bulls, pub- 
lished by Innocent X, against the five propositions of Jansenius, and 
the bull Unigenitus, by Clement XI. We may undoubtedly say of these 
constitutions, that they possess no symbolical character, for they only 
note certain propositions as erroneous, and do not set forth the doctrine 
opposed to the error, but suppose it to be already known. But a formu- 
lary of faith must not merely reject error; it must state doctrine. As 
the aforesaid bulls, however, rigidly adhere to the decisions of* Trent, 
and are composed quite in their spirit; as they, moreover, have refer- 
ence to many important questions, and settle, though only in a negative 
way, these questions in the sense of the above-named decrees; we shall 
occasionally recur to them, and illustrate by their aid many a Catholic 
dogma. 

It is evident from what has been said, that the Catholic Church, in 
fact, has, in the matters in question, but one writing of a symbolical 
authority. All that, in any respect, may bear such a title, is only a 
deduction from this formulary, or a nearer definition, illustration, or 
application of its contents, or is in part only regulated by it, or in any 
case obtains a value only by agreement with it, and hence cannot, in 
point of dignity, bear a comparison with the original itself. — " Sym- 
bolism; or, Exposition of the Doctrinal Differences Between Catholics 
and Protestants," John Adam Moehler, D. D. (R. C), pp. 11-15. London: 
Thomas Baker, 1906. 

Note. — The preface to the first edition of Dr. Moehler's work is dated 
" Tubingen, 1832." Since that time the creed of the Roman Church has been 
enlarged by the addition of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Vir- 
gin Mary, promulgated by Pope Pius IX in 1854, and the canons and decrees of 
the Vatican Council, 1869-70. These added dogmas are now of the same authority 
as the canons and decrees of Trent. — Eds. 

The doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church are laid down in 
the ecumenical creeds, the acts of nineteen or twenty ecumenical coun- 
cils, the bulls of the popes, and especially the Tridentine and Vatican 
standards. The principal authorities are the canons and decrees of 
the Council of Trent (1563), the Profession of the Tridentine Faith, 
commonly called the Creed of Pius IV (1564), the Roman Catechism 
(1566), the decree of the Immaculate Conception (1854), and the 
Vatican decrees on the Catholic faith and the infallibility of the Pope 
(1870). The best summary of the leading articles of the Roman faith 
is contained in the Creed of Pope Pius IV, which is binding upon all 



DANIEL, DATE OF. 



129 



priests and public teachers, and which must be confessed by all con- 
verts. — Philip Schaff, D. D„ in "New Universal Cyclopedia" Johnson, 
Vol. Ill, art. "Roman Catholic Church," part 2, p. 1702. 

Creeds. — See Advent, Second, 10. 
Croesus. — See Medo-Persia, 306. 

Crucifixion of Christ, Date of. — See "Seventy Weeks. 
Cyprian. — See Fathers, 168. 

Cyrus — See Babylon, 50-53, 58, 59; Medo-Persia, 307, 308. 

Daniel, Book of, Authenticity of. — With the exception of the neo- 
Platonist Porphyry, a Greek non-Christian philosopher of the third cen- 
tury a. d., the genuineness of the book of Daniel was denied by no one 
until the rise of the deistic movement in the seventeenth century. — 
The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, edited by James L. Orr, 
M. A., D. D., Vol. II, p. 784, art. " Daniel, Book of," subdivision, " Genu- 
ineness." Chicago: The Howard-Severance Company, 1915. 

The authenticity of the book [of Daniel] has been attacked in mod- 
ern times, and its composition ascribed to the times of the Maccabees: 
but in doctrine the book is closely connected with the writings of the 
exile, and forms a last step in the development of the ideas of Messiah 
(7: 13, etc.), of the resurrection (12: 2, 3), of the ministry of angels 
(8: 16; 12: 1, etc.), of personal devotion (6: 10, 11; 1: 8), which formed 
the basis of later speculations, but received no essential addition in the 
interval before the coming of our Lord. Generally it may be said that 
while the book presents in many respects a startling and exceptional 
character, yet it is far more difficult to explain its composition in the 
Maccabean period than to connect the peculiarities which it exhibits 
with the exigencies of the return. — " A Dictionary of the Bible," edited 
by William Smith, LL. D., art. " Daniel, The Book of," p. 132. New 
York: Fleming H. Revell Company. 

Daniel, Book of, Christ's Testimony Concerning. — Can we believe 
that Christ would have appealed to the writings of the prophets, and 
particularly to those of Daniel, had they not been authentic? Was the 
book of Daniel a forgery? And was Christ deceived thereby? If so, 
then Christ himself must have been an impostor! — " The Master of the 
Magicians," Lumen, pp. 6, 7. London: Elliot Stock, 1906. 

Daniel, Book of, Date of. — There is one other theory to consider; 
it is, that Daniel is indeed a divine book, rightly used as an authority 
in the New Testament; but that it was given forth, not to a prophet 
in Babylon, but to an inspired prophet in the days of the Maccabees 

Every point already proved, which shows that Daniel was used and 
known in and before Maccabean times, meets this theory as fully as 
that of the rejecters of Daniel altogether. The question, whether it was 
worthy of God to do any particular thing, calls for another inquiry; 
namely, whether he has so seen fit or not to do it. Thus, on grounds 
already stated, we may say that God did not see fit to give forth this 
portion of Scripture in Maccabean times. 

But we have further proof in refutation of this theory. If we ad- 
mit the book to possess any authority at all, then the writer was a 
prophet; as a prophet the Jews have ever owned him, and by the name 
of prophet does our Lord designate him. On this theory, then (which 

9 



130 



DANIEL, DATE OF. 



professes to admit the authority of Scripture), a prophet he certainly 
was. But in the Maccabean days there was no prophet at all. When 
Judas Maccabeus purged the temple from the pollutions of Antiochus 
(b. c. 165), and removed the idol which had been erected on the altar, 
" they took counsel concerning the altar of burnt offering which had been 
polluted, what they should do with it. And they determined, with good 
counsel, to pull it down, lest it should be a reproach unto them, be- 
cause the Gentiles had defiled it: and they pulled down the altar, and 
laid up the stones in the mountain of the house, in a fitting place, until 
there should be a prophet to answer the question concerning them." 
1 Mac. 4: 44-46. Twenty-two years later (b. c. 143), when Simon, the 
last survivor of the sons of Mattathias, was the chief of the Jewish 
people, " it pleased the Jews, and the priests, that Simon should be 
leader and high priest forever, until there should arise a faithful 
prophet." 1 Mac. 14: 41. Thus certain it is that the Maccabean age 
knew of no prophet. Nor had there been one for a long time: "There 
was great tribulation in Israel, such as was not from the time that no 
prophet appeared amongst them." 1 Mac. 9 : 27. — " Remarks on the Pro- 
phetic Visions in the Book of Daniel" S. P. Tregelles, LL. D., pp. 268- 
270. London: Samuel Bagster & Sons, 1883. 

It is certain that at the Christian era the book of Daniel was com- 
monly received by the Jews as the prophecy of a servant of God in 
Babylon, written about five centuries and a half before. Of this the 
New Testament and Josephus are sufficient proofs. How fully the rul- 
ers of the Jews received it, is shown by their charge of blasphemy 
against our Lord for applying its terms to himself. Had this book 
been one of doubtful authority or obscure origin, they could not have 
thus regarded the use which he made of its contents. — Id., p. 224. 

Daniel, Book of, Date of, Proved by Its Akamaic. — The modern 
opponents of the book of Daniel have been constrained to admit that 
the Chaldee of Daniel is nearly identical with that of Ezra, and is as 
distinct as his from that of the earliest Targums. The Aramaic of 
Ezra consists chiefly of documents from 536 b. c, the first year of Cyrus, 
to the seventh year of Artaxerxes Longimanus, b. c. 458. The docu- 
ments are, a decree of Cyrus embodied in one of Darius Hystaspes; two 
letters of Persian officials to the kings; rescripts of pseudo-Smerdis, 
Darius Hystaspes, and Artaxerxes. . . . This Aramaic then is anyhow 
the Aramaic of the first half of the fifth century before our Lord; most 
of it probably is original Aramaic of persons not Jews. Some of Dan- 
iel's Aramaic is stated in his book to have been written in the first 
year of Belshazzar, about 542 b. c, six years before the earliest of the 
documents in Ezra, and some sixty-four years before the latest. The 
great similarity between the Aramaic of these writings is such as one 
should expect from their nearness; at the same time there is variation 
enough utterly to exclude any theory that the Chaldee of Daniel could 
have been copied from that of Ezra. — "Daniel the Prophet," Rev. E. B. 
Pusey, D. D., pp. 40, 41. London: Rivington, 1868. 

Daniel, Book of, Date of, Proved by Its Hebrew. — In fine, then, 
the Hebrew of Daniel is exactly that which you would expect in a 
writer of his age and under his circumstances. It has not one single 
idiom unsuited to that time. The few Aryan or Syriac words remark- 
ably belong to it. The Chaldee marks itself out as such, as could not 
have been written at the time when, if it had not been a divine and 
prophetic book, it must have been written. 



DANIEL, RELIABILITY OF DATES IN. 131 



\ 



No opponent has ever ventured to look steadily at the facts of the 
correspondence of the language of Daniel and Ezra, and their difference 
from the language of the earliest Targums. 

It is plainly cumulative evidence, when both portions so written are 
united in one book. Over and above, the fact [is] that the book is writ- 
ten in both languages, suits the times of Daniel, and is inexplicable 
by those who would have it written in the time of the Maccabees. No 
other book, or portion of a book, of the canon, approximates to that 
date. The last book, Nehemiah, was finished two and one-half centuries 
before, viz., about b. c. 410. 

The theory of Maccabee Psalms lived too long, but is now num- 
bered with the dead. Only one or two, here and there, who believe little 
besides, believe in this phantom of a past century. But, even if such 
Hebrew, and (which is utterly inconceivable) such Aramaic, could have 
been written in the times of the Maccabees, it would still have been 
inexplicable that both should be written. 

If the object of the writer be supposed to have been to write as 
should be most readily understood, this would account for the Ara- 
maic; but then one who wrote with that object would not have written 
in Hebrew what was of most interest to the people, what was most 
especially written for those times. If his object had been (as was that 
of Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi) to write in the language of the ancient 
prophets, then he would not have written in Aramaic at all. The 
prophecies in the Chaldee portion of Daniel are even more compre- 
hensive for the most part than those of the Hebrew. Had such been 
the object, one should have rather expected that, with the exception of 
the prophecy of the seventy weeks, the languages should have been 
reversed. For the Aramaic portions confessedly speak most of the king- 
dom of the Messiah. 

The use then of the two languages, and the mode in which the 
prophet writes in both, correspond perfectly with his real date; they 
are, severally and together, utterly inexplicable according to the theory 
which would make the book a product of Maccabee times. The lan- 
guage then is one mark of genuineness, set by God on the book. Ra- 
tionalism must rebel, as it has rebelled; but it dare not now, with any 
moderate honesty, abuse philology to cover its rebellion. — Id., pp. 57-59. 

Daniel, Book of, Reliability of Dates h*. — Daniel 1: 1 reads: " In 
the third year of the reign of Jehoiakim king of Judah came Nebu- 
chadnezzar king of Babylon unto Jerusalem and besieged it." The Ger- 
man rationalists denounce this statement as a blunder. Their humble 
disciples, the English skeptics, accept their conclusion and blindly re- 
produce their arguments. Dr. Driver (more suo) takes a middle course 
and brands it as "doubtful" ("Daniel," pp. xlviii and 2). I propose to 
show that the statement is historically accurate, and that its accuracy 
is established by the strict test of chronology. 

A reference to Rawlinson's " Five Great Monarchies " (Vol. Ill, 
488-494), and to Clinton's ''Fasti Hellenici," will show how thoroughly 
consistent the sacred history of this period appears to the mind of a 
historian or a chronologer, and how completely it harmonizes with the 
history of Berosus. Jerusalem was first taken by the Chaldeans in the 
third year of Jehoiakim. His fourth year was current with the first 
year of Nebuchadnezzar (Jer. 25: 1). This accords with the statement 
of Berosus that Nebuchadnezzar's first expedition took place before his 
actual accession (Josephus, Apion, i. 19). . . . "What Berosus says is 
that when Nebuchadnezzar heard of his father's death, " he set the 
affairs of Egypt and the other countries in order, and committed the 
captives he had taken from the Jews, and the Phoenicians, and Syrians, 



132 



DANIEL VINDICATED. 



and of the nations belonging to Egypt, to some of his friends . . . while 
he went in haste over the desert to Babylon." Will the critics tell us 
how he could have had Jewish captives if he had not invaded Judea; 
how he could have reached Egypt without marching through Palestine; 
how he could have returned to Babylon over the desert if he had set 
out from Carchemish on the Euphrates! . . . 

According to the Canon of Ptolemy, the reign of Nebuchadnezzar 
dates from b. c. 604; i. e., his accession was in the year beginning the 
1st Thoth (which fell in January), b. c. 604. But the captivity began 
in Nebuchadnezzar's eighth year (cf. Eze. 1: 2, and 2 Kings 24: 12); 
and in the thirty-seventh year of the captivity Nebuchadnezzar's suc- 
cessor was on the throne (2 Kings 25: 27). This, however, gives Nebu- 
chadnezzar a reign of at least forty-four years, whereas according to 
the canon (and Berosus confirms it) he reigned only forty-three years. 
It follows, therefore, that Scripture antedates his reign and computes 
it from b. c. 605. (Clinton, P. H., Vol. I, p. 367.) This might be ex- 
plained by the fact that the Jews acknowledged him as suzerain from 
that date. But it has been overlooked that it is accounted for by the 
Mishna rule of computing regnal years from Nisan to Nisan. In 
b. c. 604, the first Nisan fell on the 1st April, and according to the 
MisTina rule the king's second year would begin on that day, no matter 
how recently he had ascended the throne. Therefore the fourth year 
of Jehoiakim and the first year of Nebuchadnezzar (Jer. 25: 1) was the 
year beginning Nisan b. c. 605; and the third year of Jehoiakim, in 
which Jerusalem was taken and the servitude began, was the year 
beginning Nisan b. c. 606. 

This result is confirmed by Clinton, who fixes the summer of 
b. c. 606 as the date of Nebuchadnezzar's first expedition. And it is 
strikingly confirmed also by a statement in Daniel which is the basis 
of one of the quibbles of the critics: Daniel was kept three years in 
training before he was admitted to the king's presence, and yet he 
interpreted the king's dream in his second year (Dan. 1: 5, 18; 2: 1). 
The explanation is simple. While the Jews in Palestine computed 
Nebuchadnezzar's reign in their own way, Daniel, a citizen of Babylon 
and a courtier, of course accepted the reckoning in use around him. 
But as the prophet was exiled in b. c. 606, his three years' probation 
ended in b. c. 603, whereas- the second year of Nebuchadnezzar, reck- 
oned from his actual accession, extended to the early months of b. c. 602. 

Again: the accession of Evil-Merodach was in b. c. 561, and the 
thirty-seventh year of the captivity was then current (2 Kings 25: 27). 
Therefore the captivity dated from the year Nisan 598 to Nisan 597. 
But this was (according to Jewish reckoning) the eighth year of Nebu- 
chadnezzar (2 Kings 24: 12). His reign, therefore, dated from the year 
Nisan 605 to Nisan 604. And the first siege of Jerusalem and the 
beginning of the servitude was in the preceding year, 606-605. — " Daniel 
in the Critics' Den," Sir Robert Anderson, K. C. B., LL. D., pp. 153-157. 
London: James Nisoet d Co., 1902. 

Daniel, Book of. Vindicated. — The book of Daniel . . . supplies 
the most startling evidences of fulfilled prophecy. No other book has 
been so much attacked as this great book. For about two thousand 
years wicked men, heathen philosophers, and infidels have tried to break 
down its authority. It has proven to be the anvil upon which the 
critics' hammers have been broken to pieces. The book of Daniel has 
survived all attacks. It has been denied that Daniel wrote the book 
during the Babylonian captivity. The critics claim that it was written 
during the time of the Maccabees. Kuenen, Wellhausen, Canon Farrar, 
Driver, and others but repeat the statements of the assailant of Chris- 



DANIEL, PORPHYRY'S POSITION ON. 



133 



tianity of the third century, the heathen Porphyry, who contended that 
the book of Daniel was a forgery. Such is the company in which the 
higher critics are found. 

The book of Daniel has been completely vindicated. The prophet 
wrote the book and its magnificent prophecies in Babylon. All doubt 
as to that has been forever removed, and men who still repeat the infidel 
oppositions against the book, oppositions of a past generation, must be 
branded as ignorant, or considered the wilful enemies of the Bible. — 
Arno C. Gaebelein, editor of Our Hope, Neio York City, in "The Funda- 
mentals," Vol. XI, pp. 71, 72. Chicago: Testimony Publishing Company. 

Daniel, Book of, Shown to Alexandek. — There is a narration in 
Josephus (Ant. Jud. xi. 8) in which the book of Daniel is mentioned, 
the historic accuracy of which has been impugned by many, not on 
positive grounds, but simply on those of doubt and difficulty. He states 
that Alexander the Great paid a remarkable visit to Jerusalem, with the 
intention of severely punishing the people for adhering to their oath 
of fidelity to the last Darius; that Jaddua, the high priest, met him at 
the head of a procession; that the conqueror's wrath was averted; and 
that on his visit to the holy city the prophecy of Daniel was shown him, 
which said that a Grecian monarch should overthrow Persia. — " Re- 
marks on the Prophetic Visions in the Book of Daniel," S. P. Tregelles, 
LL. D., p. 212. London: Samuel Bagster & Sons, 1883. 

Daniel, Book of, Poephyey's Position Answeeed. — Until a com- 
paratively recent period, with some slight exceptions, the genuineness 
and authenticity of the book of Daniel have been regarded as settled, 
and its canonical authority was as little doubted as that of any other 
portion of the Bible. The ancient Hebrews never called its genuineness 
or authenticity in question. . . . 

The first open and avowed adversary to the genuineness and au- 
thenticity of the book of Daniel, was Porphyry, a learned adversary of 
the Christian faith in the third century. He wrote fifteen books against 
Christianity, all of which are lost, except some fragments preserved by 
Eusebius, Jerome, and others. His objections against Daniel were made 
in his twelfth book, and all that we have of these objections has been 
preserved by Jerome in his commentary on the book of Daniel. A full 
account of Porphyry, and of his objections against the Christians and 
the sacred books of the Old and New Testament, so far as can now be 
known, may be seen in Lardner, " Jewish and Heathen Testimonies," 
Vol. VII, pp. 390-470 of his works, ed. London, 1829. In regard to the 
book of Daniel, he maintained, according to Jerome (Pr. and Explan. 
in Daniel), "that the book was not written by him whose name it bears, 
but by another who lived in Judea in the time of Antiochus, surnamed 
Epiphanes; and that the book of Daniel does not foretell things to come, 
but relates what had already happened. In a word, whatever it con- 
tains to the time of Antiochus is true history; if there is anything 
relating to aftertimes it is falsehood; forasmuch as the writer could 
not see things future, but at the most only could make some conjectures 
about them. To him several of our authors have given answers of great 
labor and diligence, in particular Eusebius, bishop of Csesarea, in three 
volumes, the 18th, the 19th, and the 20th. Apollinarius, also, in one 
large book, that is the 26th, and before them, in part, Methodius. As it 
is not my design," says Jerome, " to confute the objections of the 
adversary, which would require a long discourse, but only to explain the 
prophet to our own people, that is, Christians, I shall just observe that 
none of the prophets have spoken so clearly of Christ as Daniel, for he 
not only foretells his coming, as do others likewise, but he also teaches 



134 



DARK DAY, OBSERVATIONS ON. 



the time when he will come, and mentions in order the princes of the 
intermediate space, and the number of the years, and the signs of his 
appearance. And because Porphyry saw all these things to have been 
fulfilled, and could not deny that they had actually come to pass, he 
was compelled to say as he did; and because" of some similitude of 
circumstances, he asserted that the things foretold as to be fulfilled in 
Antichrist at the end of the world, happened in the time of Antiochus 
Epiphanes. Which kind of opposition is a testimony of truth; for such 
is the plain interpretation of the words, that to incredulous men the 
prophet seems not to foretell things to come, but to relate things already 
past." — " Notes, Critical. Illustrative, and Practical, on the Book of Dan- 
iel,'' Albert Barnes, Introduction, pp. xi, xii. New York; Leavitt and 
Allen, 1859. 

Daniel, Book of, Its Relation to the Book of Revelation. — He 
who would enter the temple of truth must be content to do so by the 
divinely given door. The Old Testament is certainly the entrance to 
the New, and in a special manner the book of Daniel in the Old Testa- 
ment is the porch or passage leading to the Apocalypse. In his " Obser- 
vations on the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John." 
Sir Isaac Newton says: "Among the old prophecies Daniel is most 
distinct in order of time and easiest to be understood, and therefore in 
those things which relate to the la^t times he must be made the key to 
the rest." On the connection of Daniel and Revelation he says: "The 
Apocalypse of John is written in the same style and language with the 
prophecies of Daniel, and hath the same relation to them which they 
have to one another, so that all of them together make but one com- 
plete prophecy." The Apocalypse should thus be regarded as the New 
Testament sequel to the book of Daniel. The books of Daniel and Rev- 
elation may be considered as parts one and two of a single prophecy 
— a prophecy relating to the same subject, and presenting that subject 
in the same symbolic form. They unfold earlier and later portions of 
the same great story. — " Key to the Apocalypse," H. Grattan Guinness, 
D. D., pp. 17-19. London: Rodder and Stoughton, 1899. 

Daniel. — See French Revolution, 173, 174; Increase of Knowledge, 
221, 223; Little Horn; Mass, 300; Papacy, 327, 328; Revelation; Rome, 
431, 432, 436; Seventy Weeks. 

Dark Day (1780), Described in a Current Newspaper. — The obser- 
vations from the first coming on of the darkness, to four o'clock p. m.. 
were made by several gentlemen of liberal education at the house of 
the Rev. Mr. Cutler, of Ipswich Hamlet [Massachusetts]. There are 
some things worth noticing before and after this time. 

The hemisphere for several days had been greatly obscured with 
smoke and vapor, so that the sun and moon appeared unusually red. 
On Thursday afternoon and in the evening, a thick cloud lay along 
at the south and southwest, the wind small. Friday morning early 
the sun appeared red, as it had done for several days before, the 
wind about southwest, a light breeze,- and the clouds from the south- 
west came over between eight and nine o'clock. The sun was quite 
shut in and it began to shower, the clouds continuing to rise from the 
southwest and thicken. From the thickness of the clouds, and the 
confusion which attended their motions, we expected a violent gust of 
wind or rain; the wind, however, near the earth continued but small, 
and it rained but little. 

About eleven o'clock the darkness was such as to demand our at- 
tention, and put us upon making observations. At half past eleven, 
in a room with three windows, twenty-four panes each, all open toward 



DARK DAY, OBSERVATIONS ON. 



135 



the southeast and south, large print could not he read by persons of 
good eyes. 

About twelve o'clock, the windows being still open, a candle cast 
a shade so well defined on the wall, as that profiles were taken with 
as much ease as they could have been in the night. 

About one o'clock, a glint of light which had continued to this 
time in the east, shut in, and the darkness was greater than it had 
been for any time before. 

Between one and two o'clock the wind from the west freshened 
a little, and a glint appeared in that quarter. We dined about two, 
the windows all open, and two candles burning on the table. 

In the time of the greatest darkness some of the dunghill fowls 
went to their roost. Cocks crowed in answer to one another as- they 
commonly do in the night. Woodcocks, which are night birds, whistled 
as they do only in the dark. Frogs peeped. In short, there was the 
appearance of midnight at noonday. 

About three o'clock the light in the west increased, the motion of 
the clouds more quick, their color higher and more brassy than at 
any time before. There appeared to be quick flashes or coruscations, 
not unlike the Aurora Borealis. 

Between three and four o'clock we were out and perceived a strong, 
sooty smell, some of the company were confident a chimney in the 
neighborhood must be burning, others conjectured that the smell was 
more like that of burnt leaves. 

About half-past four our company which had passed an unex- 
pected night very cheerfully together, broke up. 

I will now give you what I noticed afterwards. 

I found the people at the tavern near by very much agitated; 
among other things that gave them surprise, they mentioned the 
strange appearance and smell of the rain water, which they had saved 
in tubs. Upon examining the water, I found a light scum over it, which 
rubbing between my thumb and finger, I found to be nothing but the 
black ashes of burnt leaves. The water gave the same strong sooty 
smell which we had observed in the air; and confirmed me in my 
opinion that the smell mentioned above was occasioned by the smoke, 
or very small particles of burnt leaves, which had obscured the hemi- 
sphere for several days past, and were now brought down by the rain. 

The appearance last mentioned served to corroborate the hypothesis 
on which we had endeavored to account for the unusual darkness. 
The vast body of smoke from the woods, which had been burning for 
many days, mixing with the common exhalations from the earth and 
water, and condensed by. the action of winds from opposite points, 
may perhaps be sufficient causes to produce the surprising darkness. 

The wind in the evening passed round further north where a black 
cloud lay, and gave us reason to expect a sudden gust from that quar- 
ter. The wind brought that body of smoke and vapor over us in the 
evening (at Salem) and perhaps it never was darker since the chil- 
dren of Israel left the house of bondage. This gross darkness held till 
about one o'clock, although the moon had fulled but the day before. 

Between one and two the wind freshened up at northeast and drove 
the smoke and clouds away which had given distress to thousands, and 
alarmed the brute creation. — Letter from " Viator," dated May 22, in 
the Boston Gazette and Country Journal, May 29, 1780. 

Dark Day, as Observed by a Harvard Professor, — The time of 
this extraordinary darkness was May 19, 1780. It came on between 
the hours of ten and eleven a. m., and continued until the middle of the 
next night, but with different appearance at different places. 



136 



DARK DAY, OBSERVATIONS ON. 



As to the manner of its approach, it seemed to appear first of all 
in the southwest. The wind came from that quarter, and the dark- 
ness appeared to come on with the clouds that came in that direction. 

The degree to which the darkness arose was different in different 
places. In most parts of the country it was so great that people were 
unable to read common print, determine the time of day by their 
clocks or watches, dine, or manage their domestic business, without 
the light of candles. In some places the darkness was so great that 
persons could not see to read common print in the open air, for sev- 
eral hours together; but I believe this was not generally the case. 

The extent of this darkness was very remarkable. Our intelli- 
gence in this respect is not so particular as I could wish; but from 
the accounts that have been received, it seems to have extended all 
over the New England States. It was observed as far east as Falmouth 
[Portland, Maine]. To the westward we hear of its reaching to the 
furthest parts of Connecticut, and Albany. To the southward it was 
observed all along the seacoasts, and to the north as far as our settle- 
ments extend. It is probable it extended much beyond these limits in 
some directions, but the exact boundaries cannot be ascertained by any 
observations that I have been able to collect. 

With regard to its duration, it continued in this place at least 
fourteen hours; but it is probable this was not exactly the same in 
different parts of the country. 

The appearance and effects were such as tended to make the pros- 
pect extremely dull and gloomy. Candles were lighted up in the 
houses; the birds, having sung their evening songs, disappeared, and 
became silent; the fowls retired to roost; the cocks were crowing all 
around, as at break of day; objects could not be distinguished but 
at a very little distance; and everything bore the appearance and gloom 
of night. — Samuel Williams, A. M., Hollis Professor of Mathematics and 
Philosophy in the University of Cambridge, Massachusetts, in " Mem- 
oirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences," to the end of 
the year 1783, Vol. I, pp. 234, 235. Boston: Adams and Nourse, 1785. 
(See also " Our First Century," R. M. Devens, pp. 90-92.) 

Dark Day, Unprecedented for Its Great Darkness. — The 19th of 
May, 1780, was unprecedented in New England for its great darkness. 
. . . The darkness extended over several thousand square miles, though 
differing much in intensity in different places. Nowhere, perhaps, was 
it greater than in this vicinity. The day was appropriately called and 
is still known as The Dark Day. — " History of the Town of Hampton, 
New Hampshire," Joseph Dorr, Salem, Mass., Vol. I, p. 217. Salem Press 
and Printing Co., 1893. (Boston Public Library.) 

'Twas on a May day of the far old year 
Seventeen hundred eighty, that there fell 
Over the bloom and sweet life of the spring, 
Over the fresh earth and the heaven of noon, 
A horror of great darkness. . . . 

Men prayed, and women wept; all ears grew sharp 
To hear the doom blast of the trumpet shatter 
The black sky, that the dreadful face of Christ 
Might look from the rent clouds, not as he looked 
A loving guest at Bethany, but stern 
As Justice and inexorable as Law. 

— J. G. Whittier's Poems, "Abraham Davenport." 



DARK DAY, OBSERVATIONS ON. 



137 



Dark Day, Desckibed by London Visitor. — This day [May 19, 1780] 
has been rendered very remarkable by an extraordinary phenomenon, 
which demands a particular relation. An unusual darkness came on 
between the hours of ten and eleven in the morning, and continued 
to increase. Your friend, having been accustomed to dark days in 
London, and frequently observed from his study the bright shining sun 
gradually, and at length totally, eclipsed, as it descended behind the 
thick vapor which hung over the city, regarded it with no special at- 
tention till called to do it by his neighbors who were much alarmed. 
He dined by candlelight about one. After that it grew much lighter, 
and he walked about five o'clock to a tavern, a mile distant, on the 
road to Boston, to meet a select committee of Roxbury, on special busi- 
ness. When they had finished, about eight at night, he set out for 
home, not suspecting but that, being fully acquainted with every foot 
of the road, he should easily return, notwithstanding its being ex- 
tremely dark. 

There were houses all the way, though at a considerable distance 
from each other. He marked the candlelight of one, and with that 
in his eye went forward till he got up to it; but remarked that the 
appearance of the place was so different from what was usual, that 
he could not believe it to be what it was, had it not been from his 
certain knowledge of its situation. He caught the light of a second 
house, which he also reached; and thus on. At length, the light being 
removed from the last he had gained a sight of, ere he was up with it, 
he found himself in such profound darkness as to be incapable of pro- 
ceeding, and therefore returned to the house he had passed, and pro- 
cured a lantern. Several of the company, having farther to go, were 
on horseback. The horses could not see to direct themselves; and 
by the manner in which they took up and put down their feet on plain 
ground, appeared to be involved in total darkness, and to be afraid 
lest the next step should plunge them into an abyss. 

The gentlemen soon stopped at another tavern, and waited for the 
benefit of the moon; but after a while, finding that the air received 
no accession of light from it, when they were certain it was risen, 
they had recourse to candles to assist them in getting home. In some 
instances horses felt the forcible operation of the darkness so strongly 
that they could not be compelled by their masters to quit the stable at 
night, when wanted for a particular service. The shifting of the wind 
put an end to it, and at midnight it was succeeded by a bright moon 
and starlight. 

The degree to which it arose was different in different places. 
In most parts of the country it was so great in the daytime, that the 
people could not tell the hour by either watch or clock, nor dine, nor 
manage their domestic business, without the light of candles. The 
birds, having sung their evening songs, disappeared and were silent; 
pigeons and fowls retired to roost; the cocks crew as at daybreak; 
objects could not be distinguished but at a very little distance; and 
everything bore the appearance and gloom of night. 

The extent of the darkness was extraordinary. It was observed as 
far east as Falmouth. To the westward it reached to the farthest part 
of Connecticut, and to Albany. To the southward it was observed along 
the seacoasts; and to the north as far as the American settlements 
extend. We are told that a vessel at sea found herself inclosed for a 
while in a cloud of this darkness, and as she sailed, passed instantly 
from the verge of it into a clear light. — " The History of the Rise, Prog- 
ress, and Establishment of the Independence of the United States of 
America " (3 vol. edj, William R. Gordon, D. D., Vol. Ill, pp. 56, 57. 
New York, 1801. (Lenox Library, New York.) 



138 



DARK DAY, AT SEA. 



Dark Day, in the Connecticut Legislature. — It is related that 
the Connecticut legislature was in session at this time, and that so 
great was the darkness, the members became terrified, and thought 
that the day of judgment had come; a motion was consequently made 
to adjourn. At this, Mr. Davennort arose and said: "Mr. Speaker, it is 
either the day of judgment or it is not. If it is not, there is no need 
of adjourning. If it is, I desire to be found doing my duty. I move 
that candles be brought, and that we proceed to business." — " Our First 
Century" R. M. Devens, chap. 4, "The Wonderful Dark Day — 1780," 
p. 90. Springfield, Mass.: C. A. Nichols & Co., 1876. 

Meanwhile in the old Statehouse, dim as ghosts, 
Sat the lawgivers of Connecticut, 
Trembling beneath their legislative robes. 
" It is the Lord's great day! Let us adjourn," 
Some said; and then, as if with one accord, 
All eyes were turned to Abraham Davenport. 
He rose, slow cleaving with his steady voice 
The intolerable hush. " This well may be 
The day of judgment which the world awaits; 
But be it so or not, I only know 
My present duty, and my l ord's command 
To occupy till he come. So at the post 
"Where he hath set me in his providence 
I choose, for one, to meet him face to face, — 
No faithless servant frightened from my task, 
But ready when the Lord of the harvest calls; 
And therefore, with all reverence, I would say, 
Let God do his work, we will see to ours. 
Bring in the candles." 

— J. G. Whittier's Poems, "Abraham Davenport." 

Dark Day, Verbatim Account from a Diary. — May 19th, 1780 
Was a Thunder shower in the morning and was followed by an un- 
common darkness such as is not remembered it was so dark That one 
could not known a man but at a small distance, and Were obliged to 
keep a light in the chimney to see to go about and the night was Extraor- 
dinary dark until one oClock, that a person could not see their hand 
when held up nor even a white sheet of paper the day and night 
was cloudy the clouds in the day did not seem thick and was of a 
lightening up couler our almanack makers have given no account of 
the matter the cause unknown The works of the Lord are great and 
marvellous past finding out untill he Graciously pleases to Reveal 
them. — " The Diary of Matthew Patten, of Bedford," New Hampshire, 
from 1754 to 1788, p. 414 (verbatim et literatim). Published by the 
town, Concord. N. H.: The Rumford Printing Company, 1903. (New 
Hampshire State Library.) 

Dark Day of 1780, As Seen at Sea. — I have also seen a very 
sensible captain of a vessel, who was that morning about forty leagues 
southeast of Boston. He says the cloud which appeared at the west 
was the blackest he ever saw. About eleven o'clock there was a little 
rain, and it grew dark. Between one and two he was obliged to 
light a large candle to steer by. 

There had been to this time a gleam, or glint, as he called it, in the 
east. It was now wholly shut in, and the greatest obscuration was 
between two and three. He further observes that the air was uncom- 



DARK DAY AND NIGHT. 



139 



monly thick, and afforded an unusual smell. Between nine and ten 
at night, he ordered his men to take in some of the sails, but it was 
so dark they could not find the way from one mast to the other. 

Gentlemen from Connecticut tell me the smell which they observed 
was like that of burnt leaves or old stubble. 

Coasters from the eastward say the darkness was very inconsider- 
able farther than Cape Elizabeth. . . . 

Various have been the sentiments of people concerning the de- 
signs of Providence in spreading the unusual darkness over us. Some 
suppose it portentous of the last scene. I wish it may have some good 
effect on the minds of the wicked, and that they may be excited to 
prepare for that solemn day. Some suppose it emblematical of the 
moral darkness which has spread over these ends of the earth. But 
however bad we are, I cannot suppose we are so much worse than the 
rest of the world. — Letter in the Boston Independent Chronicle, June 15, 
1780. 

Dark Day, Followed by Night of Darkness. — During the whole 
time a sickly, melancholy gloom overcast the face of nature. Nor was 
the darkness of the night less uncommon and terrifying than that of 
the day; notwithstanding there was almost a full moon, no object 
was discernible, but by the help of some artificial light, which when 
seen from the neighboring houses and other places at a distance, ap- 
peared through a kind of Egyptian darkness, which seemed almost im- 
pervious to the rays. 

This unusual phenomenon excited the fears and apprehensions of 
many people. Some considered it as a portentous omen of the wrath 
of Heaven in vengeance denounced against the land, others as the im- 
mediate harbinger of the last day, when " the sun shall be darkened, 
and the moon shall not give her light." — Thomas's Massachusetts Spy ; 
cited in the Boston Independent Chronicle, June 8, 1780. 

The darkness of the following evening was probably as gross as 
ever has been observed since the Almighty fiat gave birth to light. 
It wanted only palpability to render it as extraordinary as that which 
overspread the land of Egypt in the days of Moses. And as darkness 
is not substantial, but a mere privation, the palpability ascribed to 
that by the sacred historian must have arisen from some peculiar af- 
fection of the atmosphere, perhaps an exceeding thick vapor, that ac- 
companied it. I could not help conceiving at the time, that if every 
luminous body in the universe had been shrouded in impenetrable 
shades, or struck out of existence, the darkness could not have been 
more complete. A sheet of white paper held within a few incbes of .the 
eyes was equally invisible with the blackest velvet. Considering the 
small quantity of light that was transmitted by the clouds, by day, 
it is not surprising that by night a sufficient quantity of rays should 
not be able to penetrate the same strata, brought back by the shifting 
of the winds, to afford the most obscure prospect even of the best re- 
flecting bodies. — Letter of Dr. Samuel Tenney, dated Exeter, N. H., 
December, 1785; cited in '* Collections of Massachusetts Historical 
Society;' Vol. I, 1792. 

The darkness of the following night was so intense that many who 
were but a little way from home, on well-known roads, could not, 
without extreme difficulty, retrace the way to their own dwellings. — 
" Sketches of the History of New Hampshire," John W. Whiton, p. 144, 
1834. (New Hampshire State Library.) 



140 



DARK DAY, CAUSE OF. 



Dark Day, " Tkue Cause . . . Not Known." — The Dark Day, May 
19, 1780 — so called on account of a remarkable darkness on that day 
extending over all New England. In some places, persons couid not see 
to read common print in the open air for several hours together. Birds 
sang their evening songs, disappeared, and became silent; fowls went 
to roost; cattle sought the barnyard; and candles were lighted in the 
houses. The obscuration began about ten o'clock in the morning, and 
continued till the middle of the next night, but with differences of 
degree and duration in different places. For several days previous, 
the wind had been variable, but chiefly from the southwest and the 
northeast. The true cause of this remarkable phenomenon is not 
known. — Noah Webster's Dictionary (edition 1869), under Explanatory 
and Pronouncing Vocabulary of Noted Names of Fiction, etc. 

Dark Day, Cause Unknown. — On the 19th of May, 1780, an un- 
common darkness took place all over New England, and extended to 
Canada. It continued about fourteen hours, or from ten o'clock in the 
morning till midnight. The darkness was so great that people were 
unable to read common print, or tell the time of the day by their 
watches, or to dine, or transact their ordinary business without the 
light of candles. They became dull and gloomy, and some were ex- 
cessively frightened. The fowls retired to their roosts. Objects could 
not be distinguished but at a very little distance, and everything bore 
the appearance and gloom of night. 

The causes of these phenomena are unknown. They certainly were 
not the result of eclipses. — " The Guide to Knowledge, or Repertory of 
Facts," edited by Robert Sears, p. 428. New York: 1845. (Astor 
Library.) 

Dark Day, Not Caused by an Eclipse. — That this darkness was 
not caused by an eclipse, is manifest by the various positions of the 
planetary bodies at that time; for the moon was more than one hun- 
dred and fifty degrees from the sun all that day, and, according to the 
accurate calculations made by the most celebrated astronomers, there 
could not, in the order of nature, be any transit of the planet Venus or 
Mercury upon the disc of the sun that year; nor could it be^a blazing 
star — much less a mountain — that darkened the atmosphere, for this 
would still leave unexplained the deep darkness of the following night. 
Nor would such excessive nocturnal darkness follow an eclipse of the 
sun; and as to the moon, she was at that time more than forty hours' 
motion past her opposition. — " Our First Century," 1776-1876, R. M. Dev- 
ens, chap. 4, "The Wonderful Dark Day — 1780," p. 95. Springfield, 
Mass.: G. A. Nichols & Go., 1876. 

Dark Day of 1780, Dr. Samuel Stearns on Cause of. — That the 
darkness was not caused by an eclipse is manifest by the various posi- 
tions of the planets of our system at that time; for the moon was more 
than one hundred fifty degrees from the sun all that day. . . . The heat 
of the sun causeth an ascension of numerous particles, which consist 
of different qualities, such as aqueous, sulphurous, bituminous, sali- 
nous, vitreous, etc. . . . Fat combustible, oily matter, from the various 
kinds of earths, the juice of trees, plants, and herbs . . . are exhaled 
into the regions of the air. . . . 

It was undoubtedly a vast collection of such particles that caused 
the late uncommon darkness. [Some process of wind currents, he sug- 
gests, condensing them.] . . . 

The primary cause must be imputed to Him that walketh through 
the circuit of heaven, who stretcheth out the heaven like a curtain, 



DARK DAY, CAUSE OF. 



141 



who maketh the clouds his chariot, who walketh upon the wings of 
the wind. It was he, at whose voice the stormy winds are obedient, 
that commanded these exhalations to be collected and condensed to- 
gether, that with them he might darken both the day and the night; 
which darkness was, perhaps, not only a tOKen of his indignation 
against the crying iniquities and abominations of the people, but an 
omen of some future destruction. — Letter from Dr. Samuel Stearns, 
in Independent Chronicle, Boston, June 22, 1780. 

Dark Day, Not Caused by Forest Fires. — That the smoke of burn- 
ing forests cannot be the cause may be rendered very certain. . . . Had 
the woods from the 40th degree of latitude in America to the 50th 
been all consumed in a day, the smoke would not have been sufficient 
to cloud the sun over the territory covered by the darkness on the 
19th of May (1780). Any person can judge of this who has seen large 
tracts of forest fire. That thirty or forty miles of burning forest 
should cover five hundred miles with impenetrable darkness, is too 
absurd to deserve a serious refutation. — "A Brief History of Epidemic 
and Pestilential Diseases; ivith the Principal Phenomena of the Physical 
W.orld, Which Precede and Accompany Them," Noah Webster, (2 vol. 
ed.J Vol. II, pp. 91-93. Hartford: Hudson and Goodwin, 1799. (Lenox 
Library, New YorTc.) 

Note. — There was no agreement among the current writers as to the cause 
of this unparalleled darkness, but entire agreement as to the extraordinary char- 
acter of it. Any suggestion of a natural cause or causes for the darkness can in no 
wise militate against the significance of the event. Sixteen and a half centuries 
before it occurred, the Saviour had definitely foretold this twofold sign, saying, 
" In those days, after that tribulation, the sun shall be darkened, and the moon 
shall not give her light." Mark 13 : 24. These signs occurred exactly as pre- 
dicted, and at the time indicated so long before their occurrence. It is this 
fact, and not the cause of the darkness, that is significant in this connection. 
When the Lord would open a path for his people through the sea, he did it by 
" a strong east wind." Ex. 14 : 21. Was it for this reason any less miraculous? 
When the bitter waters were made sweet (Ex. 15: 23-25), was the divine inter- 
position any less real because certain natural means were used having appar- 
ently some part, under divine direction, in rendering the water fit for drinking? 
In like manner even though it were possible for science to account for the re- 
markable darkness of May 19, 1780, instead of merely speculating concerning it, 
the event would not be discredited thereby as a merciful sign of the approach- 
ing end of probationary time. — Eds. 

Dark Day, Fears of Judgment Day Awakened. — This strange dark- 
ness increased until by noon the people had to light candles to eat their 
dinners by! Lights were seen in every window, and out of doors, people 
carried torches to light their steps. Everything took a different color 
from what it had by sunlight, and consequently the strange reflections of 
the torchlights were in keeping with the marvelous and changed appear- 
ance of everything. 

Hosts of people believed the end of the world had begun to come; 
men dropped to their knees to pray in the field; many ran to their 
neighbors to confess wrongs and ask forgiveness; multitudes rushed 
into the meetinghouses in towns where they had such, where pious and 
aged ministers, pleading repentance, interceded with God in their be- 
half; and everywhere throughout this day of wonder and alarm, the 
once careless thought of their sins and their Maker! 

At this time the legislature of Connecticut was in session, and when 
the growing darkness became so deep that at midday they could not see 
each other, most of them were so alarmed as to be unfit for service. 
At this juncture, Mr. Davenport arose and said: 

" Mr. Speaker, it is either the day of judgment or it is not. If it 
is not, there is no need of adjourning. If it is, I desire to be found 
doing my duty. I move that candles be brought and that we proceed to 
business." 



142 



DARK DAY, EFFECT OF. 



The darkness somewhat increased all day, and before time of sun- 
set, was so intense that no object whatever could be distinguished. Anx- 
iously and tremblingly, people waited for the full moon to rise at nine 
o'clock, and even little children with strained eyes, sat silently watch- 
ing for its beautiful beams to appear. But they were disappointed, the 
darkness being unaffected by the moon. The most feeling prayers ever 
prayed in Antrim were at tne family altars that night. Children never 
had more tender blessing than these mothers gave them that night. 
They slept soundly for the most part, but the parents chiefly sat up all 
night to wait and see if the glorious sun would rise again. Never 
dawned a lovelier morning than that 20th of May! Never were hearts 
more thankful on the earth! Even thoughtless people praised God! 

So much were the whole population affected by this event, that, at 
the succeeding March meeting, the town voted, March 9, 1781, to keep 
the next 19th of May as a day of fasting and prayer. — "History of the 
Town of Antrim, New Hampshire," Rev. W. R. Cochrane, pp. 58, 59. 
Published by the town, Manchester, N. H.: Mirrow Steam Printing Press, 
1880. (New Hampshire Library.) 

Dark Day, Men Pilled with Awe and Alakm. — Dark Day: refers 
especially to May 19, 1780, which was very dark in Connecticut, New 
York, and New Jersey, causing great alarm. — The Universal Cyclopedia, 
art. "Dark Day." New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1900. 

" The dark day of New England," so familiar to old and young, 
came May 19, 1780. . . . Near eleven o'clock, it began to grow dark, as 
if night were coming. Men ceased their work; the lowing cattle came 
to the barns, the bleating sheep huddled by the fences, the wild birds 
screamed and flew to their nests, the fowls went to their roosts. . . . 

Men, ordinarily cool, were filled with awe and alarm. Excitable 
people believed the end of the world had come; some ran about saying 
the day of judgment was at hand; the wicked hurried to their neigh- 
bors to confess wrongs and ask forgiveness; the superstitious dropped 
on their knees to pray in the fields, or rushed into meetinghouses to call 
on God to preserve them. . . . 

At night it was so inky dark that a person could not see his hand 
when held up, nor even a white sheet of paper. — "History of Weare, 
New Hampshire," 1735-1888, Wm. Little, Lowell, Mass., p. 276. Printed 
by 8. W. Huse & Co., 1888. (Boston Public Library.) 

Dark Day, " Men Prayed and Women Wept." — Friday, May 19, 
1780, will go down in history as " the dark day." . . . Fear, anxiety, and 
awe gradually filled the minds of the people. Women stood at the door 
looking out upon the dark landscape; men returned from their labor in 
the fields; the carpenter left his tools, the blacksmith his forge, the 
tradesman his counter. Schools were dismissed, and tremblingly the 
children fled homeward. Travelers put up at the nearest farmhouse. 
" What is coming? " queried every lip and heart. It seemed as if a 
hurricane was about to dash across the land, or as if it was the day of 
the consummation of all things. ... 

Dr. Nathanael Whittaker, pastor of the Tabernacle church in Salem, 
held religious services in the meetinghouse, and preached a sermon in 
which he maintained that the darkness was supernatural. Congrega- 
tions came together in many other places. The texts for the extempo- 
raneous sermons were invariably those that seemed to indicate that the 
darkness was consonant with Scriptural prophecy. Such texts as these 
were used: Isa. 13: 10; Eze. 32: 7, 8; Joel 2: 31; Matt. 24: 29, 30; 
Rev. 6: 12. 



DIET OF WORMS. 



143 



Devout fathers gathered their families around them in their homes, 
and conducted religious services; and for a few hours Christians were 
stirred to activity, and non-professors earnestly sought for salvation, 
expecting " to hear the thunder of the wrath of God break from the 
hollow trumpet of the cloud." — " The Essex Antiquarian," Vol. Ill, No. 4, 
pp. 53, 54; Salem, Mass., April, 1899. (Boston Public Library.) 

Day, the Bible. — See Calendar, 95-97. 

Decretal Letters, Origin of. — Another practice commenced by 
Syricius, the immediate successor of Damasus, contributed greatly to 
augment the influence of the Roman See. This was the writing of let- 
ters purporting to be expositions of church law. The first of these doc- 
uments, known as the Decretal Epistles, was promulgated by Syricius 
in the very beginning of his episcopate. A letter had reached Rome 
from Himerius, a Spanish bishop, soliciting instruction on various 
points of ecclesiastical discipline. Damasus, to whom it was addressed, 
was now dead; but his successor submitted the communication to a 
meeting of his colleagues assembled, probably, on the occasion of his 
ordination; and, in a long reply, dictated with an air of authority, 
Syricius gave specific directions in reference to the several questions 
suggested by this Spanish correspondent. One of the inquiries of Hime- 
rius related to the propriety of clerical celibacy; and it is somewhat 
remarkable that the earliest decretal letter contains an injunction " for- 
bidding to marry." — " The Old Catholic Church," W. D. Killen, D. D., 
p. 342. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1871. 

Decretals. — See Isidorian Decretals; Oaths. 

Demonism. — See Spiritualism. 

Diets, Origin of. — The origin of the diet, or deliberative assembly, 
of the Holy Roman Empire must be sought in the placitum of the 
Frankish empire. . . . The imperial diet (Reichstag) of the Middle 
Ages might sometimes contain representatives of Italy, the regnum 
Italicum; but it was practically always confined to the magnates of 
Germany, the regnum Teutonicum. Upon occasion a summons to the 
diet might be sent even to the knights, but the regular members were 
the princes (Fiirsten), both lay and ecclesiastical. . . . The powers of the 
medieval diet extended to matters like legislation, the decision upon 
expeditions (especially the expeditio Romana). taxation, and changes in 
the constitution of the principalities or the empire. The election of the 
king, which was originally regarded as one of the powers of the diet, 
had passed to the electors by the middle of the thirteenth century. — 
The Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. VIII, art. "Diet," pp. 211, 212, 11th 
edition. 

Diets, Nature of. — Great political affairs were settled at the diets. 
These constituted the center of legislation and general administration. 
Here was the imperial tribunal, and here the ban of the empire was 
pronounced, which latter was the political counterpart of ecclesiastical 
excommunication. Thus the imperial constitution was, to quote from 
Ranke, " a mixture of monarchy and confederation, the latter element, 
however, manifestly predominating." One evidence that such was the 
fact is furnished by the great importance of the imperial cities: these, 
like the princes, sent their envoys to the diets, and, conjointly with 
the former, opposed a compact corporation to the power of the emperor. 
— " History of the Reformation in Germany and Switzerland Chiefly," 
Br. K. R. Hagenbach, Vol. I, p. 31. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1878. 



144 



EARTHQUAKES. 



Diets of Worms. — Worms, Diets of, were meetings of the repre- 
sentatives of the old German Empire which met at Worms. In 1495 
the emperor asked for the aid of the empire for an expedition to Italy, 
and agreed to allow the proclamation of a perpetual public peace in 
consideration of the establishment of a tax, called the common penny, 
upon all property, and of a poll tax. The diet also recognized the Im- 
perial Cameral Court, which was to have supreme jurisdiction in cases 
between the states of the empire, and power to pronounce the ban of 
the empire. 

In 1521 a still more famous diet met here. It had to consider: 
(1) Measures to stop private war; (2) the appointment of a govern- 
ment during the emperor's (Charles V) absence in Spain; (3) the atti- 
tude to be adopted toward Luther; (4) the French war; (5) the suc- 
cession to the hereditary dominions of the Hapsburg house in Germany. 
The Edict of Worms was issued by the diet which met in 1521. The 
Pope had issued a bull against Luther, who came to Worms under a 
safe-conduct, but refused to recant. On April 19, 1521, Charles V de- 
clared him a heretic, and in May the diet condemned him and his party. 
— Nelson's Encyclopedia, Vol. XII, art. "Worms" pp. 641, 642. New 
York: Thomas Nelson & Sons, 1907. 

Diet of Worms, Luther's Famous Statement. — The famous Diet 
of Worms was summoned to meet on Jan. 21, 1521. . . . There was a 
vast gathering — princes, prelates, barons, knights, representatives from 
all the free cities of Germany. A papal legate attended, with an array 
of theologians behind him, Aleander to prosecute and the divines to 
argue. Once more Caietano protested against the hearing of a con- 
demned heretic. The precedent of Constance was brought up, and the 
opinion of that council, that in such cases safe-conducts need not be 
observed, was again alleged in all seriousness, as if it was nothing to 
be ashamed of. The Elector of Saxony said peremptorily that he would 
allow no violence to one of his own subjects. Faith given should not 
be broken a second time, even to please the Pope. Luther himself ex- 
pected the worst. He was advised to fly. He refused. He would go 
to Worms, he said, in words that have never been forgotten, " if there 
were as many devils there as there were tiles upon the housetops." — 
" Lectures on the Council of Trent," James Anthony Froude, pp. 45, 46. 
London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1896. 

Dositheus, a False Christ. — See Jerusalem. 

Douay Bible. — See Bible; Idolatry. 

Earthquakes, When the Earth Reels To and Fro. — There is 
something preternaturally terrible in the earthquake, when the earth, 
which we think the emblem of solidity, trembles under our feet, and 
geological convulsions, the most destructive agents of the past, threaten 
us in the present. The sensation is so beyond experience, and the feel- 
ing of powerlessness so overwhelming, that, amid the crash, man looks 
hopelessly around, and can simply bow the head in silent, motionless 
despair, as if expecting every moment to be buried in the ruins. With 
the cries and groans of the terrified people in the houses and in the 
streets, are heard the dull sounds of falling buildings, and appalling 
subterranean rumblings, and the thoughts of all are turned, where they 
always are instinctively in times of unexpected, inexplicable disaster, 
Godward. When the earth is thus moved by invisible hands, each mo- 
ment seems a year, and, as when death appears suddenly imminent, the 



EARTHQUAKES, LISBON. 



145 



events of a lifetime pass in an instant before the eyes of the soul. 
It is a novel and a terrifying sight to behold houses reel like a 
drunken man, as the earth waves reach them; it is more like the dis- 
turbed dreams of fever, or the scenic display of the drama, than any 
conception of reality. — " Volcanoes and Earthquakes" Samuel Kneeland, 
A. M., M. D., p. 207. Boston: D. Lothrop Company, 1888. 

Earthquakes, The Lisbon Earthquake, of 1755. — Among the earth 
movements which in historic times have affected the kingdom of Portu- 
gal, that of Nov. 1, 1755, takes first rank; as it does also, in some 
respects, among all recorded earthquakes. The first shocks of this 
earthquake came without other warning than a deep sound of rumbling 
thunder, which appeared to proceed from beneath the ground, and it was 
immediately followed by a quaking which threw down almost the entire 
city. In six minutes sixty thousand persons perished. — " Earthquakes," 
William Herbert Hobbs, pp. 142, 143. Neiv York: D. Appleton & Co., 
1907. 

The Lisbon earthquake of Nov. 1, 1755, appears to have put both 
the theologians and philosophers on the defensive. ... At twenty min- 
utes to ten that morning, Lisbon was firm and magnificent, on one of 
the most picturesque and commanding sites in the world, — a city of 
superb approach, placed precisely where every circumstance had con- 
curred to say to the founders, Build here! In six minutes the city was 
in ruins. . . . Half the world felt the convulsion. . . . For many weeks, 
as we see in the letters and memoirs of that time, people in distant parts 
of Europe went to bed in alarm, relieved in the morning to find that 
they had escaped the fate of Lisbon one night more. — " Life of Voltaire," 
James Barton, (2 vol. ed.J Vol. II, pp. 208, 209. New York: Houghton, 
Mifflin Company, 1909. 

Earthquakes, One Effect of Lisbon Quake, 1755. — The earthquake 
had made all men thoughtful. They mistrusted their love of the drama, 
and filled the churches instead. — " Life of Voltaire, 1 ' S. G. Tallentyre, p. 
319. London, 1903. 

The effects of the earthquake of the first of November, 1755, were 
distributed over very nearly four millions of square English miles of the 
earth's surface; a most astonishing space! and greatly surpassing any- 
thing of this kind ever recorded in history. — " The History and Phi- 
losophy of Earthquakes" J. Nourse, p. 334. London, 1757. 

Earthquakes, Lisbon Earthquake Recognized as Sign of End. — 
Who can with curious eyes this globe survey, 
And not behold it tottering with decay? 
All things created, God's designs fulfil, 
And natural causes work his destined will. 
And that eternal Word, which cannot lie, 
To mortals hath revealed in prophecy 
That in these latter days such signs should come, 
Preludes and prologues to the general doom. 
But not the Son of man can tell that day; 
Then, lest it find you sleeping, watch and pray. 
— "Poem on the Lisbon Earthquake," John Biddolf. London, 1755. 

Earthquakes, Lisbon Earthquake Described by Eyewitness. — Al- 
most all the palaces and large churches were rent down, or part fallen, 
and scarce one house of this vast city is left habitable. Everybody that 
10 



146 EARTHQUAKES, INCREASE OF. 

was not crushed to death ran out into the large places, and those near 
the river ran down to save themselves by boats, or any other floating 
convenience, running, crying, and calling to the ships for assistance; 
but whilst the multitude were gathered near the riverside, the water 
rose to such a height that it overflowed the lower part of the city, which 
so terrified the miserable and already dismayed inhabitants, who ran to 
and fro with dreadful cries, which we heard plainly on board, that it 
made them believe the dissolution of the world was at hand, every one 
falling on his knees and entreating the Almighty for his assistance. . . . 
By two o'clock the ship's boats began to ply, and took multitudes on 
board. . . . The fear, the sorrow, the cries and lamentations of the poor 
inhabitants are inexpressible; every one begging pardon, and embracing 
each other, crying, Forgive me, friend, brother, sister! Oh! what will 
become of us! neither water nor land will protect us, and the third ele- 
ment, fire, seems now to threaten our total destruction! as in effect it 
happened. The conflagration lasted a whole week. — Letter of ship cap- 
tain to ship's owners, in " Historical Account of Earthquakes," Thomas 
Hunter, pp. 72-74. Liverpool, 1756. 

Note. — The following table of earthquakes is gathered from the reports of 
the British Association for the Advancement of Science. The list is of what are 
denominated " destructive earthquakes " only, as stated by the late Mr. John 
Milne, compiler of the statistics from which the subjoined table is made up : 

" Small earthquakes have been excluded, while the number of large earth- 
quakes both for ancient and modern times, has been extended. As an illustra- 
tion of exclusion, I may mention that between 1800 and 1808, which are years 
taken at random, I find in Mallet's catalogue 407 entries. Only 37 of these, which 
were accompanied by structural damage, have been retained." 

Mr. Milne also states that recent researches " indicate that thirty thousand 
earthquakes may occur annually." 

Century No. Century No. 

First 15 Seventeenth 378 

Second 11 Eighteenth 640 



Third 18 

Fourth 14 

Fifth 15 

Sixth 13 

Seventh 17 

Eighth 35 

Ninth 59 

Tenth 32 

Eleventh 53 



Nineteenth 

First Decade 80 

Second Decade 87 

Third Decade 132 

Fourth Decade 106 

Fifth Decade 185 

Sixth Decade 313 

Seventh Decade 339 

rr„ Ta]fth Eighth Decade 297 

Twelfth 84 Ninth D ecade 339 



::::::::::::::::::: ill Tentn Decade 241 

Fifteenth 174 Twentieth 

Sixteenth 253 First Decade 86 

The distribution of more recent earthquakes is illustrated by the report for 
the first decade of the twentieth century, which is as follows (Report of the Brit- 
ish Association for the Advancement of Science, 1911, p. 55) : 

Alaska 2 Guatemala 1 

Algeria 1 India 2 

Asia, Central 7 Italy 3 

Asia Minor 2 Japan 4 

Baluchistan 1 Java 1 

Bolivia 1 M exic o . . . • 5 

California 2 New Zealand 1 

Chile 4 Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama 1 

China 3 Persia 3 

Colombia 1 Peru . 1 

Costa Rica 2 Philippines 9 

Crete 1 Samos 1 

East Indies 6 Siberia, East 3 

Formosa 5 Spain . . 2 

France 1 Turkey in Europe 3 

Greece 3 West Indies 2 

Guam 2 —Eds. 



Earthquakes. — See Jerusalem, 260. 



EASTER. 



147 



Easter. — The English word comes from the AS Eastre or Estera, 
a Teutonic goddess to whom sacrifice was offered in April, so the name 
was transferred to the paschal feast. The word does not properly 
occur in Scripture, although A. V. has it in Acts 12: 4 where it stands 
for Passover, as it is rightly rendered in R. V. [also in the A. R. V.]. 
There is no trace of Easter celebration in the New Testament, though 
some would see an intimation of it in 1 Cor. 5: 7. The Jewish Chris- 
tians in the early church continued to celebrate the Passover, regarding 
Christ as the true paschal lamb, and this naturally passed over into a 
commemoration of the death and resurrection of our Lord, or an 
Easter feast. This was preceded by a fast, which was considered by 
one party as ending at the hour of the crucifixion, i. e., at 3 o'clock 
on Friday, by another as continuing until the hour of the resurrec- 
tion before dawn on Easter morning. Differences arose as to the time 
of the Easter celebration, the Jewish Christians naturally fixing it at 
the time of the Passover feast which was regulated by the paschal 
moon. According to this reckoning it began on the evening of the 14th 
day of the moon of the month of Nisan without regard to the day of 
the week, while the Gentile Christians identified it with the first day of 
the week, i. e., the Sunday of the resurrection, irrespective of the day 
of the month. — The International Standard Bible Encyclopaedia, James 
Orr, M. A., D. D., editor, Vol. II, art. "Easter," p. 889. Chicago: The 
Howard- Severance Company, 1915. 

The Easter Day indeed was always kept by St. John on the 14th day 
of the lunar month, whatever the day of the week. So Irenaeus, quoted 
by Eusebius (H. E. v. 24), informs us. For he says that Polycarp 
could not be persuaded by Anicetus, the Roman bishop, not to keep it 
on that day, when not Sunday, " because he had always so kept it with 
John the disciple of the Lord, and other of the apostles." — " Hora? 
Apocalyptical," Rev. E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. I, p. 71, Note 4. London: 
Seeley, Burnside, and Seeley, 1847. 

The occurrence of this word in the A. V. of Acts 12: 4, is chiefly 
noticeable as an example of the want of consistency in the translators. 
In the earlier English versions Easter had been frequently used as the 
translation of pascha {iraaxo.). At the last revision [of the A. V.] 
"Passover" was substituted in all passages but this. — A Dictionary of 
the Bible, edited by William Smith, LL. D., p. 156. New York: Fleming 
H. Revell Company. 

Easter. — See Papacy. 

Eastern Question, Modern Meaning of. — In its strict and narrow 
sense, the Eastern Question is the question. What is to be done with 
the southeast of Europe and the contiguous portion of Asia? . . . From 
the point of view of European politics, the Eastern Question has come 
to include the complications arising out of the possession by the Turks 
of the east of Europe and the possibility of Russian predominance in 
the ^Egean Sea. — " The Crime of Christendom" Daniel Seelye Gregory, 
pp. 8, 9. 

The Balkan or Near Eastern Question has been one of the most 
complicated political problems of the world's history for half a cen- 
tury. . . . For four centuries and a half, or ever since the conquering 
Turk crossed the Bosporus and took Constantinople, the grim contest 
has been on to dislodge him by war and diplomacy. — American Review 
of Reviews, November, 1912. 



148 



EASTERN QUESTION. 



" The Eastern Question " is one which the statesmen of Europe 
will probably wrangle over until the millennium. . . . When told that 
his once ally and sworn friend, the tsar Alexander of Russia, desired 
to gain it [Constantinople], Napoleon the Great excitedly sprang to his 
feet, saying, " Constantinople! Never — it is the empire of the world." 
— " Decisive Battles of the World," Charles King, Brigadier- General, p. 
243, 1895. 

Eastern Question, An Ancient Question. — Some countries seem 
destined from their origin to become the battlefields of the contending 
nations. . . . The nations around are eager for the possession of a country 
thus situated. . . . From remote antiquity Syria was in the condition 
just described. ... By its position it formed a kind of meeting place, 
where most of the military nations of the ancient world were bound 
sooner or later to come violently into collision. — " Struggle of the Na- 
tions," Sir Gaston Maspero, chap. 1, pp. 3, 4. 

The Eastern Question, which began with Constantine and The- 
odosius, stretches through the centuries. It is ever old and ever new, 
like a figure in mythology. . . . The interests at stake are so important 
and complicated that Europe and Asia, and even America, cannot stand 
by as unconcerned spectators of the struggle which recurs century 
after century for the possession of the Bosporus, the Hellespont, and 
the ^Egean Sea. The East has been the goal of every ambition of the 
Christian and barbarian powers alike. — M. R. Ivanovitch, on " The 
Future of the Balkans," in Fortnightly Review (London), June, 1909. 

Eastern Question, Revolutionary France and Egypt in Conflict. 
— Bonaparte's expedition, consisting of forty thousand land troops and 
ten thousand seamen, sailed from Toulon for Egypt on the nineteenth 
of May, 1798. — "Library of Universal History," Vol. VIII, p. 2637. 

In spite of the desperate valor displayed by the Mamelukes led by 
Murad Bey, the French gained a complete victory (July 21). This 
battle, called the Battle of the Pyramids, overthrew the government of 
the Mamelukes, and opened Cairo to the French, who entered it the 
following day. — "History of Modern Europe," Dryer and Hassell, Vol. 
V, chap. 60, pp. 276, 277* 

The Porte [government of Turkey] solemnly declared war against 
France, Sept. 4, 1798, and coalesced with Russia and England. The sul- 
tan ordered the formation of an army for the conquest of Egypt. This 
event rendered the situation of the French extremely critical. — " History 
of the Egyptian Revolution," A. A. Paton, Vol. I, p. 98* 

Eastern Question, Napoleon's Aim — Constantinople and World 
Dominion. — If I succeed I shall find in the town [Acre] the pasha's 
treasure, and arms for 300,000 men. I stir up and arm all Syria. . . . 
I march on Damascus and Aleppo; as I advance in the country my army 
will increase with the discontented. ... I reach Constantinople with 
armed masses. I overthrow the Turkish Empire; I found in the East 
a new and grand empire, which fixes my place with posterity. — Napo- 
leon, before Acre; cited in " The Modern Regime," Hippolyte Adolphe 
Taine, D. G. L., book 1, chap. 1 (Vol. I, p. 35). New York: Henry Holt 
& Co., 1890. 

Eastern Question, Turkey's Whirlwind Attack (1799) at Mt. 
Tabor. — Twelve thousand horsemen, decorated with the most gorgeous 
trappings of military show, and mounted on the fleetest Arabian 
chargers, were prancing and curvetting in all directions. A loud and 



EASTERN QUESTION. 



149 



exultant shout of vengeance and joy, rising like the roar of the 
ocean, burst from the Turkish ranks as soon as they perceived their 
victims enter the plain. . . . The whole cavalcade of horsemen, with 
gleaming sabers and hideous yells, and like the sweep of the wind, 
came rushing down upon them. Every man in the French squares 
knew that his life depended upon his immobility, and each one stood, 
shoulder to shoulder with his comrades, like a rock. . . . 

The victory was complete. The Turkish army was not merely con- 
quered — it was destroyed. . . . The whole majestic array, assembled 
for the invasion of Egypt, and who had boasted that they were " in- 
numerable as the sands of the sea, or the stars of heaven," had disap- 
peared to be seen no more. — " The Life of Napoleon Bonaparte" John 
S. G. Abbott, Vol. I, chap. 12, pp. 218-220. 

Note. — Napoleon returned from this victory to the siege of Acre, where 
he was repulsed again and again. — Eds. 

Eastern Question, " Many Ships " and Men Turn Napoleon's Ca- 
reer at Acre (1799). — On the evening of the 7th May, a few sails were 
seen from the towers of Acre, on the furthest verge of the horizon. All 
eyes were instantly turned in that direction, and the besiegers [French] 
and besieged equally flattered themselves that succor was at hand. The 
English cruisers in the bay hastily, and in doubt, stood out to recon- 
noiter this unknown fleet; but the hearts of the French sank within 
them when they beheld the two squadrons unite, and, the Ottoman 
crescent joined to the English pennant, approach the roads of Acre. 
Soon after a fleet of thirty sail [Turkish] entered the bay, with seven 
thousand men, and abundance of artillery and ammunition. — " History 
of Europe," Sir Archibald Alison, Bart., F. R. 8. E., chap. 26, par. 90, Vol. 
IV, p. 207, 9th edition. Edinburgh: William Blackwood and Sons, 1854. 

Eastern Question, a Turning Point in History. — Napoleon was 
not yet sufficiently subdued by misfortune [at Acre] to order a retreat. 
" The fate of the East," said he, " is in yonder fort." ... In vain other 
columns, and even the Guides of Napoleon, his last reserve, advanced 
to the attack; they were all repulsed with dreadful loss. . . . Meanwhile 
the baggage, sick, and field artillery were silently defiling to the rear, 
the heavy cannon were buried in the sand, and on the 20th May, Napo- 
leon, for the first time in his life, ordered a retreat. — Id., pars. 92, 93, 
p. 208. 

Many times during the deadly delays of this fatal siege, in which 
he experienced his first check, he was heard to inveigh against " this 
miserable little hole which came between him and his destiny." And 
many times later, when dwelling on the vicissitudes of his past life, 
and the different chances which had been open to him, he repeated 
" that if Saint Jean d'Acre had fallen, he would have changed the 
face of the world, and been emperor of the East." And he generally 
added, that it was a grain of sand that had undone all his projects. 
— " The History of Napoleon the First," Pierre Lanfrey, Vol. I, p. 296. 
London: Macmillan & Co., 1886. 

Eastern Question, Egypt and Its Treasures Not Escaping. — Mo- 
hammed Ali [the sultan's pasha of Egypt] not only ruled but pos- 
sessed Egypt; for in 1808-10 he successfully accomplished a repeti- 
tion of the tremendous acts of spoliation for which Suleiman II, son 
of the first Ottoman conqueror, had given him a precedent. By one 
means or another, in great measure by the deliberate confiscation and 
suppression of title deeds, he possessed himself of almost the whole of 
the land in Egypt, and declared that henceforth he was the sole owner 



150 



EASTERN QUESTION. 



of the soil, and all rights of possession or tenancy must be held from 
him. From every class in every town and province of Egypt came a 
passionate outcry against this wholesale robbery, but Mohammed Ali, 
with his terrible army of Arnouts at his back, stood firm. — " The Story 
of the Church of Egypt" E. L. Butcher, Vol. II, p. 363. London: Smith, 
Elder & Co., 1897. 

Eastern Question, Seventeenth Centuey Begins Turkish Decline. 
— For a hundred and fifty years after the conquest of Constantinople, 
the Ottoman Empire remained in the fulness of power and prosperity, 
and the population, both Mohammedan and Christian, steadily increased. 
. . . Civil dissensions rarely disturbed the peace of the provinces; the 
laboring classes, both in the agricultural districts and the towns, were 
industrious and prosperous; manufactures flourished; the trade of the 
empire, both foreign and domestic, was vast and lucrative. . . . But 
with the seventeenth century began the decline of the Ottoman power. 
— "Turkey," Edson L. Clark, pp. 148, 149. New York: Peter Fenelon 
Collier & Son, 1900. 

Eastern Question, Greece Detached. — In July, 1827, England, 
France, and Russia signed the Treaty of London, by which they bound 
themselves to compel the Turk, by force, if it should be needful, to 

acknowledge the freedom of Greece. — " The Ottoman Power in Europe," 
E. A. Freeman, D. C. L., LL. D., p. 183. London: Macmillan & Co., 1877. 

On May 7, 1832, more than a decade after the outbreak of the Greek 
revolt, the treaty was finally signed which added a new Christian king- 
dom to the states' system of Europe. — "Modern Europe" 1815-99, W. 
Allison Phillips, M. A., p. 167, 2d edition. London: Rivingtons, 1902. 

Eastern Question, The Balkan States Carved Out. — The Porte 
bowed to the inevitable [with the Russian army in the Balkans] and 
on Sept. 14, 1829, signed with Russia the treaty of Adrianople. True 
to his undertaking, the tsar stipulated for no territorial increase in 
Europe; but the Danubian principalities were erected into practically 
independent states. . . . 

The news of the peace of Adrianople . . . produced something like 
a panic among the powers. Wellington declared that the Turkish power 
in Europe no longer existed, and that, this being so, it was absurd to 
talk of bolstering it up. In any case, since the Russian occupation of 
the principalities made Turkey to all intents and purposes a province of 
Russia, the integrity of the Ottoman Empire was no longer of supreme 
importance to England. — Id., pp. 165, 166. 

Note. — Out of this, in the course of years, particularly between 1878 and 
1885, came the independent Balkan States, carved from Turkish territory. — Eds. 

Eastern Question, Opening Passage of a Stirring Decade of 
Diplomacy. — On July 8, 1833, was signed the famous treaty of Unkiar 
Skelessi, which, under the form of an offensive and defensive alliance 
between Russia and the Ottoman Empire, virtually, in the words of 
Count Nesselrode himself, legalized for the future the armed intervention 
of Russia in Turkish affairs. ... In France and England the news 
of the conclusion of this treaty roused immense excitement. Palmerston 
declared that it placed Turkey under Russian vassalage, and that, as 
far as England was concerned, it had no existence. — Id., p. 216. 

Eastern Question, Constantinople Threatened in 1839. — On June 
24 [1839] Ibrahim [the general of Mehemet Ali, the Sultan's rebellious 
governor of Egypt] met the Ottoman army at Nessib [Syriaj and 



EASTERN QUESTION. 



151 



routed it. Once more the road to Constantinople lay open to him. 
Disaster followed disaster, heralding, as it seemed, the downfall of the 
Turkish rule. On June 30 the old Sultan Mahmoud died, leaving the 
throne to Abd-ul-Medjid, a lad of sixteen. And, finally, as though to 
crown the edifice of ruin, Achmet Pasha, the Ottoman admiral, sailed 
into the harbor of Alexandria, and handed over his fleet to Mehemet Ali. 

Obviously, if the treaty of Unkiar Skelessi were to be more than 
" an interesting historical relic," the time had come for its application. 
In common alarm, the majority of the powers, disunited on most points, 
combined to forestall any isolated action on the part of Russia, and by 
their ambassadors at Constantinople agreed to place the young sultan 
under the protection of Europe. At the same time they warned Me- 
hemet Ali that the matter was now not for him, but for Europe, to de- 
cide. But at this point their agreement ceased. France now openly 
championed Mehemet Ali, in whom she looked to find a valuauie ally 
against the sea power of England in the Mediterranean. She proposed 
that the pasha of Egypt should be left in the enjoyment of nis con- 
quests, and that France and England should come to an agreement as to 
common action in the event of the Russians' meeting Ibrahim on the 
Bosporus. The alliance, in fact, was to be directed, not against Egypt, 
but against Russia. — Id., pp. 225, 226. 

Eastern Question, When News of Defeat Reached Constanti- 
nople. — The divan, stricken with consternation, was about to yield un- 
conditionally to Mehemet's demand for the hereditary possession of all 
his dominions, when a note was received from the powers. This note, 
which bears date of July 27, 1839, informed the Porte that the five great 
powers — Austria, England, France, Prussia, and Russia — had agreed 
to act in concert on the Eastern Question, and requested the Turkish 
government not to come to any definite conclusion without their ad- 
vice. The Porte replied that it would await the action of Europe, and 
gratefully accepted the proffered mediation. — " The Eastern Question" 
8. P. H. Duggan, Ph. D., p. 87. New York: Columbia University Press, 
1902. 

Eastern Question, Note of Five Powers, July 27, 1839. — The un- 
dersigned have this morning received instructions from their respective 
governments, in virtue of which they have the honor to inform the 
Sublime Porte, that agreement between the five powers upon the East- 
ern Question is insured, and to invite the Porte to suspend any final 
determination without their concurrence, awaiting the result of the 
interest which those powers feel for the Porte. — [Signed] Baron Rous- 
sin, Count de Koenigsmarck, Baron de Sturmer, Ponsonby, A. Boute- 
noff. [Dated] Constantinople, July 27, 1839. — "Foreign Affairs of Great 
Britain, Administered by P aimer st on," published anonymously [Wm. 
Cargill known to be the author], p. 158. 1841. 

Eastern Question, Convention of July 15, 1840. — The discovery 
of what seemed an underhand intrigue on the part of France produced 
upon the powers exactly the effect that Thiers had foreseen and depre- 
cated. . . . Their countermove was to sign at London on the 15th of 
July, without the concurrence of France, a convention with the Porte 
for the settlement of the affairs of the Levant. By this instrument it 
was agreed that the terms to be offered to Mehemet Ali having been con- 
certed with the Porte, the signatory powers would unite their forces 
in order to compel the pasha to accept the settlement. As to the terms 
to be offered, it was arranged that, in the event of Mehemet Ali yield- 
ing within ten days, he should receive the hereditary pashalik of Egypt 



152 



EASTERN QUESTION. 



and the administration for life of southern Syria, with the title of 
Pasha of Acre and the possession of the fortress of St. Jean d'Acre. 
At the end of ten days, should he remain obdurate, the offer of Syria 
and Acre would be withdrawn; and if at the end of another ten days 
he was still defiant, the sultan would hold himself at liberty to withdraw 
the whole offer and to take such measures as his own interests and the 
counsels of his allies might suggest to him. — Encyclopedia Britannica, 
Vol. XVIII, art. " Mehemet Ali," p. 81, 11th edition. 

Eastern Question, as Related to Asia Minor and the Approaches 
to the Far East. — The question of Asiatic Turkey may convulse the 
world in a series of devastating wars unless it be solved together with 
the other great questions which will come up for settlement at the Peace 
Congress. 

Innumerable great and small problems will have to be considered 
at the Peace. Not only the map of Europe, but that of the world, will 
have to be redrawn. The coming settlement will be greater, and may 
be far more difficult, than that made at Vienna a hundred years ago. . . . 

The question of Asiatic Turkey is undoubtedly a far more difficult 
question than that of Constantinople. . . . The importance and value of 
Asiatic Turkey . . . can scarcely be overexaggerated, for it occupies un- 
doubtedly the most important strategical position in the world. It forms 
the nucleus and center of the Old World. It separates, and at the same 
time connects, Europe, Asia, and Africa, three continents which are in- 
habited by approximately nine tenths of the human race. . . . 

A powerful Asiatic Turkey can obviously dominate not only the 
Bosporus, the Dardanelles, and the Suez Canal, but the very narrow 
entrance of the Red Sea near Aden, and that of the Persian Gulf near 
Muscat as well. It must not be forgotten that only a comparatively 
short distance, a stretch of country under the nominal rule of weak and 
decadent Persia, separates Asiatic Turkey from the Indian frontier. It 
is clear that Asiatic Turkey, lying in the center of the Old World, is at 
the same time a natural fortress of the greatest defensive strength and 
an ideal base for a surprise attack upon southern Russia, Constantinople, 
the JEgean Islands, Greece, the Suez Canal, Egypt, Persia, Afghanistan, 
and India. — J. Ellis Barker, in the Nineteenth Century and After, June, 
1916. 

Eastern Question, Filling the Vacuum. — The Near Eastern Ques- 
tion may be defined as the problem of filling up the vacuum created by 
the gradual disappearance of the Turkish Empire from Europe. — " The 
Eastern Question," Dr. J. A. Ransome Marriott, p. 2. 

Eastern Question, Not One Question, but Many. — In the sense in 
which the term is generally used, it means the problem or group of 
problems that result from the occupation of Constantinople and the 
Balkan Peninsula by the Turks. — " The Diplomatic Background of the 
War," Prof. Charles Seymour, of Yale, p. 195. 

Eastern Question, Negotiations with Egypt. — The news of the 
conclusion of the treaty of July had reached Constantinople, and despite 
some dissensions in the interior of the divan, and some objections by 
his mother, the sultana Valide, the sultan, always under the influence 
of Redschid Pasha, hastened to accept it, and forwarded the ratifica- 
tion to London, instructing Rifat Bey to carry to Alexandria the suc- 
cessive summonses, which, in the terms of the treaty, the Porte was to 
address to the pasha. Rifat Bey arrived at Alexandria on the 11th of 
August; but found no Mehemet Ali there. He had been for some days 



EASTERN QUESTION. 



153 



on a tour in lower Egypt, under the pretext of visiting the canals of the 
Nile, but in reality to gain time, and prepare his means of defense. 
Having returned to Alexandria on the 14th, he received Rifat Bey on 
the 16th, and without entering into discussion with him — scarcely 
giving him time to speak — he rejected the first summons prescribed 
by the treaty. On the following day (the 17th), the consuls of the 
four subscribing powers asked an audience, and remonstrated with him 
on his refusal. He repulsed them sharply, cut short Colonel Hodges, 
the English consul, and persevered in his remonstrance, saying, " I 
shall only yield to the saber what I have won by the saber." — " The Life 
and Times of Viscount Palmer ston," James Ewing Richie, Division II, 
p. 529. The London Printing and Publishing Company, 1866. 

Eastern Question, Rifat Bey's First Interview with Mehemet 
All — Constantinople, Aug. 27, 1840: By the French steamer of the 24th 
[of August], we have advices from Egypt to the 16th, but they show no 
alteration in the resolution of the pasha. Confiding in the valor of his 
Arab army, and in the strength of the fortifications which defended his 
capital, he seems determined to abide by the last alternative; and as 
recourse to this is, therefore, now inevitable, all hope may be considered 
at an end of a termination of the affair without bloodshed. Immediately 
on the arrival of the Cyclops steamer with the news of the convention 
with the four powers, Mehemet Ali, it is stated, had quitted Alexandria 
to make a short tour through lower Egypt: the object of his absenting 
himself at such a moment being partly to avoid conferences with the 
European consuls, but principally to endeavor by his own presence to 
rouse the fanaticism of the Bedouin tribes, and facilitate the raising of 
his new levies. During the interval of this absence, the Turkish govern- 
ment steamer, which had reached Alexandria on the 11th, with the 
envoy, Rifat Bey, on board, had been by his orders placed in quaran- 
tine, and she was not released from it till the 16th. . . . 

On the very day on which he had been admitted to pratique [certifi- 
cate of permission to land passenger and crew], the above-named func- 
tionary had had an audience of the pasha, and had communicated to him 
the commands of the sultan with respect to the evacuation of the Syrian 
provinces, appointing another audience for the following day, when, in 
the presence of the consuls of the European powers, he would receive 
from him his definitive answer, and inform him of i^e alternative of his 
refusing to obey, giving him the ten days which have been allotted him 
by the convention to decide on the course he shall think fit to adopt. — 
London Morning Chronicle, Sept. 18, 1840. 

Eastern Question, The Official Record of Negotiations in Egypt. 

Colonel Hodges to Viscount Ponsonby 

[Extract] Alexandria, August 16, 1840. 

On the 11th of August, Rifat Bey reached this port, and was sub- 
ject to six days' quarantine, which expire this morning. He has been 
lodged very commodiously in the pasha's sea baths. Both in conjunc- 
tion with my colleagues, and alone, I have had with his Excellency 
several protracted and confidential interviews. We are all gratified by 
the very judicious choice of the Sublime Porte, whose envoy displays 
those rare qualities which render him perfectly equal to the difficult 
mission with which he is intrusted. — "Parliamentary Papers" Session 
1841, Vol. XXIX, part 2, p. 148. 

Note. — Colonel Hodges was British consul-general in Egypt ; Lord Ponsonby, 
the British ambassador at Constantinople. — Eds. 



154 



EASTERN QUESTION. 



Colonel Hodges to Viscount Ponsonby 
[Extract] Alexandria, August 16, 1840. 

On the arrival of Rifat Bey in Alexandria, Mehemet Ali was ab- 
sent from thence on a tour of the Delta. 

The Pasha returned to this city on the afternoon of the 14th in- 
stant. The same evening he was visited by the French Consul-General. 

Early this morning, Rifat Bey. was liberated from quarantine, and 
at half past eight o'clock, a. m., he had his first audience with the 
Pasha. This was private, as had been arranged between Rifat Bey 
and the consuls-general of the four powers. 

It appears that the reception of the sultan's envoy was anything 
but gracious or favorable; but the results of that interview are fully 
related by Rifat Bey himself, in minutes which I have the honor to 
inclose. 

Discouraged by want of his success, Rifat Bey at first proposed 
an immediate return to Constantinople; but in conjunction with my 
colleagues, I represented to him the propriety of awaiting the expira- 
tion of the first and second periods of ten days specified in the Con- 
vention, and at the termination of which it will be proper to make 
new and formal summonses of compliance. With these suggestions 
Rifat Bey has fully concurred, and we have exerted our joint efforts to 
encourage the envoy, and to console him for his recent check. — Id., p. 149. 

Eastern Question, Terms of Powers Rejected and Force Employed. 
— Mehemet Ali, trusting in the encouraging attitude of France, and in 
the effectiveness of Ibrahim's army, had defied the coalition. But 
French help never went beyond stimulating phrases, and the Egyptian 
military power collapsed with surprising rapidity. . . . 

Scarcely had the combined British, Austrian, and Turkish fleet 
appeared off Beirout on August 11, when the Syrian population rose as 
one man in revolt against the tyranny of that same Ibrahim who, six 
years before, had been welcomed as a liberator. Beirout fell on October 
3; and Ibrahim, cut off amidst a hostile people, began a hurried re- 
treat southwards. On November 2 the Allies captured Acre, and Me- 
hemet Ali ordered the evacuation of Syria. From Acre, Admiral Napier 
sailed straight to Alexandria, and threatened to bombard it if the 
pasha did not come to terms. On November 25 was signed a Conven- 
tion by which Mehemet Ali resigned all claims to Syria, and agreed to 
restore the Ottoman fleet, the powers on their part undertaking to use 
their influence with the Porte to procure for himself and his heirs the 
pashalik of Egypt. The Turco-Egyptian Question was settled. — "Mod- 
ern Europe" 1815-99, W. Alison Phillips, M. A., pp. 229, 230. London: 
Rivingtons, 1902. 

Eastern Question, The Step of 1841. — Mohammed Ali, by the 
treaty of [July 13,] 1841, was confined to his Egyptian possessions, 
under the suzerainty of the sultan, the integrity and independence of 
whose empire was now placed formally under the guarantee of the 
great powers. The treaty of 1841 was a new and vital departure: Tur- 
key was for the first time placed in a state of tutelage. — " The Story of 
Turkey," Stanley Lane-Poole, p. 350. London and New York: G. P. Put- 
nam's Sons, 1888. 

The integrity and independence of that state was declared by 
the five powers to be of essential importance to the world, and the 
Ottoman Empire was formally taken under the protection of all 
Europe. . . . 



EASTERN QUESTION. 



155 



Before this treaty was agreed to, whatever step Russia might take 
in the East was a mere question of policy and of convenience; she 
could now make no attempt on the independence of the Porte without 
breaking her plighted faith, and giving all the other four powers the 
right, which would become a duty, to oppose her by force of arms. — 
" Thirty Years of Foreign Policy" Thomas MacKnight, p. 280. London, 
1855. 

Eastern Question, Decline of Turkish Power Foreseen in Proph- 
ecy. — This prediction [of Dan. 11: -4] has been in part already ful- 
filled and is still fulfilling, by the apprehensions the Turks have long 
had of a war with the Persians in the East; and of the progress of the 
Muscovite there also, who is properly on the north. It also deserves to 
be here noted that these Turks themselves have a traditionary proph- 
ecy, greatly believed ariong them, thTt they are the last to be destroyed 
by a northern nation. — "Literal Accomplishment of Scripture Proph- 
ecies" Wm. Whiston. M. A., p. 47. London, 1724. (Author s copy; cor- 
rections marked by author with' pen. Tnis quotation follows interlining. 
British Museum Library.) 

This part of the prophecy [Dan. 11:44] is allowed to be yet unful- 
filled; and what is portended, the course of prophetic events will show. 
. . . But if the Turkish power be understood, as in the preceding verses, 
it may mean that the Persians on the east, and the Russians on the 
north, will at some time greatly embarrass the Ottoman government. 
And how completely has this been fulfilled; first, by the total de- 
struction of the Egyptian fleet, by the combined fleets of England, 
France, and Russia, in the bay of Navarino; and, secondly, by the total 
overthrow of the Turkish army by the Russians, in the years 1828 and 
1829, when the sultan was obliged to accept any conditions that the 
emperor of Russia was pleased to give! (N. B. — The former part of 
this note was written for the first edition of this work, printed in 1825.) 

— Commentary, Adam Clarke, on Dan. 11:44; Vol. IV, p. 618. New 
York: Phillips & Hunt. 

Eastern Question, Turkey "Helped" to Stand. — [In his Mansion 
House speech, Nov. 9, 1895, Lord "Salisbury, responding to a widespread 
demand for the overthrow of the Turkish power, said:] Turkey is "in 
the remarkable condition that it has now stood for half a century, 
mainly because the great powers have resolved that for the peace of 
Christendom it is necessary that the Ottoman Empire should stand. 
They came to that conclusion nearly half a century ago. I do not think 
they have altered it now. The danger, if the Ottoman Empire fell, 
would not merely be the danger that would threaten the territories of 
which that empire consists; it would be the danger that the fire there 
lit should spread to other nations, and should involve all that is most 
powerful and civilized in Europe in a dangerous and calamitous contest. 
— " The Third Salisbury Administration, 1895-1900," H. Whates, book 1, 
chap. 2, p. 20. Westminster: Vacher & Sons. 

It is not too much to say that England has twice saved Turkey 
from complete subjection since 1853. It is largely — mainly — due to 
our action that she now exists at all as an independent power. On 
both these occasions we dragged the powers of Europe along with us 
in maintaining the Ottoman government. — Duke of Argyle (1895), in 
" The Turkish- Armenian Question" p. 17 * 

Eastern Question, Constantinople Saved from Russians in 1878. 

— With the arrival of the Russian army came tne English fleet, which 



156 



EASTERN QUESTION. 



had nominally forced the passage of the Dardanelles in defiance of 
treaties, and hoped to prevent the occupation of Constantinople by the 
Russians. It was not war, but a threat of war. So far as the Turks 
were concerned there was nothing to prevent the Russians entering 
the city without firing a shot. General Grant, who was here a little 
later, was in St. Petersburg at this time, and he told this story on the 
authority of a high official there: " When the Grand Duke arrived at San 
Stefano, he sent many telegrams to the czar, among others this, 'We 
are in sight of St. Sophia. There are no troops between us and the 
city. Shall I enter and take possession? ' All the other telegrams were 
answered at once. This one was not, in the full belief that the Grand 
Duke would understand that he was to take the responsibility himself 
and occupy the city. To the great disappointment of the czar, he did 
not." General Grant added that this seemed to him the greatest mis- 
take the Russians had made. — " Fifty Years in Constantinople," George 
Washburn, D. D., p. 131. Boston: Houghton Mifflin <& Go. 

Eastern Question, Turkey's Disintegration. — The disintegration 
once started spread rapidly, until under Abdul Hamid, Thessaly was 
ceded to Greece; a strip of eastern Avatolia, including Batum and Kars, 
to Russia; and Tunis to France. Roumania, Servia, Montenegro, and 
Bulgaria became independent; Bosnia and Herzegovina were annexed 
to Austria, and Egypt and Cyprus passed under the control of Great 
Britain. . . . Tripoli, the last of the African possessions of Turkey, 
has been wrested from Turkey by Italy. Macedonia, Epirus, Albania, 
and the greater part of Thrace have become the spoils of the Balkan 
war, and, of all their vast possessions in Europe, the Turks retain only 
Constantinople and a fragment of Thrace. 

This is a story of defeat and disaster almost unexampled, and 
might reasonably be accepted as the closing chapter in the history of 
any race. — William Maxwell, in the Nineteenth Century and After 
(London), May, 1913. 

Eastern Question, Scripture Prophecy and Moslem Tradition. — 
And highly is it worth our remark that the following prediction seems 
very near its completion also (Dan. 11: 45) ; that the same Turk after he 
has gone forth with great fury to destroy and utterly to make away 
many, shall plant the tabernacle of his palace (his royal tent and pavil- 
ion in war, as I interpret those words) between the seas, in the glorious 
holy mountain; Mount Sion, or Mount Moriah, or Mount Calvary; all in 
Jerusalem, and all answering those descriptions. Yet shall he come 
to his end, and none shall help him. Which is so distinct and illustrious 
a prophetic character as cannot easily but be taken notice of when it 
comes to pass. — "Essay on the Revelation," Wm. Whiston, M. A., on 
Dan. 11:45, p. 319. London, 1744. 

In Surah 1. 40 [of the Koran], one of the signs of the approach 
of the last day will be: "The crier [to prayer] shall cry from a near 
place" (that is, a place from which all men shall hear). Husain says 
this " near place " is the temple at Jerusalem. — " Dictionary of Islam" 
Thomas Patrick Hughes, <S>rt. "Jerusalem." London: W. H. Allen & Co., 
1896. 

It was at Jerusalem that Jesus ascended to heaven; and it will 
be there that he will again descend. ... In the last days there will 
be a general flight to Jerusalem. — Jalalan, old commentator on the 
Koran; cited in " Dictionary of Islam," T. P. Hughes, art. " Jerusalem." 

As to the excellence of the city. Why, is not this to be the place 
of marshaling on the day of judgment; where the gathering together 



EASTERN QUESTION. 



157 



and the appointment will take place? Verily Makkah [Mecca] and 
Al Madina have their superiority by reason of the Ka'abah and the 
Prophet, — the blessing of Allah be upon him and his family! — but, 
in truth, on the day of judgment both cities will come to Jerusalem, 
and the excellencies of them all will then be united. — Mukaddasi 
(A. D. 985); cited in "Palestine under the Moslems,'" Le Strange, p. 85* 

The Turks themselves seem generally to be convinced that their 
final hour is approaching. " We are no longer Mussulmans — the Mus- 
sulman saber is broken — the Osmanlies will be driven out of Europe by 
the Giaours, and driven through Asia to the regions from which they 
first sprang. It is Kismet! We cannot resist destiny! " I heard words 
to this effect from many Turks, as well in Asia as in Europe. — " Kis- 
met, or the Doom of Turkey," Charles S. MacFarlane, p. 409. London, 
1853. 

Ancient prophecy and modern superstition alike point to the return 
of the Crescent into Asia as an event at hand, and to the doom of the 
Turks as a race that has corrupted Islam. A well-known prediction to 
this effect . . . places the scene of the last struggle in northern Syria, 
at Horns, on the Orontes. Islam is then finally to retire from the north, 
and the Turkish rule to cease. Such prophecies often work their own 
fulfilment. — " The Future of Islam" Wilfred Scawen Blunt, p. 95. Lon- 
don, 1882. 

Eastern Question, Elements for a Time of Trouble. — When, with 
the fall of Ottoman sovereignty at Constantinople, the Turk is driven 
out of Europe, there will arise once more the eternal question of the 
possession of Asia Minor. That land is the corridor between Europe 
and Asia, along which have passed most of the European conquerors — 
the Russians alone excepted — who have invaded Asia, and most of the 
Asiatic conquerors who have invaded Europe. — From an article by J. B. 
Firth, " The Partition of Asia Minor," in Fortnightly Review (monthly, 
London), May, 1915, p. 795. 

The question of Asiatic Turkey is undoubtedly a far more difficult 
question than that of Constantinople. . . . The importance and value 
of Asiatic Turkey . . . can scarcely be overexaggerated, for it occupies 
undoubtedly the most important strategical position in the world. It 
forms the nucleus and center of the Old World. It separates, and at 
the same time connects, Europe, Asia, and Africa, three continents 
which are inhabited by approximately nine tenths of the human race. 
. . . If the powers should not be able to agree, ... it would become 
necessary to divide Asiatic Turkey into zones of influence. . . . How- 
ever, it seems very doubtful whether the partition of Asiatic Turkey 
would prove a final one. It is much to be feared that it would lead to 
a disaster perhaps as great as the present war. — J. Ellis Barker, in the 
Nineteenth Century and After (London), June, 1916* 

Eastern Question, the Agreement Signed by the Powers, Con- 
cerning the Independence of the Ottoman Empire. — 

CONVENTION 

Concluded between the courts of Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and 
Russia on the one part, and the Sublime Ottoman Porte on the other, for 
the pacification of the Levant, signed at London, July 15, 1840. 

In the name of the most merciful God, His Highness the Sultan 
having addressed himself to their Majesties the Queen of the United 



158 



EASTERN QUESTION. 



Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the Emperor of Austria, King 
of Hungary and Bohemia, the King of Prussia, and the Emperor of all 
the Russias, to ask their support and assistance in the difficulties in 
which he finds himself placed by reason of the hostile proceedings of 
Mehemet Ali, Pasha of Egypt, — difficulties which threaten with danger 
the integrity of the Ottoman Empire, and the independence of the Sul- 
tan's throne, — their said Majesties, moved by the sincere desire of 
maintaining the integrity and independence of the Ottoman Empire as 
a security for the peace of Europe; faithful to the engagement which 
they contracted by the collective note presented to the Porte by their 
representatives at Constantinople, on the 27th of July, 1839; and de- 
sirous, moreover, to prevent the effusion of blood which would be occa- 
sioned by a continuance of the hostilities which have recently broken 
out in Syria between the authority of the Pasha of Egypt and the sub- 
jects of the Sultan; their said Majesties and his Highness the Sultan 
have resolved, for the aforesaid purpose, to conclude together a Con- 
vention, and they have therefore named as their plenipotentiaries. . . . 

Article I. — His Highness the Sultan having come to an agreement 
with their Majesties the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain 
and Ireland, the Emperor of Austria, King of Hungary and Bohemia, 
the King of Prussia, and the Emperor of all the Russias, as to the 
condition of the agreement which it is the intention of his Highness to 
grant to Mehemet Ali, conditions which are specified in the separate 
act hereunto annexed; their Majesties engaged to act in perfect accord, 
and to unite their efforts in order to determine Mehemet Ali to conform 
to that arrangement; each of the high contracting parties reserving to 
itself to co-operate for tfat purpose, according to the means of action 
which each may have at its disposal. 

Art. II. — If the Pasha of Egypt should refuse to accept the above- 
mentioned arrangement, which will be communicated to him by the 
Sultan, with the concurrence of their aforesaid Majesties; their Majes- 
ties engage to take, at the request of the Sultan, measures concerted and 
settled between them, in order to carry that arrangement into effect. 
In the meanwhile, the Sultan having requested the said allies to unite 
with him in order to assist him to cut off the communication by sea 
between Egypt and Syria, and to prevent the transport of troops, horses, 
arms, and warlike stores of all kinds from the one province to the 
other; their Majesties the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Brit- 
ain and Ireland, and the Emperor of Austria, King of Hungary and 
Bohemia, engage to give immediately to that effect, the necessary orders 
to their naval commanders in the Mediterranean. Their said Majesties 
further engage that the naval commanders of their squadrons shall, 
according to the means at their command, afford, in the name of the 
alliance, all the support and assistance in their power to those subjects 
of the Sultan who may manifest their fidelity and allegiance to their 
sovereign. 

Art. III. — If Mehemet Ali, after having refused to submit to the 
conditions of the arrangement above mentioned, should direct his land 
or sea forces against Constantinople, the high contracting parties, upon 
the express demand of the Sultan, addressed to their representatives at 
Constantinople, agree, in such case, to comply with the request of that 
sovereign, and to provide for the defense of his throne by means of a 
co-operation agreed upon by mutual consent, for the purpose of placing 
the two straits of the Bosporus and Dardanelles, as well as the capital 
of the Ottoman Empire, in security against all aggression. 

It is further agreed, that the forces which, in virtue of such concert, 
may be sent as aforesaid, shall there remain so employed as long as 



EASTERN QUESTION. 



159 



their presence shall be required by the Sultan; and when His Highness 
shall deem their presence no longer necessary, the said forces shall 
simultaneously withdraw, and shall return to the Black Sea and the 
Mediterranean respectively. 

Art. IV. — It is, however, expressly understood, that the co-operation 
mentioned in the preceding article, and destined to place the straits of 
the Dardanelles and of the Bosporus, and the Ottoman capital, under the 
temporary safeguard of the high contracting parties against all aggres- 
sion of Mehemet Ali, shall be considered only as a measure of exception 
adopted at the express demand of the Sultan, and solely for his defense 
in the single case above mentioned; but it is agreed, that such measures 
shall not derogate in any degree from the ancient rule of the Ottoman 
Empire, in virtue of which it has at all times been prohibited for ships 
of war of foreign powers to enter the straits of the Dardanelles and of 
the Bosporus. 

Art. V — 

Done at London, the fifteenth of July, in the year of our Lord, 1840. 



— " Parliamentary Papers," Session 1841, " On the Levant," Vol. XXIX, 
part 2, pp. 691-693. 

Eastern Question, Official Correspondence of August, 1840. — 
On the 11th instant Rifat Bey, bearer of the demands of the Sublime 
Porte, reached Alexandria. The general object of his mission soon 
began to be known in the city, and as the French and Russian consuls- 
general had within a few days officially mentioned the merchants and 
residents of their respective nations, I felt that the time was now 
arrived to follow that example. I therefore addressed to Mr. Consul 
Larking the inclosed dispatch of the 11th instant, which produced the 
three subsequent letters of the 12th, 14th, and '15th of August, all of 
which I have the honor to submit to your perusal. — Extract of Letter 
from Colonel Hodges to Viscount Palmerston, dated Alexandria, Egypt, 
Aug. 17, 1840, and received September 9; in Parliamentary Papers, Vol. 
XXIX, part 2, p. 143. 

Sir: The resolutions which have been taken by four of the great 
European powers for the pacification of the East, the arrival this morn- 
ing of a special envoy from the Sublime Porte, and the inflexible de- 
meanor assumed by Mehemet Ali, have inspired some doubt as to the 
continuance of friendly relations with that Pasha. — Inclosure 1 in 
above Letter No. 116, Colonel Hodges to Mr. Consul Larking, dated 
Alexandria, Aug. 11, 1840. 

This day, Sunday, at 2 o'clock, Turkish time, His Excellency Rifat 
Bey proceeded to Mehemet Ali, at his express invitation, accompanied by 
the individuals attached to his person, and the result of the interview 
which took place between them, is contained in tne following lines. — 
Inclosure 3 in Letter No. 117, report of interview between Kifat Bey and 
Mehemet Ali. 

My Lord: I have the honor to inclose for the information of your 
Lordship, the minute of an interview which took place this morning be- 
tween Mehemet Ali and His Excellency Rifat Bey, the special envoy 
from the Sublime Porte, who was accompanied by the consuls-general 
of the four powers parties to the Convention of the 15th July. — Letter 



(L. S.) 
(L. S.) 
(L. S.) 
(L. S.) 
(L. S.) 



Palmerston 

Neumann 

Bulow 

Brunnow 

Chekib 



(England) 

(Austria) 

(Prussia) 

(Russia) 

(Turkey) 



160 



EDICT OF MILAN. 



No. 130, Colonel Hodges to Viscount F 'aimer st on, dated Alexandria, Aug. 
26, 1840, received September 9. 

Minute of an interview of the 26th of August, between Mehemet Ali 
and Rifat Bey, accompanied by the consuls-general of the four powers, 
on the expiration of the first term of ten days. — Inclosure in Letter 
No. 130. 

My Lord: Yesterday morning His Excellency Rifat Bey, together 
with his consuls-general of the four powers, parties to the Convention 
of the 15th of July, waited on Mehemet Ali in order to receive his final 
reply to the demands of the Sublime Porte. The Pasha being confined 
to his room by a painful indisposition, gave his official answer through 
the medium of his minister Sami Bey. 

The details of our interview are contained in the minute I have the 
honor to inclose, and of which the original was yesterday forwarded to 
His Excellency Viscount Ponsonby, at Constantinople. The hasty de- 
parture of His Excellency Rifat Bey, and the consequent want of his 
signature, prevent my forwarding to your Lordship a duplicate instead 
of a copy. — Letter No. 190, Colonel Hodges to Viscount Palmerston, 
dated Alexandria, September 6, 1840, received October 6. 

Eastern Question. — See Greece, 191-194. 

Edict of Milan, a. d. 313. — As we long since perceived that religious 
liberty should not be denied, but that it should be granted to the opinion 
and wishes of each one to perform divine duties according to his own 
determination, we had given orders that each one, and the Christians 
among the rest, have the liberty to observe the religion of his choice 
and his peculiar mode of worship. And as there plainly appeared to 
be many and different sects added in that edict, 1 in which this privilege 
was granted them, some of them, perhaps, after a little while, on this 
account shrunk from this kind of attention and observance. Where- 
fore, as I, Constantine Augustus, and I, Licinius Augustus, came under 
favorable auspices to Milan, and took under consideration all affairs 
that pertained to the public benefit and welfare, these things among 
the rest appeared to us to be most advantageous and profitable to all. 

We have resolved among the first things to ordain those matters 
by which reverence and worship to the Deity might be exhibited; that 
is, how we may grant likewise to the Christians, and to all, the free 
choice to follow that mode of worship which they may wish, that 
whatsoever divinity and celestial power may exist may be propitious to 
us and to all that live under our government. Therefore, we have 
decreed the following ordinance, as our will, with a salutary and most 
correct intention, that no freedom at all shall be refused to Christians, 
to follow or to keep their observances or worship; but that to each one 
power be granted to devote his mind to that worship which he may 
think adapted to himself, that the Deity may in all things exhibit to 
us his accustomed favor and kindness. It was just and consistent that 
we should write that this was our pleasure, that all exceptions respect- 
ing the Christians being completely removed, which were contained in 
the former epistle that we sent to your fidelity, and whatever measures 
were wholly sinister and foreign to our mildness, that these should be 
altogether annulled; and now that each one of the Christians may freely 

1 The edict here mentioned is lost, and the reference is, therefore, subject 
to some obscurity. The Latin original, however, of this one is preserved by 
Lactantius, in his book "Be Mortibus Persecutorum," beginning at the words, 
" Wherefore, as I, Constantine." Valesius here, as well as in the other edicts, 
has no reference to Lactantius. The Greek translation is in the main so 
faithful as to transfer the Latinity ; the text, however, still preserved in Lac- 
tantius, differs in some places from that which Eusebius seems to have had. — 
The Translator, Rev. C. F. Cruse, D. D. 



EXTREME UNCTION. 



161 



and without molestation, pursue and follow that course of worship 
which he has proposed to himself: which, indeed, we have resolved to 
communicate most fully to your care and diligence, that you may know 
we have granted liberty and full freedom to the Christians, to observe 
their own mode of worship; which as your fidelity understands ab- 
solutely granted to them by us, the privilege is also granted to others 
to pursue that worship and religion they wish, which it is obvious 
is consistent with the peace and tranquillity of our times; that each 
may have the privilege to select and to worship whatsoever divinity 
he pleases. But this has been done by us, that we might not appear in 
any manner to detract anything from any manner of religion or any 
mode of worship. 

And this we further decree, with respect to the Christians, that the 
places in which they were formerly accustomed to assemble, concerning 
which we also formerly wrote to your fidelity, in a different form, that 
if any persons have purchased these, either from our treasury or from 
any other one, these shall restore them to the Christians, without 
money and without demanding any price, without any superadded 
value, or augmentation, without delay or hesitancy. And if any have 
happened to receive these places as presents, that they shall restore 
them as soon as possible to the Christians, so that if either those that 
purchased or those that received them as presents, have anything to 
request of our munificence, they may go to the provincial governor, as 
the judge, that provision may also be made for them by our clemency; 
all which, it will be necessary to be delivered up to the body of Chris- 
tians, by your care, without any delay. 

And since the Christians themselves are known to have had not 
only those places where they were accustomed to meet, but other places 
also, belonging not to individuals among them, but to the right of the 
whole body of Christians, you will also command all these, by virtue 
of the law before mentioned, without any hesitancy, to be restored to 
these same Christians, that is, to their body, and to each conventricle re- 
spectively; the aforesaid consideration, to wit, being observed; namely, 
that they who as we have said restore them without valuation and price, 
may expect their inremnity from our munificence and liberality. 

In all which it will be incumbent on you to manifest your exertions, 
as much as possible, to the aforesaid body of Christians, that our 
orders may be most speedily accomplished, that likewise in this pro- 
vision may be made by our clemency, for the preservation of the common 
and public tranquillity. For by these means, as beforesaid, the divine 
favor with regard to us, which we have already experienced in many 
affairs, will continue firm and permanent at all times. But that the 
purpose of this our ordinance and liberality may be extended to the 
knowledge of all, it is expected that these things written by us should 
be proposed and published to the knowledge of all, that this act of our 
liberality and kindness may remain unknown to none. — Edict of Con- 
stantine (and Liciniusf), A. D. 313; cited in ''An Ecclesiastical His- 
tory," Eusebius, bGok 10, chap. 5 (Vol. II, pp. 430-433). London: Samuel 
Bagster d Sons. 1847. (See also "The Library of Original Sources," 
Vol. IV, pp. 19, 20.) 

Edict of Nantes. — See Increase of Knowledge, 221. 

Exarchate of Ravenna. — See Temporal Power of the Pope. 

Extreme Unction, Defined. — Extreme unction is a sacrament of 
the new law instituted by Christ to give spiritual aid and comfort and 
perfect spiritual health, including, if need be, the remission of sins, 
and also, conditionally, to restore bodily health to Christians who are 
11 



162 



FALLING STARS. 



seriously ill; it consists essentially in the unction by a priest of the 
body of the sick person, accompanied by a suitable form of words. . . . 
The name " Extreme Unction " did not become technical in the West 
till towards the end of the twelfth century, and has never become cur- 
rent in the East. — The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. V, art. " Extreme 
Unction," p. 716. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 

Extreme Unction, Canons on. — Canon I. If any one saith that ex- 
treme unction is not truly and properly a sacrament, instituted by 
Christ our Lord, and promulgated by the blessed apostle James; but is 
only a rite received from the Fathers, or a human figment; let him 
be anathema. 

Canon IV. If any one saith that the presbyters of the church, whom 
blessed James exhorts to be brought to anoint the sick, are not the 
priests who have been ordained by a bishop, but the elders in each 
community, and that for this cause a priest alone is not the proper 
minister of extreme unction; let him be anathema. — "Dogmatic Canons 
and Decrees," pp. 121, 122. New York: The Devin-Adair Company, 1912. 

Ezra, Date or Commission of. — See Artaxerxes, 42; Seventy Weeks, 
518-520. 

Falling Stars, of 1833, Professor Olmsted's Description. — The 
morning of November 13, 1833, was rendered memorable by an exhibi- 
tion of the phenomenon called shooting stars, which was probably more 
extensive and magnificent than any similar one hitherto recorded. 
. . . Probably no celestial phenomenon has ever occurred in this coun- 
try, since its first settlement, which was viewed with so much ad- 
miration and delight by one class of spectators, or with so much 
astonishment and fear by another class. For some time after the 
occurrence, the " meteoric phenomenon " was the principal topic of 
conversation in every circle. — Denison Olmsted, Professor of Mathe- 
matics and Natural Philosophy in Yale College, in the American Journal 
of Science and Arts, Vol. XXV (1834), pp. 363, 364. 

Falling Stars, of 1833, Most Remarkable on Record. — The most 
remarkable one ever observed. — "Astronomy for Everybody," Simon 
Newcomb, LL. D., p. 280. 

Falling Stars, of 1833, Estimate of Numbers. — The Boston ob- 
server, Olmsted, compared them, at the moment of maximum, to half 
the number of flakes which we perceive in the air during an ordinary 
shower of snow. — " Popular Astronomy" Flammarion and Gore, p. 536. 

Falling Stars, of 1833, as Seen in Missouri. — Though there was 
no moon, when we first beheld them, their brilliancy was so great 
that we could, at times, read common-sized print without much diffi- 
culty, and the light which they afforded was much whiter than that of 
the moon, in the clearest and coldest night, when the ground is cov- 
ered with snow. The air itself, the face of the earth, as far as we 
could behold it, — all the surrounding objects, and the very countenances 
of men, wore the aspect and hue of death, occasioned by the continued, 
pallid glare of these countless meteors, which in all their grandeur 
flamed " lawless through the sky." There was a grand, peculiar, and 
indescribable gloom on all around, an awe-inspiring sublimity on all 
above; while 

" the sanguine flood 
Rolled a broad slaughter o'er the plains of heaven, 
And Nature's self did seem to totter on the brink of time! " 



FALLING STARS. 



163 



. . . There was scarcely a space in the firmament which was not 
filled at every instant with these falling stars, nor on it, could you 
in general perceive any particular difference in appearance; still at 
times they would shower down in groups — calling to mind the " fig tree, 
casting her untimely figs when shaken by a mighty wind." — Letter 
from Bowling Green, Missouri, to Professor Silliman, in American Jour- 
nal of Science and Arts, Vol. XXV (1834), p. 382. 

Falling Stars, of 1833, Attention of World's Astronomers At- 
tracted by. — The attention of astronomers in Europe, and all over the 
world, was, as may be imagined, strongly roused by intelligence of this 
celestial display on the Western continent. — " The Gallery of Nature," 
Rev. Thomas Milner, F. R. G. S., p. 141. London: 1852. 

Falling Stars, of 1833, A Tempest of Stars. — On the night of 
November 12-13, 1833, a tempest of falling stars broke over the earth. 
North America bore the brunt of its pelting. From the Gulf of Mexico 
to Halifax, until daylight with some difficulty put an end to the dis- 
play, the sky was scored in every direction with shining tracks and 
illuminated with majestic fireballs. — "History of Astronomy in the 
Nineteenth Century,''' Agnes M. Gierke, p. 328. London, 1902. 

Falling Stars, Shower of 1833 Awakens Interest in the Study of 
Meteors. — Once for all, then, as the result of the star fall of 1833, the 
study of luminous meteors became an integral part of astronomy. — Id., 
p. 329. 

Falling Stars, of 1833, London Scientist on Prophetic Picture. — 
In many districts, the mass of the population were terror-struck, and 
the more enlightened were awed at contemplating so vivid a picture of 
the apocalyptic image — that of the stars of heaven falling to the 
earth, even as a fig tree casting her untimely figs, when she is shaken 
of a mighty wind. — " The Gallery of Nature," Rev. Thomas Milner, 
F. R. G. S., p. 140. London, 1852. 

Falling Stars, of 1833, " Fell Like Flakes of Snow." — In the 
words of most, they fell like flakes of snow. — Br. Humphreys, President 
St. John's College, Annapolis, Maryland, in American Journal of Science, 
Vol. XXV (1834), p. 372. 

Falling Stars, of 1833, The Prophetic Description Fulfilled. — 
And how did they fall? Neither myself nor one of the family heard 
any report; and were I to hunt through nature for a simile, I could 
not find one so apt to illustrate the appearance of the heavens as that 
which St. John uses in the prophecy, before quoted. " It rained fire! " 
says one. Another, " It was like a shower of fire." Another, " It was 
like the large flakes of falling snow before a coming storm, or large 
drops of rain before a shower." 

I admit the fitness of these for common accuracy; but they come 
far short of the accuracy of the figure used by the prophet. " The 
stars of heaven fell unto the earth; " they were not sheets, or flakes, 
or drops of fire; but they were what the world understands by the 
name of "Falling Stars; " and one speaking to his fellow in the midst 
of the scene would say, " See how the stars fall; " and he who heard, 
would not pause to correct the astronomy of the speaker, any more than 
he would reply, " The sun does not move," to one who should tell him, 
" The sun is rising." 

The stars fell " even as a fig tree casteth her untimely figs, when 
she is shaken of a mighty wind." Here is the exactness of the prophet. 



164 



FALLING STARS. 



The falling stars did not come as if from several trees shaken, but 
from one. Those which appeared in the east fell toward the east; 
those which appeared in the north fell toward the north; those which 
appeared in the west fell toward the west; and those which appeared 
in the south (for I went out of my residence into the park) fell toward 
the south; and they fell, not as the ripe fruit falls; far from it; but 
they flew, they ivere cast, like the unripe fig, which at first refuses to 
leave the branch; and when it does break its hold, flies swiftly, 
straight off, descending; and in the multitude falling, some cross the 
track of others, as they are thrown with more or less force. 

Such was the appearance of the above phenomenon to the inmates 
of my house. I walked into the park with tw^ gentlemen of Pearl 
Street, feeling and confessing that this scene had never been figured 
to our minds by any book or mortal, save only by the prophet. — A cor- 
respondent in the New York Journal of Commerce, Vol. VIII, No. 534, 
Saturday Morning, Nov. 14, 1833. 

Falling Stars, of 1833, Like Shower of Fire. — In any direction, 
the scene could not be compared more aptly to anything than a distant 
shower of fire, whose particles were falling sparsely to the earth. 
Frequently one larger and more luminous than the rest would shoot 
across the heavens, producing a flash like vivid lightning. Towards 
the approach of daylight the sky began to be obscured with clouds, 
and these substances appeared less frequent, but did not disappear till 
long after the light of the morning had arisen, and were seen as long 
as stars were visible. — New Hampshire Patriot and State Gazette 
(semiweekly), Vol. I, No. 104; Concord, Saturday, Nov. 16, 1833. 
(State Library.) 

Falling Stars, The Sign Anticipated in 1697. — The last sign we 
shall take notice of, is that of " falling stars." "And the stars shall fall 
from heaven," says our Saviour. Matt. 24: 29. We are sure, from the 
nature of the thing, that this cannot be understood either of fixed 
stars or planets; for if either of these should tumble from the skies 
and reach the earth, they would break it all in pieces, or swallow 
it up, as the sea does a sinking ship; and at the same time would put' 
all the inferior universe into confusion. It is necessary, therefore, 
by these stars, to understand either fiery meteors falling from the 
middle region of the air, or comets and blazing stars. No doubt there 
will be all sorts of fiery meteors at that time; and amongst others, 
those which are called falling stars; which, though they are not con- 
siderable singly, yet if they were multiplied in great numbers, fall- 
ing, as the prophet says, as leaves from the vine, or leaves from the 
fig tree, they would make on astonishing sight. — " Sacred Theory of the 
Earth," Dr. Thomas Burnett, book 3, p. 66, 3d edition, 1697. 

Falling Stars, of 1833, Seen as Sign of Second Advent. — I wit- 
nessed this gorgeous spectacle, and was awe-struck. The air seemed 
filled with bright descending messengers from the sky. It was about 
daybreak when I saw this sublime scene. It was not without the sug- 
gestion at that moment that it might be the harbinger of the coming 
of the Son of man; and in my state of mind I was prepared to hail 
him as my friend and deliverer. I had read that the stars should fall 
from heaven, and they were now falling: I was suffering much in 
my mind, and I was beginning to look away to heaven for the rest denied 
me on earth. — " My Bondage and My Freedom," Frederick A. Douglass. 

Falling Stars, of 1833, Regarded as Forerunner of Last Day. — 
We pronounce the raining fire which we saw on Wednesday morning 



FALLING STARS. 



165 



last an awful type, a sure forerunner, a merciful sign, of that great 
and dreadful day which the inhabitants of the earth will witness when 
the sixth seal shall be opened. 

That time is just at hand described not only in the New Testa- 
ment but in the Old; and a more correct piciure of a fiar tree casting 
its leaves when blown by a mighty wind, it was not possible to behold. 

Many things now occurring upon the earth tend to convince us 
that we are in the " latter days." This exhibition we deem to be a 
type of an awful day fast hurrying upon us. This is our «inc^re opin- 
ion; and what we think, we are not ashamed to tell. — "The Old Coun- 
tryman" New York, printed in the New York Star and quoted in the 
Portland Evening Advertiser, Nov. 26, 1833. (Portland Public Library.) 

Falling Stars, of 1833, Regarded as Sign or End by Many. — Scien- 
tific study of the orbits of shooting stars began after the occurrence 
of the most brilliant meteoric shower on record, — that of November 
13, 1833. This spectacle, which excited the greatest interest among all 
beholders, and was looked upon with consternation by the ignorant, 
many of whom thought that the end of the world had co^e, was wit- 
nessed generally throughout North America, which happened to be the 
part of the earth facing the mfteoric storm. Hundreds of thousands 
of shooting stars fell in the course of two or three hours. Some ob- 
servers compared their number to the flakes of a snowstorm, or to the 
raindrops in a shower. — The Encyclopedia Americana, art. "Meteors 
or Shooting Stars" New York: The American Company, 1903. 

Falling Stars, of 1833, Inspired Reflections on the Creator's 
Care. — Had they held on their course unabated for three seconds 
longer, half a continent mu^t, to all apoearance, have been involved 
in unheard-of calamity. But that almighty Being who made the world, 
and knew its dangers, gave it also its armature, endowing the atmos- 
pheric medium around it with protecting, no lers than with life-sustain- 
ing properties ... 

Considered as one of the rare and wonderful disnlays of the Crea- 
tor's preserving care, as well as the terrible magnitude and power of 
his agencies, it is not meet that such occurrences as t^ose of Novem- 
ber 13 should leave no more solid and permanent effect upon the hu- 
man mind than the impression of a splendid scene. — Prof. Alexander 
C. Twining. Civil Engineer. Late Tutor in Yale College, in American 
Journal of Science, Vol. XXYI (1834), p. 351. 



Fallinsr Stars, The Display of 1833 Incomparably the Greatest. — 
Probably the most remarkable of all the meteoric showers that have 
ever occurred was that of the I eonids, on the [night following] Novem- 
ber 1?. 1833. T^e number at some stations was e^timat^d as hi<?h as 
200.000 an hour for five or six hours. " The sky was as full of them as 
it ever is of snowflakes in a storm," and, a- an old lady described it, 
looked " ^ike a gigantic umbrella." [page 469] . . . 

In 1864 Frofe c sor Newton of New Haven showed by an examina- 
tion of the old records that there had been a number of great meteoric 
showers in November, at interval of thirtv-three or thirty-four years, 
and he predicted confidently a repetition of the shower on November 
13 or 14, 1866. The shower occurred as predicted, and was observed 
in Europe; and it was followed by another in 1867, which was visible 
in America, the meteoric swarm being extended in so long a procession 
as to require more than two years to cross the earth's orbit. Neither 
of these showers, however, was equal to the shower of 1833. The re- 
searches of Newton, supplemented by those of Adams, the discoverer 



166 



FALLING STARS. 



of Neptune, showed that the swarm moves in a long ellipse with a 
thirty-three-year period. 

A return of the shower was expected in 1899 or 1900, but failed 
to appear, though on November 14-15, 1898, a considerable number of 
meteors were seen, and in the early morning of November 14-15, 1901, 
a well-marked shower occurred, visible over the whole extent of the 
United States, but best seen west of the Mississippi, and especially on 
the Pacific Coast. At a number of stations several hundred Leonids 
were observed by eye or by photography, and the total number that 
fell must be estimated by tens of thousands. The display, however, 
seems to have nowhere rivaled the showers of 1866-67, and these were 
not to be compared with that of 1833. — " Manual of Astronomy," Charles 
A. Young, Ph. D., LL. D., Professor of Astronomy in Princeton Uni- 
versity, pp. 469, 471, 472. Boston: Ginn and Company, 1902. 

Falling Stars, of 1833, Observed in Nova Scotia. — The meteoric 
phenomenon witnessed in this country on the 13th instant, was also 
seen at Halifax the same morning. Many persons rose from their beds 
supposing there was a fire near their dwellings. — Portland Evening Ad- 
vertiser, Nov. 27, 1833. (Portland Public Library.) 

Falling Stars, of 1833, Seen in United States, Mexico, and West 
Indies. — The year 1833 is memorable for the most magnificent display 
[of falling meteors] on record. This was on the same night of Novem- 
ber [13] also, and Was visible over all the United States, and over a 
part of Mexico, and the West India Islands. Together with the smaller 
shooting stars, which fell like snowflakes and produced phosphorescent 
lines along their course, there were intermingled large fireballs, which 
darted forth at intervals, describing in a few seconds an arc of 30 
or 40 degrees. 

These left behind luminous trains, which remained in view sev- 
eral minutes, and sometimes half an hour or more. One of them seen 
in North Carolina appeared of larger size and greater brilliancy than 
the moon. Some of the luminous bodies were of irregular form, and 
remained stationary for a considerable time, emitting streams of light. 

At Niagara the exhibition was especially brilliant, and probably 
no spectacle so terribly grand and sublime was ever before beheld by 
man as that of the firmament descending in fiery torrents over the 
dark and roaring cataract. — The American Cyclopedia, art. " Meteor." 
New York: D. Appleton & Company, 1881. 

Falling Stars, of 1866, in England. — In the night between Tues- 
day and yesterday, they who chose to watch and were not discouraged 
by the doubts of astronomers, were rewarded with a spectacle which 
cannot be imagined or forgotten. First one meteor then another shot 
across the sky. Then they appeared faster than he (the spectator) 
could count them. Some struck the sight like sparks from a forge 
everywhere at once, some to fall over trees and houses, bright to the 
last, but with the ruddy hues of the lower atmosphere. Look where 
we would, it was the same. The heavens seemed alive with this un- 
wonted host. 

There were times when it seemed as if a mighty wind had caught 
the old stars, loosed them from their holdings, and swept them across 
the firmament. The Olympian [Jove] himself might have been sup- 
posed on his throne launching his bolts against an offending or for- 
getful world. . . . All this may account for the little thought given to 
what is really a most startling and most awful phenomenon. . . . But 



FALLING STARS. 



science, which dispels so many terrors and proves so many appear- 
ances, illusions, and nothing more, does not do so in this instance. — 
London Times, Nov. 15 [Thursday'], 1866. 

Falling Stars, of 1866, in North England. — As it seems to us 
people have been a good deal taken by surprise. The apparition has 
been far out of the common range of ideas. ... It is little more than 
a century since the principles of modern astronomical science were 
brought to bear on this subject. All this may naturally account for 
the little expectation or little thought given to what is really a most 
startling and most awful phenomenon. There will, however, be no 
more of this ignorance or indifference, for nobody who saw well what 
was to be seen the other night will forget this impression should he 
live to the next return. — Manchester Guardian, Nov. 15, 1866. 

Falling Stars, The 1866 Display Slight in Comparison with 1833. 
— I shall never forget that night. On the memorable evening I was 
engaged in my usual duty at that time of observing nebulae with Lord 
Rosse's great reflecting telescope. I was of course aware that a shower 
of meteors had been predicted, but nothing that I had heard prepared 
me for the splendid spectacle so soon to be unfolded. It was about 
ten o'clock at night when an exclamation from an attendant by my side 
made me look up from the telescope just in time to see a fine meteor 
dash across the sky. It was presently followed by another, and then 
again by more in twos and in threes, which showed that the prediction 
of a great shower was likely to be verified. At this time the Earl of 
Rosse (then Lord Oxmantown) joined me at the telescope. There for 
the next two or three hours we witnessed a spectacle which can never 
fade from my memory. The shooting stars gradually increased in 
number until sometimes several were seen at once. ... It would be 
impossible to say how many thousands of meteors were seen, each one 
of which was bright enough to have elicited a note of admiration on 
any ordinary night. — " Story of the Heavens," Sir Robert Ball, pp. 
379, 380. London, 1900. 

Falling Stars, The 1866 Display in Syria. — On the morning of the 
fourteenth [November, 1866, at Beirut, Syria], at three o'clock, I was 
roused from a deep sleep by the voice of one of the young men calling, 
" The stars are all coming down." . . . The meteors poured down like a 
rain of fire. Many of them were large and varicolored, and left behind 
them a long train of fire. One immense green meteor came down over 
Lebanon, seeming as large as the moon, and exploded with a large noise, 
leaving a green pillar of light in its train. It was vain to attempt to 
count them, and the display continued until dawn, when their light 
was obscured by the king of day. . . . The Mohammedans gave the 
call to prayer from the minarets, and the common people were in ter- 
ror. — " Fifty -three Years in Syria," H. H. Jessup, D. D., Vol. I, pp. 
316, 317. 

Falling Stars, Predictions of, for 1899, Failed. — The great No- 
vember shower, which is coming once more in this century, and which 
every reader may hope to see toward 1899, is of particular interest to 
us as the first whose movements were subject to analysis. — "New As- 
tronomy " (1888), Prof. S. P. Langley, p. 196. 

The meteors of November 13 may be expected to reappear with 
great brilliancy in 1899. — "Chambers' Astronomy" (1889 J, Vol. I, p. 635. 



168 



FATHERS, ESTIMATE OP. 



We can no longer count upon the Leonids Tas the meteorites of 1833 
were called, because they seemed to fall from a point in the constel- 
lation of LeoJ. Their glory, for scenic purposes, is departed. — "His- 
tory of Astronomy in tue Nineteenth Century," Agnes M. Clerke, p. 
338. London, 1902. 

False Christs. — See Jerusalem, 258. 

False Decretals.- — See Isidorian Decretals. 

" Father of His Country." — See Papacy, Builders of, Innocent III, 

353. 

Fathers, Estimate of. — The preceding account of the Fathers 
of the second and third centuries may enable us to form some idea of 
the value of these writers as ecclesiastical authorities. Most of them 
had reached maturity before they embraced the faith of the gospel, so 
that, with a few exceptions, they wanted the advantages of an early 
Christian education. Some of them, before their conversion, had be- 
stowed much time and attention on the barren speculations of the 
pagan philosophers; and, after their reception into the bosom of the 
church, they still continued to pursue the -ame unprofitable studies. 
Cyprian, one of the most eloquent of these Fathers, had been baptized 
only about two years before he was elected Bishop of Carthage; and, 
during his comparatively short episcopate, he was generally in a tur- 
moil of excitement, and had, consequently, little leisure for reading or 
mental cultivation. Such a writer is not entitled to command confi- 
dence as an expositor of the faith once delivered to the saints. Even 
in our own day, with all the facilities supplied by printing for the rapid 
accumulation of knowledge, no one would expect much spiritual instruc- 
tion from an author who would undertake the office of an interpreter 
of Scripture two years after his conversion from heathenism. The 
Fathers of the second and third centuries were not regarded as safe 
guides even by their Christian contemporaries. . . . Tertullian, who, in 
point of learning, vigor, and genius, stands at the head of the Latin 
writers of this period, was connected with a party of gloomy fanatics. 
Origen, the most voluminous and erudite of the Greek Fathers, was 
excommunicated as a heretic. If we estimate these authors as they 
were appreciated by the early Church of Rome, we must pronounce 
their writings of little value. Tertullian, as a Montanist, was under 
the ban of the Roman Bishop. Hippolytus could not have been a favor- 
ite with either Zephyrinus or Callistus, for he denounced both as here- 
tics. Origen was treated by the Roman Church as a man under sen- 
tence of excommunication. Stephen deemed even Cyprian unworthy of 
his ecclesiastical fellowship, because the Carthaginian prelate main- 
tained the propriety of rebaptizing heretics. 

Nothing can be more unsatisfactory, or rather childish, than the 
explanations of Holy Writ sometimes given by these ancient expositors. 
According to Tertullian, the two sparrows mentioned in the New Tes- 
tament signify the soul and the body; and Clemens Alexandrinus 
gravely pleads for marriage from the promise, " Where two or three 
are gathered together in My name, there am I in the midst of them." 
Cyprian products, as an argument in support of the doctrine of the 
Trinity, that the Jews observed " the third, sixth, and ninth hours " 
as their " fixed and lawful seasons for prayer." Origen represents the 
heavenly bodies as literally engaged in acts of devotion. If these 
authorities are to be credited, the Gihon, one of the rivers of Paradise, 
was no other than the Nile. Very few of the Fathers of this period 
were acquainted with Hebrew, so that, as a class, they were miserably 



FATHERS, UNRELIABILITY OF. 



169 



qualified for the interpretation of the Scriptures. Even Origen himself 
mu s t have had a very imperfect knowledge of the language of the Old 
Testament. In consequence of their literary deficiencies, the Fathers 
of the c econd and third centuries occasionally commit the most ridicu- 
lous blunders. Thus, Irenasus tells us that the name " Jesns " in He- 
brew consists of two letters and a half, and de-cribps it as signifying 
"that Lord who contains heaven and earth "! This Father asserts also 
that the Hebrew word Adonai. or the Lord, denotes " utterable and 
wonderful." Clemens Alexandrinns is not more successful an inter- 
preter of the sacred tongue of the chosen people; for he asserts that 
Jacob was called Israel "because he had seen the Lord ^od," and he 
* avers that Abraham means "the elect father of a sound"! — "The An- 
cient Church" Br. William B. Killen, period 2, sec. 2, chap. 1, pars. 33. 34. 
London: James Nisbet cC- Co., 1883. 

Fathers, Bad Masters tn Morals. — To us it appears that their 
writings contain many things excellent, well considered, and well calcu- 
lated to enkindle pious emotion^; but also many things unduly rigorous, 
and derived from the stoic and academic philosophy; many things vague 
and indeterminate; and many things positively false, and inconsistent 
with the precepts of Christ. If one deserves the title of a bad master 
in morals, who has no ju^t ideas of the proper boundaries and limita- 
tions of Christian duties, nor clear and distinct conceptions of the dif- 
ferent virtues and vices, nor a perception of tho^e general principles 
to which recurrence should be had in all discussions respecting Chris- 
tian virtue, and therefore very often talks at random, and blunders in 
expounding the divine laws; though he may say many excellent things, 
and excite in us considerable emotion; then I can readily admit that 
in strict truth this title belongs to many of the Fathers. — " Ecclesias- 
tical History." John Laurence von Mosheim, D. B., book I, cent. 2, 
part 2, chap. 3. sec. 10. 

Fathers, Uxreltartt.tty of. — There are but few of them [the Fath- 
ers] whose pages are not rife with errors. — errors of method, errors of 
fact, errors of history, of grammar, and even of doctrine. This is the 
language of simple truth, not of slighting disparagement. — " Tfie His- 
tory of Interpretation," Archdeacon F. W. Farrar, D. B., pp. 162, 163. 

Without deep learning, without lineui^tic knowledge, without liter- 
ary culture, without any final principles either as to the nature of the 
Sacred Writings or the method by which they should be interpreted, — 
surrounded by paganism, Judaism, and heresy of every description, and 
wholly dependent on a faulty translation, — tae earliest Fathers and 
apologists add little or nothing to our understanding of Scripture. . . . 
Their acquaintance with the Old Testament is incorrect, popular, and 
full of mistakes; their Scriptural arguments are often baseless; their 
exegesis — novel in application only — is a chaos of elements uncon- 
sciously borrowed on the one hand from Philo, and on the other from 
Rabbis and Kabbalists. They claim " a grace " of exposition, which is 
not justified by the results they offer, and they suppose themselves to 
be in possession of a Christian Gnosis, of which the specimens offered 
are for the most part entirely untenable. — Id., pp. 164, 165. 

Fathers, Writings of, Unworthy of Confluence. — The writings of 
the so-called Apostolic Fathers have unhappily, for the most part, come 
down to us in a condition very little worthy of confidence, partly be- 
cause under the name of these men, so highly venerated in the church, 
writings were early forged for the purpose of giving authority to par- 
ticular opinions or principles; and partly because their own writings 



170 



FEDERATION. 



which were extant, became interpolated in subservience to a Jewish 
hierarchical interest, which aimed to crush the free spirit of the gospel. 
— " General History of the Christian Religion and Church," Dr. Augus- 
tus Neander, Vol. I, Appendix, Sec. 4, " Notices of the More Eminent 
Church Teachers," p. 657. Boston: Crocker and Brewster, 1854. 

Fathers, Writings of, Interpolated and Forged. — The resources of 
medieval learning were too slender to preserve an authentic record of 
the growth and settlement of Catholic doctrine. Many writings of the 
Fathers were interpolated; others were unknown, and spurious matter 
was accepted in their place. Books bearing venerable names — Clement, 
Dionysius, Isidore — were forged for the purpose of supplying authori- 
ties for opinions that lacked the sanction of antiquity. — " The History 
of Freedom" John Emerich Edward Dalderg-Acton (R. C), p. 513. 
London: Macmillan & Co., 1909. 

Fathers, Adam Clarke on. — But of these [the Fathers] we may 
safely state, that there is not a truth in the most orthodox creed that 
cannot be proved by their auhority, nor a heresy that has disgraced 
the Romish Church, that may not challenge them as its abettors. In 
points of doctrine, their authority is, with me, nothing. The Word 
of God alone contains my creed. On a number of points I can go to 
the Greek and Latin Fathers of the church, to know what they believed, 
and what the people of their respective communions believed; but after 
all this I must return to God's Word, to know what he would have me 
to believe. — Adam Clarke's Commentary, Vol. Ill, p. 725, general obser- 
vations on Proverbs 8. Neio York: Phillips and Hunt. 

Fathers, Early Christian. — See Antichrist, 32, 33; Babylon, 61, 62; 
Baptism, 67; Idolatry, 218; Infallibility, 247; Papacy, 342; Purgatory, 
404. 

Federation, " Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in 
America." — The Federal Council was organized as the chief consumma- 
tion of the National Federation of Churches at its first meeting, held in 
Philadelphia, Dec. 2-8, 1908. It is the delegated congress of thirty lead- 
ing Christian bodies which are constitutionally federated for the purpose 
of providing this congress, through which to realize their fellowship 
and united action. The Federal Council, through its commissions and 
secretaries, seeks to organize efficient State and local federations, to 
secure co-operation in home missionary work, and to promote moral 
reform and social service by the churches throughout the United States. 
— The World Almanac, 1917, p. 593. 

Federation, "American Federation of Catholic Societies." — The 
American Federation of Catholic Societies was founded in 1901. It is 
composed of thirty-four national organizations, many State and county 
federations and parishes. Total membership about 3,000,000. Its ob- 
jects are the cementing of the bonds of fraternal union among the Cath- 
olic laity, and the fostering and protection of Catholic interests. — Ibid. 

Federal Council. — See Federation. 

Feudalism, Fall of. — See Two Witnesses, 577. 

Finland, Sabbath Keeping in. — See Sabbath, 468. 

Forgeries of the Sixth Century. — Seme other records have fab- 
ricated at Rome in the game barbarous Latin, such as the Gesta Liberii, 
designed to confirm the legend of Constantino's baptism at Rome, and 



FORGERIES, DONATION OF CONSTANTINE. 171 



to represent Pope Liberius as purified from his heresy by repentance, 
and graced by a divine miracle. Of the same stamp were the Gesta of 
Pope Sixtus III and the History of Polychronius, where the Pope is 
accused, but the condemnation of his accuser follows, as also of the 
accuser of the fabulous Polychronius, bishop of Jerusalem. These fab- 
rications of the beginning of the sixth century, which all belong to the 
same class, had a reference also to the attitude of Rome towards the 
church of Constantinople. — " The Pope and the Council," Janus (Dr. J. J. 
Bollinger [R. G.J, p. 124. London: Rivingtons, 1869. 

Forgeries, The Saedican and Nicene Canons. — The conduct of 
the popes since Innocent I and Zosimus, in constantly quoting the Sar- 
dican Canon on appeals as a canon of Nice, cannot be exactly ascribed 
to conscious fraud — the arrangement of their collection of canons mis- 
led them. There was more deliberate purpose in inserting in the Roman 
manuscript of the sixth Nicene canon, " The Roman Church always had 
the primacy," of which there is no syllable in the original, — a fraud 
exposed at the Council of Chalcedon, to the confusion of the Roman 
legates, by reading the original. — Id., pp. 122, 123. 

Forgeries, Interpolating St. Cypeian. — Towards the end of the 
sixth century a fabrication was undertaken in Rome, the full effect of 
which did not appear till long afterwards. The famous passage in St. 
Cyprian's book on the Unity of the Church was adorned, in Pope Pela- 
gius IPs letter to the Istrian bishops, with such additions as the Roman 
pretensions required. St. Cyprian said that all the apostles had received 
from Christ equal power and authoritv with Peter, and this was too 
glaring a contradiction of the theory set up since the time of Gelasius. 
So the following words were interpolated : " The primacy was given to 
Peter to show the unity of the church and of the chair. How can he 
believe himself to be in the church who forsakes the chair of Peter, on 
which the church is built?" — Id., p. 127. 

Forgeries, Donation of Constantine. — After the middle of the 
eighth century, the famous Donation of Constantine was concocted at 
Rome. It is based on the earlier fifth-century legend of his cure from 
leprosy, and baptism by Pope Silvester, which is repeated at length, 
and the emperor is said, out of gratitude, to have bestowed Italy and 
the western provinces on the Pope, and also to have made many regu- 
lations about the honorary prerogatives and dress of the Roman clergy. 
The Pope is, moreover, represented as lord and master of all bishops, 
and having authority over the four great thrones of Antioch, Alexandria, 
Constantinople, and Jerusalem. 

The forgery betrayed its Roman authorship in every line; it is self- 
evident that a cleric of the Lateran Church was the composer. — Id., pp. 
131, 132. 

Donatio Constantini. — By this name is understood, since the end of 
the Middle Ages, a forged document of Emperor Constantine the Great, 
by which large privileges and rich possessions were conferred on the 
Pope and the Roman Church. In the oldest known (ninth century) 
manuscript (Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, MS. Latin 2777) and in 
many other manuscripts the document bears the title: " Constitutum 
Domni Constantini Imperatoris." . . . This document is without doubt 
a forgery, fabricated somewhere between the years 750 and 850. — The 
Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. V, art. " Donation," pp. 118, 119. 

Forgeries, Geatian's Woek. — The corruption of the thirty-sixth 
canon of the ecumenical council of 692 is Gratian's own doing. It 



172 



FORGERIES, PREVALENCE OF. 



renewed the canon of Chalcedon (451), which gave the Patriarch of 
New Rome, or Constantinople, equal rights with the Roman Patriarch. 
Gratian, by a change of two words, gives it a precisely opposite sense, 
and suppresses the reference to the canon of Chalcedon. He also re- 
duces the five patriarchs to four; for the ancient equality of position 
of the Roman Bishop and the four chief bishops of the East was now 
to disappear, though even the Gregorians, as, e. g., Anselm, had treated 
him as one of the patriarchs. — " The Pope and the Council," Janus (J. J. 
Bollinger [R. C.]J, pp. 144, 145. London: Rivingtons, 1869. 

Forgeries, A Canon Changed. — The canon of the African Synod, 

— that immovable stumblingblock of all papalists, — which forbids any 
appeal beyond the seas. i. e., to Rome, Gratian adapted to the service 
of the new system by an addition which made the synod affirm precisely 
what it denies. If Isidore undertook by his fabrications to annul the 
old law forbidding bishops being moved from one see to another, Gra- 
tian, following Anselm and Cardinal Gregory, improved on this by a 
fresh forgery, appropriating to the Pope alone the right of translation. 

— Id., pp. 146, 147. 

Forgeries, St. Cvprtan's Treatise. — The reader may have re- 
marked that I gave the most beautiful extract of Cyprian's treatise "On 
the Unity of the Church " according to the Oxford translation. I did so 
in order to leave out the shameful Roman interpolations of the same 
passage. The words interpolated are well known: 

" He builds His church upon that one [Peter], and to him intrusts 
his sheep to be fed. . . . 

"He established one chair and . . . 

"And primacy is given to Peter, that one church of Christ and one 
chair may be pointed out; and all are pastors and one flock is shown, 
to be fed by all the apostles with one-hearted accord. 

"He who deserts the chair of Peter, on which the church was 
founded, does he trust that he is in the church? " 

Now, the words in italics are spurious. " The history of their inter- 
polation," says Archbishop Benson, " may be distinctly traced even 
now, and it is as singular as their controversial importance has been 
unmeasured. Their insertion in the pages of De Unitate Ecclesiw [On 
the Unity of the Church J is a forgery which has deceived an army of 
scholars and caused the allegiance of unwilling thousands to Rome. 
— The Primitive Church and the Primacy of Rome," Prof. Giorgio 
Bartoli, pp. 88, 89. New York: Hodder and Stoughton. 

I do not mention here the attempts that have been made to find a 
trace of the interpolated passages in the writings of Prudentius, Am- 
brose, and Augustine, because they all failed miserably. The interpo- 
lation, therefore, is certain, and is admitted now by all scholars, Cath- 
olic as well as Protestant, although in most Roman seminaries this is 
still simply ignored. — Id., p. i>3. 

Forgeries, Prevalence or, in Early Centuries. — In the history 
of the rise and gradual development of the papal claims the historian 
must never lose sight of a force which was for centuries at work in 
favor of the Papacy, i. e., the falsifications and interpolations of pas- 
sages in the books of the ancient Fathers, or in the acts and canons of 
the councils, in order to defend or promote the interests, the dignity, 
and the grandeur of the Roman see. It is true these frauds do not 
explain by themselves the gradual development of the exaggerated 
claims of the Papacy, but no historian of independent judgment and 



FRENCH REVOLUTION. 



173 



learning will ever be able to deny that those frauds helped, to a great 
extent, the growth of the papal claims, and contributed very largely to 
their being recognized as of divine appointment. 

For instance, the Roman theologians for centuries appealed to the 
false decretals and to the interpolated text of St. Cyprian's De Unitate 
Ecclesice as to authentic documents witnessing to the belief of the uni- 
versal church with regard to the Papacy, and the learned never dared 
call in question such momentous evidences, though on other and rea- 
sonable grounds well inclined to do so. Yet the false decretals and 
Cyprian's interpolated passages were shameless fabrications. 

As a matter of fact, as Rufinus in his book, " De Adulteratione Li- 
brorum Origenis," rightly remarks, it was pretty common in the early 
centuries of the church [and, we may add, all through the Middle Ages 
till the invention of the press], to corrupt the writings of the great 
ecclesiastical writers, forging new books or passages, altering the gen- 
uine ones, adding to them explanatory phrases, correcting what they 
believed to be misspellings of ignorant amanuenses, or mistranslations, 
as the case may be, suppressing this or that, reducing this text to a 
more orthodox tenor, and the like. Thus, says he, were corrupted and 
interpolated the writings of Tertullian, of St. Hilary, of St. Cyprian, 
and above all, of Origen." — Id., pp. 104-106. 

Forgeries. — See Fathers; Infallibility, 247; Isidorian Decretals; 
Papacy, 350. 

Fox Sisters. — See Spiritualism, 529. 

Franks — See Rome, 438, 443; Ten Kingdoms, 552-556. 

French Revolution, Its Era a Turning-Point in History. — The 
French Revolution is the most important event in the life of modern 
Europe. ... It brought on the stage of human affairs forces which have 
molded the thoughts ana actions of men ever since, and have taken 
a permanent place among the formative influences of civilization. — 
" Cambridge Modern History," Vol. VIII, chap. 25, p. 754. 

Note. — As the time of Justinian, in the sixth century, when the Papacy 
rose to supremacy, was a turning-point between ancient and medieval history, 
so the events of the French Revolution stamp the time when the 1260 years of 
papal supremacy came to a close as a turning-point in modern history. The 
close of the prophetic period of tribulation marked the opening of the time of 
the end. Dan. 11 : 35. The extracts given deal only with phases of the Revolu- 
tion suggested by the prophecy of Daniel 11 : 36-39. — Eds. 

French Revolution, Early Recognized as a Time of Fulfilling 
Prophecy. — The French Revolution — peculiar in its aspect — had not 
made much progress before many began to suspect that that great and 
finishing scene of God's judgments was disclosing, of which the Scrip- 
ture prophecies speak so much; and in which are to be overthrown all 
tnose antichristian systems, civil and ecclesiastical, which have so long 
been opposed to genuine Christianity. — " 2he Signs of the Times" J. 
Bicheno, M. A., Preface to 6th edition, written May 2, 1808, p. iv. Lon- 
don: J. Adlard, 1808. 

History nowhere informs us of any event so extraordinary as the 
late Revolution in France. If viewed on all sides, with its attending 
circumstances by an attentive and unprejudiced eye, it must surely 
excite the greatest astonishment; and those who have been used to 



174 



FRENCH REVOLUTION. 



unite in their minds the providence of God with human occurrences, 
. . . cannot help inquiring. Is this from men, or is it from God? — Id., 
Advertisement to first edition, dated Jan. 19, 1798, p. 3, following 
Preface. 

French Revolution, Atheistic Spirit of Times. — As we advance 
toward the latter end of the eighteenth century, we may observe yet 
greater activity on the part of the infidel faction and a yet more dis- 
tinctly evident development of what had now become the character- 
istic spirit of a period. — " The Sacred Calendar of Prophecy," G. S. 
Faber, Prebendary of Salisbury, book 3, chap. 4. London, 1844 (first 
edition, 1828). 

Daniel [11th chapter] had described his fourth period as a period of 
daring unbelief and of presumptuous defiance hurled against the Om- 
nipotent himself; and he had chronologically arranged it as succeeding 
a prior period of superstitious intolerance and persecution. The event 
has shown the accuracy of his prediction: for the spirit of the Age 
of Reason, which has succeeded to the spirit of the Age of Intolerance, 
is the identical spirit of the prophetic period now under our special 
consideration. — Ibid. 

When I was myself in France in the year 1774, I saw sufficient rea- 
son to believe that hardly a person of eminence in church or state, and 
especially in the least degree eminent in philosophy or literature, . . . 
were believers in Christianity. . . . One of the very best men in the 
country assured me very gravely that (paying me a compliment) I 
was the first person he had ever met with, of whose understanding he 
had any opinion, that pretended to believe Christianity. To this all 
the company assented. And not only were the philosophers and other 
leading men of France, at that time, unbelievers in Christianity or 
deists; but they were even atheists, denying the being of a God. — 
Dr. Joseph Priestly, quoted in " The Sacred Calendar of Prophecy," 
G. S. Faber, book 3, chap. 4. 

French Revolution, Aimed to Dethrone Deity. — Having massacred 
the great of the present, and insulted the illustrious of former ages, 
nothing remained to the Revolutionists but to direct their fury against 
Heaven itself. Pache, Hebert, and Chaumette, the leaders of the munici- 
pality, publicly expressed their determination " to dethrone the King 
of heaven, as well as the monarchs of the earth." To accomplish this 
design, they prevailed on Gobel, the apostate constitutional bishop of 
Paris, to appear at the bar of the Convention [Nov. 7, 1793] accompanied 
by some of the clergy of his diocese, and there abjure the Christian 
faith. That base prelate declared, " that no other national religion was 
now required but that of liberty, equality, and morality." i Many of the 
constitutional bishops and clergy in the Convention joined in the propo- 
sition. ... 

Shortly after, a still more indecent exhibition took place before the 
Convention. Hebert, Chaumette, and their associates appeared at the 
bar [November 10] and declared that " God did not exist, and that the 



1 Gobel's abjuration of Christianity was in these terms : " Today, while the 
Revolution strides rapidly to a happy close, as all opinions tend to a common 
political center — today there ought to be no public or national worship, saving 
that of liberty and sacred equality, as the sovereign people wish it so. Following 
my principles, I submit to the will of the people, and I come here to declare to 
you, that from this day I renounce the exercise of my functions as a minister of 
the Catholic religion. The citizens my vicars here present join me in this ; con- 
sequently we abandon our titles. May this example serve to consolidate the reign 
of liberty and equality. Vive la Republique!" 



FRENCH REVOLUTION. 



175 



worship of Reason was to be substituted in his stead." ... A veiled 
female, arrayed in blue drapery, was brought into the Convention; and 
Chaumette, taking her by the hand — " Mortals," said he, " cease to 
tremble before the powerless thunders of a God whom your fears have 
created. Henceforth acknowledge no divinity but Reason. I offer you 
its noblest and purest image; if you must have idols, sacrifice only to 
such as this." Then, letting fall the veil, he exclaimed, " Pall before 
the august Senate of Freedom, Veil of Reason!" At the same time the 
goddess appeared, personified by a celebrated beauty, Madame Maillard 
of the opera, known in more than one character to most of the Conven- 
tion. 

The goddess, after being embraced by the president, was mounted 
on a magnificent car, and conducted, amidst an immense crowd, to the 
cathedral of Notre Dame, to take the place of the Deity. — " History of 
Europe," Sir Archibald Alison, Bart., F. R. S. E., 9th edition, chap. 14, 
pars. 45, 46 (Vol. Ill, pp. 21, 22). Edinburgh: William Blackwood and 
Sons, 1854. 

French Revolution, The Worship of " Reason." — Infidelity and 
atheism reigned supreme. The National Convention abolished the Sab- 
bath, and the leaders of the Paris Commune declared that they intended 
" to dethrone the King of heaven as well as the monarchs of the earth." 
Finally, November 10, 1793, the leaders of the Paris Commune — He- 
bert, Chaumette, Momoro, and the Prussian Anacharsis Clootz — pre- 
vailed upon the National Convention to decree the abolition of the Chris- 
tian religion in France and the substitution of the worship of Reason 
instead. Momoro's young and beautiful but prostitute wife, who had 
been a dancer, personated the Goddess of Reason; and as such she was 
enthroned on the high altar of the Cathedral of Notre Dame and wor- 
shiped by the members of the National Convention and the Paris 
Commune. 

Gobel, the constitutional bishop of Paris, and several other eccle- 
siastics were compelled publicly to apostatize from Roman Catholic 
Christianity and to accept the new worship of Reason.- — " Library of 
Universal History,'" Vol. VIII, p. 2612. Neiv York: Union Book Com- 
pany, 1900. 

French Revolution, The Solitary Instance. — For the first time in 
the annals of mankind, a great nation had thrown off all religious prin- 
ciple, and openly defied the power of Heaven itself. — "History of 
Europe," Sir Archibald Alison, Bart., F. R. S. E., 9th edition, chap. 15, 
par. 24 (Vol. Ill, pp. 69, 70 J. Edinburgh: William Blackivood and Sons. 
1854. 

French Revolution, No Parallel in Its Defiance of Deity. — If we 
search the annals of the world, we shall not find even a private society 
or sect, much less civil community and state, which, before our day, has 
in the most public manner proclaimed to all nations around it that 
there is no God, and made that position the basis of the constitution of 
its government: but in our day we not only read of it, but see it with 
our eyes; and that in a manner so perfectly consonant with all its 
various prophetic marks that the unprejudiced infidel (if there be such 
a being) cannot mistake it. — 11 Brief Commentaries on Prophecies Re- 
ferring to the Present Time," Joseph Galloway. London, 1802 * 

French Revolution, Formal Retraction of Atheism. — On the 
eighteenth Floreal (7th May) [1794], Robespierre induced the Conven- 
tion to decree its belief in a Supreme Being and in the immortality of 



176 



FRENCH REVOLUTION. 



the soul. On the twentieth Prairial (8th June), he celebrated, in one 
of the strangest pageants of history, the festival of the new Deity in 
France. Arrayed in a brilliant uniform, and carrying a bouquet of 
flowers and corn sheaves, Robespierre marched at the bead of a pro- 
cession out of the Champ de Mars, burned the symbols of Atheism and 
Vice, and inaugurated the new religion. " Here," he cried, " is the 
Universe assembled. O Nature, how sublime, how exquisite thy power! " 
— " The French Revolution" Charles Edward Mallet, p. 258. New York: 
Charles Scribner's Sons, 1900. 

French Revolution, Regarding No God, yet Honoring a " Strange " 
God. — Rejecting alike both the true God of Scripture and the imaginary 
gods of the old mythology, he should, toward the latter, entertain no 
respect or religious devotion. From the worship of Jehovah he should 
atheistically apostatize; but his apostasy should not lead him back to 
the long abrogated paganism of his fathers. — " The Sacred Calendar of 
Prophecy," G. S. Faber, Prebendary of Salisbury, book 3, chap. 4. Lon- 
don, 1844. 

Had the king adored his foreign god, really believing in the divinity 
of that god, as the old idolaters devoutly believed in the actual deity of 
their hero gods, he would not have fulfilled the prophecy: because it 
declares that the king should not regard any god, but that he should 
magnify himself above all. Yet if he had not adored a god unknown 
to his fathers in some manner, whatever that manner might be, he 
would equally have failed in accomplishing the prophecy: because it 
declares that he could worship a god thus described. . . . With an open 
profession of atheism in his mouth, and with a direct attack upon all 
religion in his practice, he has adored a foreign deity unknown to his 
fathers, whom he nevertheless disbelieved to be a deity: and he has thus 
worshiped a god of his own, without regarding any god. — Ibid. 

French Revolution, Regarding Not the " Desire of Women." — 
Nothing can be more evident than that the " desire of women " is some- 
thing homogeneous with the God of gods and the gods of his fathers 
and every god. The whole connected clause descends from a general 
to particulars, employing those particulars to establish the general. . . . 
Hence it is obvious, unless the rules of just composition be entirely vio- 
lated, that the " desire of women," like the " God of gods " and the 
" gods of his fathers " must be subincluded in the generalizing phrase 
" every god." ..." Unto the gods of his fathers, he shall have no 
respect; and unto the desire of women, and unto every god, he shall 
have no respect." Such a collocation, I think, compels us to suppose 
that the " desire of women " is a god of some description or other, 
whether true or false. . . . The same verb of negation, "he shall have 
no respect," is alike applied to all the three particulars, " the gods of 
his fathers," and " the desire of women," and " every god," thus clearly 
pointing out and determining their homogenity; the whole sentence is 
wound up by a sweeping declaration: "For above all, he shall magnify 
himself." . . . 

If, then, the " desire of women " be thus plainly determined, by 
the whole context under every aspect, to be something homogeneous 
with " the God of gods " and " the gods of his fathers " and " every 
god: " then, assuredly, "the desire of women" must be, not only a 
person real or imaginary, but likewise a person who is the object of 
religious worship. . . . 

They who interpret the phrase as relating to monastic and clerical 
celibacy, take for granted that it means " the desire to have women; " 



FRENCH REVOLUTION. 



177 



but unfortunately for this system of exposition, the phrase is incapable 
of bearing any such signification. According to the Hebrew idiom, " the 
desire of women " denotes, not the desire to have women, but that which 
women desire to have. Nor, I believe, can a single exception to this 
mode of interpreting the phrase be discovered throughout the whole of 
the ancient Scriptures. ... 

I conclude, both from the plain requirement of the context and from 
the invariable use of a very common Hebrew idiom, that by the " desire 
of women," we must understand some person who was eminently desired 
by women, and who is also an object of religious adoration. . . . The 
person whom Daniel styles the " desire of women," is he whom Haggai 
subsequently called the " Desire of all nations." . . . 

The original annunciation of the promised Seed was delivered ex- 
clusively to Eve. It was her seed, not Adam's, that was to bruise the 
serpent's head. To the advent of this Seed she impatiently looked for- 
ward; and such was her eager desire that, upon the birth of her first 
child, forgetting that Cain was Adam's seed no less than her own, she 
joyfully exclaimed: "I have gotten the man, even Jehovah his very 
self." — Ibid. 

Note. — Mr. Faber cites the following illustrative texts : 1 Sam. 9 : 20 ; 23 : 
20 ; Ps. 10 : 3 ; 21 : 2 ; 102 : 10.— Eds. 

French Revolution, The God of Forces. — The god of fortresses is 
the personification of war, and the thought is this: he will regard no 
other god but only war; the taking of fortresses he will make his god; 
and he will worship this god above all the means of his gaining the 
world power. Of this god, war as the object of deification, it might be 
said that his fathers knew nothing, because no other king had made war 
his religion, his god to whom he offered up in sacrifice all gold, silver, 
precious stones, jewels. — " Commentary on the Boole of Daniel," Johann 
F. K. Keil, p. 466. (Clarke's "Foreign Theological Library," Vol. 
XXXIV. J Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark. 

French Revolution, A New Thing in the Massing of Armed 
Forces. — a. d. 1793. The Republic began. It declared that death was 
an eternal sleep; that Christianity was an imposture; and that there 
was no God! 

In the same year it became military, raised the nation in arms by 
the Levee en Masse, and declared hostilities against Europe. Its civil 
and foreign wars, under both the republican and imperial governments, 
were marked by slaughter exceeding all within memory. — " The Apoca- 
lypse of St. John," Rev. George Croly, A. M., p. 89, 2d edition. London: 
C. & J. Rivington, 1828. 

French Revolution, Worship of Power. — He [Napoleon] is him- 
self " the Genius of Power," as he has allowed himself to be called by 
his servile flatterers, and he worships the god of war. We have the 
following declaration, in his speech to the Council of Ancients, on the 
10th of November, 1799: " I have always followed the God of War, and 
Fortune and the God of War are with me." — " Combined View of the 
Prophecies of Daniel, Esdras, and St. John," James Hatley Frere, Esq., 
p. 467. London, 1815. 

French Revolution, Worship of the God of Forces. — France was 
decimated for her cruelty; for twenty years the flower of her youth 
was marched away by a relentless power to the harvest of death; the 
snows of Russia revenged the guillotine of Paris. Allured by the phan- 



12 



178 



FRENCH REVOLUTION. 



torn of military glory, they fell down and worshiped the power which 
was consuming them. — "History of Europe" Sir Archibald Alison, 
Bart., F. R. 8. E., chap. 19, par. 72 (Vol. Ill, p. 245), 9th edition. Edin- 
burgh: William Blackwood and Sons, 1854. 

French Revolution, Gold, and Silvee, and All Wealth for War. 

— The extraordinary movement which agitated France gave them good 
grounds for hoping that they might succeed in raising the whole male 
population for its defense, and that thus a much greater body might be 
brought into the field than the allies could possibly assemble for its sub- 
jugation. The magnitude of the expense was to them a matter of no 
consequence. The estates of the emigrants [the wealthy who had fled] 
afforded a vast and increasing fund, which greatly exceeded the amount 
of the public debt; while the unlimited issues of assignats, at whatever 
rate of discount they might pass, amply provided for all the present or 
probable wants of the treasury. Nor did these hopes prove fallacious; 
for such was the misery produced in France by the stoppage of all 
pacific employment consequent on the Revolution, and such the terror 
produced by the Jacobin clubs and democratic municipalities in the 
interior, that the armies were filled without difficulty, and the republic 
derived additional external strength from the very intensity of its 
internal suffering. — "History of Europe," Sir Archibald Alison, Bart., 
F. R. S. E., chap. 11, par. , 12 (Vol. II, p. 204), 9th edition. Edinburgh: 
William Blackwood and Sons, 1853. 

French Revolution, Beginning of Modern World War. — Over for- 
eign countries, the military renown of France streamed like a comet, 
inspiring universal dread and distrust; and while it rendered indispen- 
sable similar preparations for resistance, it seemed as if peace had de- 
parted from the earth forever, and that its destinies were hereafter to 
be disposed of according to the law of brutal force alone. — "Life of 
Napoleon," Sir Walter Scott, Vol. VI, p. 116; cited in " The Signs of the 
Times," Rev. Alexander Keith, Vol. II, p. 204, 3d edition. Edinburgh: 
William Whyte & Co., 1833. 

French Revolution, Inauguration of Universal War. — Such is a 
detailed account of the causes that led to this great and universal war, 
which speedily embraced all the quarters of the globe, continued, with 
short interruptions, for more than twenty years, led to the occupation 
of almost all the capitals in continental Europe by foreign armies, and 
finally brought the Cossacks and the Tartars to the French metropolis. 
We shall search in vain in any former age of the world for a contest 
conducted on so gigantic a scale. — "History of Europe," Sir Archibald 
Alison, Bart., F. R. S. E., chap. 9, par. 125 (Vol. II, p. 166), 9th edition. 
Edinburgh: William Blackwood and Sons, 1853. 

French Revolution, The " Monomania of Military Glory." — The 
Revolution of 1830 was, in fact, but the accomplishment of that of 1789. 
It was the result of a struggle spread over the vicissitudes of forty 
years. From her first effort to win her freedom, the attention of France 
was called away by foreign hostilities in 1792; then came the despotism 
of anarchy; then successive warlike triumphs; and then, as their nat- 
ural consequence, the monomania of military glory. The dazzling 
tyranny of Napoleon had its fascination even for the many; and in the 
grandeur of his name, its mischievous influence was too much forgotten. 

— From a paper, " Three Bays in Paris," in the Revolution of July 27-29 s 
1830; in the Westminster Review (London), Oct. 1, 1830. 



FRENCH REVOLUTION. 



179 



French Revolution, Puksuit of " Gloky." — The influence of events 
was gradually creating an esprit militaire; . . . that saw in war the 
life of the state, the glory, the future of France. . . . The Convention, it 
is true, had set aside revolutionary propagandism; but it had substi- 
tuted a more dangerous doctrine, the invasion of an enemy's country, as 
an act of duty and justice, for the affranchisement of lands which, ac- 
cording to its own declaration, were national. . . . 

The army was dominating the republic; ... it was, in fact, the 
nation, and in it lay the patriotism, the enthusiasm, the genius of 
France. The army, not the Directory, represented the real feeling of 
France from 1795 to 1799. The logic of events was pushing to the front 
a system based on military discipline, unity, and obedience, controlled 
by a single mind, and organized for a single purpose, — the glory of 
France. In the master of such a system lay the real power in France, 
and such a master was Napoleon Bonaparte. — " Historical Development 
of Modern Europe," G. M. Andreios, Vol. I, pp. 33, 34. 

French Revolution, " Dividing the Land." — June 5 [1793] Decree 
of the French National Convention. 

Article I. The common lands shall be divided amongst the inhabit- 
ants, per head, without exception of age or sex, absent as well as 
present. 

Art. II. Landholders not inhabiting that country have no right to 
any share. 

Art. III. Every French citizen who inhabited the commune a twelve- 
month before the promulgation of the law of the 14th of August, 1792, 
or who shall not have been a year absent from that commune for the 
purpose of settling in another, shall enjoy the right of an inhabitant, 
and be entitled to a share. 

Art. IV. All farmers, servants of farmers, and other servants, and 
agents of citizens, are entitled to a share, provided they have the quali- 
fications required to be reputed inhabitants. 

Art. V. Every citizen is looked upon as an inhabitant in the place 
where he has a habitation, and consequently is entitled to a share. 

Art. VI. Fathers and mothers shall enjoy the shares of their chil- 
dren until they have attained their fourteenth year. 

Art. VII. Guardians and others who are intrusted with the care of 
orphans shall carefully watch over the preservation of the share which 
will become the property of the child under their care. — "Annual Reg- 
ister for 1793," sec. " Political State of Europe." London. 

French Revolution, the Tempokal Power or the Pope Overthrown. 
— One feature of Napoleon's Italian campaign had not been satis- 
factory to the Directory. He had spared the Pope. This circum- 
stance made the states of the church a kind of nucleus for all the ad- 
herents of the old system in Italy. It was judged necessary that this 
nest of malcontents should be broken up, and to this end General Ber- 
thier was ordered to march on Rome. The people of that ancient me- 
tropolis had caught the infection of liberty, and refused to support the 
Holy Father and his party. Berthier was welcomed as the deliverer of 
Italy. The Roman Republic was proclaimed [Feb. 15, 1798]. The papal 
[temporal] power was overthrown, and Pope Pius VI retired to the 
convent of Siena. After a year he was taken to Briancon in the Alps, 
where he was imprisoned. At last, with the next change which ensued 
in the government of Paris, he was permitted to leave this frozen region 
and take up his residence at Valence, where he died in August of 1799. 

The republican soldiers were little disposed, when they captured the 
Eternal City, to spare its treasures or revere its priestly symbols. The 



180 



GALILEO. 



personal property of the Pope was sold by auction. The robes of the 
priests and cardinals, rich in gold lace, were burned that the gold might 
be gathered from the ashes. The churches of Rome were pillaged, and 
a carnival of violence ensued which General Berthier was unable to 
control. The Romans revolted, and attempted to expel their deliverers; 
but General Massena, who was sent out to supersede Berthier, put down 
the insurrection in blood. — " History of the World," John Clark Rid- 
path, LL. D., Vol. VI (9 vol. ed.), pp. 685, 686. Cincinnati, Ohio: The 
Jones Brothers Publishing Company, 1910. 

French Revolution. — See Advent Movement, 16; Increase of 
Knowledge. 9e>9 : Jerusalem, 262; Papal Supremacy, 358, 363-369; Two 
Witnesses, 572-578. 

Galerius, Edict of. — See Seven Churches, 489. 

Galileo, Condemnation of. — Through the suggestion of the Do- 
minicans, Galileo was now summoned to Rome to account for his con- 
duct and opinions before the Inquisition. He was accused of having 
taught that the earth moves; that the sun is stationary; and of having 
attempted to reconcile these doctrines with the Scriptures. The sen- 
tence was that he must renounce these heretical opinions, and pledge 
himself that he would neither publish nor defend them for the future. 
In the event of his refusal he was to be imprisoned. With the fate of 
Bruno in his recollection, he assented to the required recantation, and 
gave the promise demanded. The Inquisition then proceeded to deal 
with the Copernican system, condemning it as heretical; the letters of 
Galileo, which had given rise to the trouble, were prohibited; also Kep- 
ler's epitome of the Copernican theory, and also the work of Coperni- 
cus. In their decree prohibiting this work, " Be Revolutionibus," the 
Congregation of the Index, March 5, 1616, denounced the new system 
of the universe as " that false Pythagorean doctrine utterly contrary to 
the Holy Scriptures." ... 

In 1632 he ventured on the publication of his work, entitled " The 
System of the World," its object being to establish the truth of the 
Copernican doctrine. . . . Galileo was therefore again summoned be- 
fore the Inquisition, the Tuscan ambassador expostulating against the 
inhumanity of thus dealing with an old man in ill health. But no 
such considerations were listened to, and Galileo was compelled to 
appear at Rome, February, 1633, and surrender himself to the Holy 
Office. . . . The trial being completed, Galileo was directed to appear, 
on June 22, to hear his sentence. Clothed in the penitential garment, 
he received judgment. His heretical offenses were specified, the pledges 
he had violated recited; he was declared to have brought upon himself 
strong suspicions of heresy, and to be liable to the penalties thereof; 
but from these he might be absolved if, with a sincere heart, he would 
abjure and curse his heresies. However, that his offenses might not 
altogether go unpunished, and that he might be a warning to others, 
he was condemned to imprisonment during the pleasure of the Inqui- 
sition, his dialogues were prohibited by public edict, and for three years 
he was directed to recite, once a week, the seven penitential psalms. . . . 
He died, January, 1642, in the seventy-eighth year of his age, the pris- 
oner of the Inquisition. — "History of the Intellectual Development of 
Europe," John William Draper, M. D., LL. D., Vol. II, pp. 262-265. New 
York: Harper & Brothers. 

Galileo, Decree Concerning Teaching of. — By order of the Holy 
Office, Cardinal Bellarmine summoned him [Galileo] before him, and 
admonished him in the name of the Pope and of the Holy Office, under 



GALLICANISM. 



181 



pain of imprisonment, that he must give up the opinion that the sun 
is the center of the world and immovable, and that the earth moves, 
and must not hold, teach it, or defend it either by word or writing; 
otherwise proceedings would be taken against him in the Holy Office. 
Galileo submitted, and promised to obey. 

But it was not enough that Galileo should be personally warned 
against holding the heliocentric theory of the universe; the whole 
world must be similarly instructed; and this was done by another tri- 
bunal. On March 5. 1616, the Congregation of the Index, a committee 
of cardinals appointed by the Pope for the prevention of the circulation 
of dangerous books, published the following decree: 

" Since it has come to the knowledge of this Holy Congregation 
that the false Pythagorean doctrine, altogether opposed to the divine 
Scripture, of the mobility of the earth, and the immobility of the sun, 
which Nicolas Copernicus, in his work, ' Be Revolutionibus Orbium 
Ccclestium,' and Didacus a Stunica, in his Commentary on Job, teach, 
is being promulgated and accepted by many, as may be seen from a 
printed letter of a certain Carmelite Father (Foscarini), entitled, etc., 
wherein the said father has attempted to show that the said doctrine 
is consonant to truth, and not opposed to Holy Scripture; therefore, 
lest this opinion insinuate itself further to the damage of Catholic truth, 
this Congregation has decreed that the said books, Copernicus' ' Be 
Revolutionibus' and 'Stunica on Job,' be suspended till they are cor- 
rected, but that the book of Foscarini the Carmelite be altogether pro- 
hibited and condemned, and all other books that teach the same thing." 
— " The Infallibility of the Church" George Salmon, B. B., pp. 235, 236. 
New York: E. P. Button & Co., 1914. 

Galileo, Deopped from ttte Index. — At the beginning of the pres- 
ent century the astronomer Lalande made great exertions at Rome to 
have the names of Galileo, Copernicus, and Foscarini removed from the 
Index; but in vain. Accordingly, the Index for 1828 contains the names 
of these three culprits; but the prohibition against all books teaching 
the mobility of the earth was quietly dropped out of the later editions 
of the Index. It was only on the accession of Gregory XVI, the prede- 
cessor of Pius IX, that the important step was taken, and the attempt 
to insist on believing in the immobility of the earth was finally aban- 
doned. For the first time for some two hundred years an index of 
prohibited books was published, in which no confession of previous 
error was made, but the names of Galileo, Copernicus, and Foscarini 
were silently withdrawn. — Id., p. 238. 

Gallicanism. — This term is used to designate a certain group of 
religious opinions for some time peculiar to the Church of France, or 
Gallican Church, and the theological schools of that country. These 
opinions, in opposition to the ideas which were called in France " Ultra- 
montane," tended chiefly to a restraint of the Pope's authority in the 
church in favor of that of the bishops and the temporal ruler. — The 
Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. VI, art. " Gallicanism," p. 351. 

Gallicanism and Infallibility. — One of its fundamental doctrines 
was, that the doctrinal decisions of the Pope were not to be regarded 
as final; that they might be reviewed and corrected, or even rejected, 
by a general council or by the church at large. A formal treatise of 
Bossuet in proof of this principle was a storehouse of arguments, 
largely drawn on in the controversies of the years 1869-70. But this 
principle of his was condemned with an anathema at the Vatican Coun- 
cil of the latter year. — " The Infallibility of the Church," George Sal- 
mon, B. B., p. 87. New York: E. P. Button & Co., 1914. 



182 



GENEALOGY OP CHRIST. 



Gallicanism, Universality a Characteristic of. — In this theory 
the Pope is only the leading bishop of Christendom, and is by no means 
a necessary organ in proclaiming infallible truth. Whatever doctrine 
the whole church agrees in is infallibly true. Of course this character- 
istic cannot be predicated of any doctrine from which the Pope dissents, 
since such a dissent would deprive the doctrine of that universality of 
acceptance which the theory imposes as a condition; but if a Pope 
declares a doctrine, it is nevertheless not guaranteed as infallibly true 
if a council dissent; or even though Pope and council declare it, if it is 
not received by the bishops throughout the world. The important thing 
is, the universality of acceptance: the mode of promulgation is imma- 
terial. — Id., p. 262. 

Genealogy of Christ. — David's successor was his son Solomon, 
and Matthew traces the genealogy through Solomon to Joseph; but the 
bar was put up against him at the time of the captivity and the last 
king Jechoniah (1: 11). Luke traces the genealogy, not through Solo- 
mon, but through another son of David against whom there was no bar, 
viz., Nathan (Luke 3: 31; 1 Chron. 3: 5), and so on down to Mary, for 
only through her was the imposed condition fulfilled that Jesus should 
be "the fruit of David's body." And it could have been fulfilled only 
by some one in that line. Luke 1: 32; Acts 2: 30; Rom. 1: 3; Acts 
13: 23. It seems indubitable, therefore, — the "scholars" to the con- 
trary notwithstanding, — that Luke does not trace the royal line of 
Joseph as does Matthew, but gives the lineage which belongs to Mary. 
So far, so good. 

But the other obstacle: while Mary was of a royal line, she was not 
of the royal lineage — the regular, legal, required lineage through which 
it was indispensable that descent must course — not of the Prince of 
Wales line, so to speak, if such an illustrative anachronism can be 
allowed. How, then, could her son get into that royal line? Why, by 
her marriage with some one who was in that line! And that is just 
what took place — the marriage with Joseph. 

The absolute necessity for the two genealogies thus seems apparent; 
but there is a seeming discrepancy which needs to be solved. According 
to Matthew 1: 16, Joseph is the son of Jacob, and according to Luke 
3: 23 he is the son of Heli. He could hardly be the son of both. 

Joseph was the son of Jacob in the strict sense, for Matthew says: 
" Jacob begat Joseph the husband of Mary, of whom was born Jesus, 
who is called Christ" (1: 16). But Luke does not say that Heli begat 
Joseph, but says, "Joseph, which was ... of Heli" (3: 23), the trans- 
lators gratuitously putting in the words, "the son." Remembering the 
omnibus-content of the word " son " before noted,i manifestly we need 
to put into it the meaning which the situation here calls for, which is 
son-in-law; even as in 1 Samuel 24: 16, where Saul says, "Is this thy 
voice, my son David? " when David was his son-in-law. So, as Joseph 
could not, by natural generation, be the son of both Jacob and Heli, 
and as it says that " Jacob begat Joseph " and does not say that Heli 
begat Joseph, the natural and satisfactory explanation is that Joseph 
was the son-in-law of Heli. 



1 We commonly understand by a son, one begotten by a father and born of a 
mother. Now, the Hebrew language has no word for grandson, and so, with the 
Hebrews, a " son " may be a lineal male descendant more than one remove down 
the line. Daniel, addressing Belshazzar, says : " God gave Nebuchadnezzar thy 
father" (5:18), "and thou his son, O Belshazzar" (5:22), although the re- 
lation between them was that of grandfather and grandson. And Christ speaks 
of Zaccheus as "a son of Abraham" (Luke 19: 9), though Abraham lived some 
two thousand years before. Accordingly, between two names that stand in juxta 
position as father and son, it is possible that a number of names may intervene 



GNOSTICISM. 



183 



There is another consideration that seems to add conclusiveness to 
the foregoing. The Jews, in constructing their genealogical tables, reck- 
oned descent entirely in the line of males, and when the line passed 
from father to grandson through a daughter, the daughter herself was 
not named, but her husband was counted as the son of the maternal 
grandfather. Thus it is plain how Joseph, the actual son of Jacob, who 
married the daughter of Heli, is, as son-in-law, put in the genealogy 
as Heli's son. 

Joseph's right to the Davidic throne was not voided by the Jecho- 
niah inhibition, — only the occupancy of it. Thus Jesus acquired the 
right to the throne of David through his reputed (step-) father, Joseph, 
and is eligible to sit on it as David's son through Mary. As Wilkinson 
puts it: "By that marriage Jesus escapes the two barriers in the gene- 
alogy of Matthew, and walks over the one barrier in the genealogy of 
Luke. The two genealogies were necessary." — " A Study in the Gene- 
alogy of Jesus" Rev. William H. Bates, D. D., Washington, D. G. Re- 
printed from the Bibliotheca Sacra, April, 1917. 

The line in Matthew is the regal line through Solomon, exhausted 
in Joseph. The line in Luke is the legal line through Nathan, an elder 
brother (2 Sam. 5: 14), exhausted in Mary. — "The Companion Bible" 
note on Matt. 1:16. London: Oxford University Press. 

Genseric. — See Rome, 437, 438, 456, 457; Seven Trumpets, 499, 
502-504. 

Geographical Society. — See Increase of Knowledge, 226. 

Gepidse. — See Rome, Its Barbarian Invaders, 443. 

Gnosticism, Definition of. — An eclectic system of religion and 
philosophy, existing from the first to the sixth century. It attempted, 
in order to commend Christian doctrine to the philosophical tenets of 
the age, a system of mediation between the two, by teaching that knowl- 
edge, rather than faith, was the key to salvation, and incorporating 
some of the features of Platonism, Orientalism, and Dualism with Chris- 
tianity. The Gnostics held that God in himself is unknowable and 
unapproachable, but that all existences, material and spiritual, are 
derived from the Deity by successive emanations, or eons. Gnosticism 
borrowed certain elements from the current Persian philosophy, but 
more from the Greek doctrines connected with Neo-Platonic ideas of 
Logos and Nous. Christ was merely a superior eon. — New Standard 
Dictionary, art. "Gnosticism" p. 1047. New York: Funk and Wagnalls 
Company, 1913. 

Goths — See Papal Supremacy, 361; Rome, 437, 438, 444-450. 

Grant, Gen. Ulysses S. — See Eastern Question, 156; Religious Lib- 
erty, 418. 

Greece, Histoeical Sketch of, to 500 b. c. — The beginnings of life 
in the JEgean world are unknown. The Oriental peoples were already 
far advanced in civilization when the first light breaks on this region. 
But by 2000 b. c. a high culture was produced in Crete under Egyptian 
influence, probably by a pre-Greek people. About 1500 b. c. this culture 
was diffused over the JEgean world, modified in many respects, and 
possessed by the Greeks who had migrated into Greece from the north. 
This so-called Mycensean age was brought to an end by the descent of 
rude tribes from the north, which is called the Dorian migration. This 



184 



GREECE, FIRST KING OF. 



cut off Greece from the outer world, and set in motion new forces of 
political and social organization. Changes from tribal life to local set- 
tlement created the city-state and put at its head the aristocratic 
government. 

When the newcomers had adjusted themselves to their new homes, 
commerce began to revive on the shores of the ^gean. The cities on 
the Asia Minor coast came forward. New relations with the Orient 
arose. Wealth gave leisure and opportunity for the new growth of 
literature and art and religion. Epic poetry reached its height in 
Homer. The Greeks began to know themselves as one people, the 
Hellenes, and to form their ideals of social, religious, and political 
life. . . . 

Two states rose above the others as the age drew to an end. Sparta 
illustrates the tendency to maintain and harden the old tribal system 
with its equality and its military bent. It grew by conquest, until it 
occupied two fifths of the Peloponnesus and formed a political league 
embracing almost all the rest. Thus it was the leading Greek state. 
Athens went to the other extreme. Its lawgivers, Solon and Cleisthenes, 
led the way in the establishment of popular government. Pisistratus, 
the Athenian tyrant, gave the state a leading place among the commer- 
cial powers of the time. Thus by 500 b. c. the Greek world had reached 
a point at which, its political institutions fixed and its states firmly 
established, it was prepared to take its place and do its work in world 
politics. This place and work in the world were opened to it in the 
rapidly approaching complications with the Persian Empire. — "A His- 
tory of the Ancient World," George Stephen Goodspeed, Ph. D., pp. 123- 
125. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1912. 

Greece, Alexander " First King " of Imperial. — And it happened, 
after that Alexander, son of Philip the Macedonian, who came out of the 
land of Chettiim, had smitten Darius king of the Persians and Medes, 
that he reigned in his stead, the first over Greece. 1 Maccabees 1: 1. 

With Alexander the New Greece begins. — " Story of Greece" Prof. 
J. A. Harrison, p. 499. New York: G. P. Putnam' s Sons, 1890. 

Greece, Arrian on Alexander as Leader of All Grecia. — Alexan- 
der, then about twenty years of age, ascended his [Philip's] throne, and 
marched into Peloponnesus, where in a grand council of all the Greeks 
of those parts, he requested to be made general oi the intended expe- 
dition against the Persians (an honor which had been before conferred 
on his father Philip). This was granted by all, except the Lacedaemo- 
nians, who alleged that by an ancient custom of theirs, deduced from 
their ancestors, the Lacedaemonians ought not to obey the orders of a 
foreign general, but themselves to have the command of any army 
raised for a foreign expedition. The Athenians were also busy in con- 
triving to bring some innovation about; but were so terrified at Alex- 
ander's approach, that they decreed him more honors than they had 
before promised his father. He then returned into Macedonia, to raise 
forces for his expedition into Asia. — "History of Alexander's Expedi- 
tion," Arrian, book 1, chap. 1, Rooke's translation (Vol. I, p. 3). London, 
1814. 

Greece, Alexander Formally Recognized as Imperial Head of. — 
The congress of the confederacy met at Corinth to elect Alexander gen- 
eral in his father's place. Alexander was chosen supreme general of the 
Greeks for the invasion of Asia; and it was as head of Hellas, descend- 
ant and successor of Achilles, rather than as Macedonian king, that he 



GREECE, UNIVERSAL. 



185 



desired to go forth against Persia. . . . The welcome . . . and the vote, 
however perfunctory, which elected him leader of the Greeks, were the 
fitting prelude to tne expansion of Hellas, and the diffusion of Hellenic 
civilization, which destiny had ciiosen him to accomplish. He was thus 
formally recognized as what he in fullest verity was, the representative 
of Greece. — " History of Greece" J. B. Bury, Vol. II, p. 330. 

Greece, Alexander as Leadee. — Alexander is the flower of the 
Greek race, the supreme figure in its gallery of heroes. In physical 
strength and beauty, in mental grasp and poise, in moral purpose and 
mastery, he was pre-eminent among the men of his time. Of high, 
almost sentimental, ideals of honor, a warm-hearted, genial companion 
and friend, the idol of his troops, fearless even to recklessness in the 
day of battle, he knew how to work tirelessly, to hold purposes with an 
iron resolution, to sweep all opposition from his path, and to deny him- 
self pitilessly for the fulfilment of his plans. To reach so high a station, 
to stand alone at the summit of human achievement, was for so young 
a man almost fatally dangerous. Alexander did not escape unharmed. 
Power made him sometimes arbitrary and cruel. Opposition drove him 
to crimes which are without excuse. . .' . In thirteen years of incessant 
activity he mastered the world and set it going in new paths. While 
accomplishing this task he made his name immortal. 

The greatness of Alexander as a general is clearly revealed in the 
full accounts of the battles he fought and the campaigns he carried 
through to success. He was the mightiest conqueror the world had. ever 
seen. But it has been reserved for modern scholars to emphasize the 
most splendid and enduring elements of his career: his genius for 
organization, his statesmanship, his far-reaching plans of government 
and administration. Like all his great predecessors in the field of arms, 
he was no mere fighter for the sake of fighting, nor did the lust of 
acquisition spur him on to useless and empty conquests. The crowning 
and decisive proof of this is seen in the cities which he founded. No 
conquest was complete until he had selected sites for new settlements, 
and these sites were chosen with unerring insight into the oppor- 
tunities for trade as well as for defense. Sixteen Alexandrias all over 
the east go back to him as founder, the greatest of which was the 
Egyptian metropolis. It is said that he founded in all some seventy 
cities. Many of them were so wisely planted that they exist to this 
day as flourishing centers of commercial life. . . . 

Alexander had had himself greeted as a son of Zeus by the oracle 
of Amon, which enjoyed a great repute in the entire Greek world in 
the fourth century b. c. In 324 b. c. he demanded that each city should 
enrol him in its circle of deities. This wls done reluctantly in some 
places, as in Athens and Sparta, but in general it was done with enthu- 
siasm; for hencefortn tne cities could take orders from Alexander with- 
out loss of self-respect. To obey their gods was a duty, while on the 
other hand, to acknowledge the authority of an outside king would have 
been humiliating to places which in theory were free and self-governing. 
This was the way in which Alexander organized his vast empire. — 
"A History of the Ancient World" George Stephen Goodspeed, Ph. D., 
pp. 212-247. New York,: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1912. 

Greece, Universal Dominion. — In the tenth year after he had 
crossed the Hellespont, Alexander, having won his vast dominion, en- 
tered Babylon; and resting from his career in that oldest seat of earthly 
empire, he steadily surveyed tne mass of various nations which owned 
his sovereignty, and revolved in his mind the great work of breathing 
into this huge but inert body the living spirit of Greek civilization. In 



186 



GREECE, CONQUESTS OF. 



the bloom of youthful manhood, at the age of thirty-two, he paused 
from the fiery speed of his earlier course: and for the first time gave 
the nations an opportunity of offering their homage before his throne. 
They came from all the extremities of the earth, to propitiate his anger, 
to celebrate his greatness, or to solicit his protection. — " History of 
Rome," Thomas Arnold, Vol. II, chap. 30, par. 1. 

Greece, Appian on Alexander's Ambition. — He [Alexander] was 
never defeated, and he finished almost every war in one or two battles. 
. . . He overran almost the whole of Asia. To sum up Alexander's for- 
tune and power in a word, he acquired as much of the earth as he saw, 
and died while he was devising means to capture the rest. — " The Roman 
History," Appian of Alexandria, translated by Horace White; " The Civil 
Wars," book 2, chap. 21, par. 149 (Vol. II, p. 204). New York: The Mac- 
millan Company, 1899. 

Greece, Arrian on World-Empire. — I am persuaded, there was no 
nation, city, nor people then in being, whither his [Alexander's] name 
did not reach; for which reason, whatever origin he might boast of, or 
claim to himself, there seems to me to have been some divine hand 
presiding both over his birth and actions, insomuch that no mortal upon 
earth either excelled or equaled him. — " History of Alexander's Expedi- 
tion," Arrian, book 7, chap. 30, Rooke's translation (Vol. II, p. 185). 
London, 1864. 

Others [say of his plans of conquest just as he died] that he pro- 
posed to coast round Sicily, by the promontory Iapygium; for then it 
was that the Roman name began to spread far and wide, and gave him 
much umbrage. Thus are authors divided in their opinions concerning 
his ambitious designs. As for my part, I can neither tell for certain 
what he designed, nor care much to proceed to guess work. — Id., book 7, 
chap. 1. 

m» 

Wherever you fly [wrote Alexander to the retreating Darius], 
thither I will surely pursue you. — Id., book 2, chap. 14. 

" Vain in his hopes, the youth had grasped at all, 
And his vast thought took in the vanquished ball." 

— " Pharsalia," Lucan, Nicholas Rowe's translation, book 3. 

" Driven headlong on by Fate's resistless force, 
Through Asia's realms he took his dreadful course: 
His ruthless sword laid human nature waste, 
And desolation followed where he passed. . . . 

" Ev'n to the utmost west he would have gone, 
Where Tethys' lap receives the setting sun." 

— Id., book 10. 

Greece, Rapidity of Conquest. — The empire of Alexander was 
splendid in its magnitude, in its armies, in the success and rapidity of 
his conquests, and it wanted little of being boundless and unexampled, 
yet in its shortness of duration it was like a brilliant flash of lightning. 
Although broken into several satrapies, even the parts were splendid. — 
" The Roman History," Appian of Alexandria, Preface, par. 10, transla- 
tion of Horace White (Vol. I, p. 5). New York: The Macmillan Com- 
pany, 1899. 

[Alexander] who shot like a star, with incredible swiftness, from 
the rising to the setting sun, was meditating to bring the luster of his 



GREECE — ALEXANDER. 



187 



arms into Italy. ... He had heard of the Roman power in Italy. — 

" Morals" Plutarch, article on " Fortune of the Romans," par. 13. 

Greece, Its Swift Progress Portrayed in Prophecy. — The rapidity 
of Alexander's conquests is vividly portrayed by the progress of the 
he goat. Rapidly crossing the Hellespont with 40,000 Greek troops, 
Alexander gained his first victory over the Persian armies at the 
Granicas, b. c. 334, and overran in that year and part of the next the 
whole of Asia Minor. He took by siege several important cities, while 
other cities opened their gates at the mere summons of the conqueror. 
Alexander gained a decisive victory over Darius Codomanus, who com- 
manded in person, at the battle of Issus in November of the next year 
(b. c. 333). He then invaded Phoenicia and captured Tyre, thus de- 
stroying the base from which a Persian fleet might have operated. 
Palestine submitted to his authority. He besieged Gaza, overran Egypt, 
and, turning northwards to Babylon, defeated Darius in the decisive 
battle of Arbela, in b. c. 331. Ere b. c. 330, Alexander had taken pos- 
session of Babylon and Susa, burned Persepolis, and put an end to the 
Persian Empire. Thus did the he goat with its one horn cast down the 
two-horned ram to the ground and trample upon it. — " Daniel and His 
Prophecies," Charles H. H. Wright, D. D., pp. 174, 175. London: Wil- 
liams and Norgate, 1906. 

Greece, Alexander's Victory over Medo-Persia. — From Egypt 
Alexander retraced his steps to Syria and marched eastward. At Ar- 
bela, not far from the ancient Nineveh, his farther advance was dis- 
puted by Darius with an immense army, numbering, if we may rely 
upon our authorities, over a million men. The vast Persian host was 
overthrown with enormous slaughter. Darius fled from the field, as he 
had done at Issus, and later was treacherously killed by an attendant. 

The battle of Arbela [331 b. c] was one of the decisive combats 
of history. It marked the end of the long struggle between the East 
and the West, between Persia and Greece, and prepared the way for the 
spread of Hellenic civilization over all Western Asia. 

From the field of Arbela Alexander marched south to Babylon, 
which opened its gates to him without opposition. Susa was next 
entered by the conqueror. Here he seized incredible quantities of gold 
and silver ($57,000,000, it is said), the treasure of the Great King. — 
"General History," Philip Van Ness Myers, pp. 153, 154. Boston: Ginn 
and Company. 

Greece, Alexander's Power "Broken" ("When He was Strong." 
Dan. 8: 8). — As he was now on his return to Babylon, from the remot- 
est shores of the ocean, he received advice that ambassadors from 
Carthage, and the other cities of Africa, as also from Spain, Sicily, 
Gaul, Sardinia, and some places of Italy, attended his coming there. 
So much was the whole world awed by the terror of his name, that all 
nations came to pay their obedience to him, as one that was designed 
by fate to be their monarch. For this reason as he was hastening to 
Babylon, with a design, as one would think, to celebrate the Convention 
of the whole universe, a Chaldean soothsayer advised him not to enter 
that city. — "History of the World," Junianus Justinus Justin, oook 12, 
chap. 13. 

Greece, Alexander Removed in the " Flower of His Age." — Being 
thus taken off in the flower of his age, and in the height of his victories. 
. . . The conquered nations could not believe the report. — Id., hook, 13, 
chap. 1. 



188 



GREECE — ALEXANDER'S FALXi. 



Greece, Alexander's Incompleted Work. — The work was every- 
where incomplete. Who could expect that this god should perish, and 
so young, in the strength of his age and mental vigor? His death 
struck the world with stupor. — " History of Greece''' Jean Victor Duruy, 
Vol IV, p. 215, chap. 33. Boston: Estes and Lauriat, 1891. 

Greece, Alexander's Fall at Summit of Greatness. — Now, when 
he [Alexander] seemed to be at the summit of worldly greatness and 
prosperity, that space of life which he might have run through by the 
course of nature was cut short by the determination of fate.—" Histor- 
ical Library," Diodorus kiiculus, booh 17, chap. 12. 

Greece, The Death of Alexander (323 b. c). — In the midst of his 
vast projects Alexander was seized by a fever, brought on doubtless by 
his insane excesses, and died at Babylon, 323 b. c, in the thirty-second 
year of his age. His soldiers could not let him die without seeing him. 
The watchers of the palace were obliged to open the doors to them, and 
the veterans of a hundred battlefields filed sorrowfully past the couch 
of their dying commander. His body was carried first to Memphis, but 
afterwards to Alexandria, in Egypt, and there inclosed in a golden 
coffin, over which was rai«ed a splendid mausoleum. His ambition for 
celestial honors was gratified in his death; for in Egypt and elsewhere 
temples were dedicated to him, and divine worship was paid to his 
statues. — " General History,'" Philip Van Ness Myers, p. 155. Boston: 
Ginn and Company. 

Greece, Influence of Alexander's Conquests- on. — His genius and 
energy in war, in organization, and in planting colonies were marvelous. 
His mind expanded rapidly with the progress of his conquests. First 
king of Macedon, next captain-general of Hellas, then emperor of Persia, 
he aspired finally to be lord of the whole earth. His object was not to 
Hellenize the world, but to blend the continents in one nation and one 
civilization. But the dizzy height of power to which he had climbed 
disturbed his mental poise; in an outburst of passion he murdered his 
dearest friend; his lust for worship grew upon him till he bade the 
manly Macedonians grovel before him like servile Asiatics, and sent an 
order to the Greeks to recognize him as a god. Year by year he grew 
more egotistical and more despotic and violent. 

It would be idle to speculate on what he might have accomplished 
had he lived to old age. We must judge him by his actual achieve- 
ments. His conquests stimulated exploration and discovery, introduc- 
ing a great age of scientific invention. They tended to break down the 
barrier between Greek and barbarian, and they gave Hellenic civiliza- 
tion to the world. People of widely separated countries became better 
acquainted with one another, and thus acquired a more liberal spirit 
and a broader view of mankind. The building up of an empire far 
greater than the Persian was itself a stage in the growth of the idea 
that all men are brothers. It is a fact, too, that Alexander's conquests 
made easier the growth of the Roman Empire. On the other hand, the 
conquest conferred no lasting benefit on the masses of the conquered. 
— "A History of the Ancient World," George Willis Botsford, Ph. D., 
p. 284. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1911. 

It would not be easy to name any other period of ten years in the 
history of the world beside the reign of Alexander in which as momen- 
tous a change passed over as large a part of the eartn — a change which 
made such difference in the face of things. Suddenly the pageant of 
the greatest empire ever known had been swept away. . . . 



GREECE, DIVISION OF. 



189 



In the spring of 323 before Christ the whole order of things from 
the Adriatic away to the mountains of Central Asia, and the dusty 
plains of the Punjab, rested upon a single will, a single brain, nurtured 
in Hellenic thought. Then the hand of God, as if trying some fantastic 
experiment, plucked this man away. — " House of Seleucus" E. R. Bevan, 
Vol. I, p. $8. 

Greece, Alexander's Empiee Left "Not to His Posterity." — The 
family of Alexander had a most tragical end: 1. His wife Statira was 
murdered soon after his death by his other wife Roxana. 2. His 
brother Aridssus, who succeeded him, was killed, together with his wife 
Euridice, by command of Olympias, Alexander's mother, after he had 
been king about six years and some months. 3. Olympias herself was 
killed by the soldiers in revenge. 4. Alexander JEgus, his son, together 
with his mother Roxana, was slain by order of Cassander. 5. Two years 
after, his other son Hercules, with his mother Barsine, was privately 
murdered by Polysperchon; so that in fifteen years after his death not 
one of his family or posterity remained alive! — " Commentary " Dr. 
Adam Clarke, note on Dan. 11 : 4. 

Now all the seed royal being extinct, and no successor remaining, 
every one of the captains who had possessed themselves of provinces 
or cities took upon themselves the titles and styles of kings. — " Histor- 
ical Library" Diodorus Siculus, book 19, chap. 7. 

Greece, Divided Toward the Four Winds (Dan. 8: 8; 11: 4). — 
When Alexander died, the authority passed to his generals, all trained 
in war, yet none qualified to fill the place of the master. As his son 
was but an infant, and as the generals began to fight among themselves 
for the first place, the empire naturally fell to pieces. The decisive 
battle among these generals was fought at Ipsus in Phrygia (301 b. c). 
This was one of the most important battles of ancient times, as it 
determined the history of the empire till it fell under the power of Rome. 

The victors divided the empire into kingdoms for themselves: 
Seleucus received Asia from Phrygia to India; western Asia Minor and 
Thrace fell to Lysimachus; Ptolemy became king of Egypt; and Cas- 
sander, already governor of Macedon,*was now recognized as sovereign. 
In this way four kingdoms arose from the empire. Somewhat later 
Lysimachus was killed and his realm divided. While most of his Asi- 
atic possessions were annexed to the kingdom of Seleucus, barbarous 
tribes, including many Gauls, seized the interior of Thrace and threat- 
ened the Greek cities along the coast. — 'A History of the Ancient 
World," George Willis Botsford, Ph. D., pp. 296, 297. New York: The 
Macmillan Company, 1911. 

Greece, Four "Notable" Divisions. — The vast empire created by 
Alexander's unparalleled conquests was distracted by the wranglings 
and wars of his successors, and before the close of the fourth century 
before Christ, had become broken up into many fragments. Besides 
minor states, four well-defined and important monarchies arose out of 
the ruins. . . . Their rulers were Lysimachus, Cassander, Seleucus Ni- 
cator, and Ptolemy, who had each assumed the title of king. The great 
horn was broken; and instead of it came up four notable ones toward 
the four winds of heaven. — " History of Greece," Philip Van Ness Myers, 
edition 1902, p. 457 * 

A quadripartite division of Alexander's dominions was recognized, 
Macedonia, Egypt, Asia Minor, and Syria (or Southwestern Asia) be- 



190 



GREECE, DIVISIONS OF. 



coming thenceforth distinct political entities. — " The Sixth Great Ori- 
ental Monarchy," George Rawlinson, M. A., chap. 3, p. 30. New York: 
Dodd, Mead & Co. 

Greece, The Four Divisions Reduced to Three. — The result of the 
battle of Ipsos was not, however, the establishment of a more perma- 
nent division of the empire. We shall see later the number of kings 
again reduced; at present they are four; soon they will be only three. 

— "History of Greece," Jean Victor Duruy, chap. 34; Vol. IV, p. 296. 
Boston: Estes and Lauriat, 1891. 

[After the overthrow of Lysimachus] there were three great king- 
doms — Macedonia, Egypt, Syria — which lasted each under its own 
dynasty, till Rome swallowed them up. — "Alexander's Empire" J. P. 
Mahaffy, p. 89. 

Greece, Outline History of Three Divisions. — 230. Macedonia 
(323-146 B. C.J. — Macedonia was one of the first countries east of the 
Adriatic to come in hostile contact with the great military republic of 
the West. After much intrigue and a series of wars, the country was 
finally brought into subjection to the Italian power and made into a 
Roman province (146 b. c). 

231. Syria, or the Kingdom of the Selucidw (312-65 B. C.J. — Under 
its first ruler this kingdom comprised nominally almost all the coun- 
tries of Asia conquered by Alexander, thus stretching from the Helles- 
pont to the Indus; but in reality the monarchy embraced only Asia 
Minor, Syria, and the old Assyria and Babylonia. Its rulers were called 
Selucidse, from the founder of the kingdom, Seleucus Nicator. 

Seleucus Nicator (312-281 b. c), besides being a ruler of unusual 
ability, was a most liberal patron of learning and art. He is declared 
to have been " the greatest founder of cities that ever lived." Through- 
out his dominions he founded a vast number, some of which endured 
for many centuries, and were known far and wide as homes and centers 
of Hellenistic civilization. 

The successors of Seleucus Nicator led the kingdom through check- 
ered fortunes. On different sides provinces fell away and became inde- 
pendent states. Antiochus III (223-187 b. a), called "the Great," raised 
the kingdom for a short time into great prominence; but finally the 
country was overrun by the Roman legions and was made a part of 
the Roman Republic (63 b. c). 

232. Kingdom of the Ptolemies in Egypt (323-30 B. C.J. — The Graeco- 
Egyptian empire of the Ptolemies was by far the most important, in its 
influence upon the civilization of the world, of all the kingdoms that 
owed their origin to the conquests of Alexander. The founder of the 
house and dynasty was Ptolemy I, surnamed Soter (323-283 b. c.j, a 
companion of Alexander. 

Under Ptolemy, Alexandria became the great depot of exchange for 
the productions of the world. At the entrance of the harbor stood the 
Pharos, or lighthouse, — the first structure of its kind. This edifice was 
reckoned one of the Seven Wonders. 

But it was not alone the exchange of material products that was 
comprehended in Ptolemy's scheme. His aim was to make his capital 
the intellectual center of the world, — the place where the arts, sciences, 
literatures, and even the religions of the world should meet and mingle. 
He founded the famous Museum, a sort of college, which became the 
" University of the East," and established the renowned Alexandrian 
Library. He encouraged poets, artists, philosophers, and teachers in all 
departments of learning to settle in Alexandria by conferring upon 



GREECE, NORTH AND SOUTH. 



191 



them immunities and privileges, and by gifts and a munificent patron- 
age. His court embraced the learning and genius of the age. 

Ptolemy Philadelphus (283-247 b. c.) followed closely in the foot- 
steps of his father. He added largely to the royal library, and extended 
to scholars the same liberal patronage that his father had before him. 
It was under his direction that the translation into Greek of the Hebrew 
Testament was made. 

Altogether the Ptolemies reigned in Egypt almost exactly three 
centuries (323-30 b. a). The story of the beautiful but dissolute Cleo- 
patra, the last of the house of the Ptolemies, belongs properly to the 
history of Rome, which city was now interfering in the affairs of the 
Orient. In the year 30 b. c, the year which marks the death of Cleo- 
patra, Egypt was made a Roman province. — " General History," Philip 
Van Ness Myers, pp. 157-159. Boston: Ginn and Company. 

Greece, Its Two Strong Divisions (Dan. 11: 5). — Soon after Alex- 
ander's death, his generals formed a compact for the government of his 
empire; but it was soon broken, and out of his conquests four kingdoms 
arose, of which the most important were those of Seleucus in Asia, and 
of Ptolemy in Africa. — " Bible Atlas," Rev. Jesse L. Hurlbut, D. D., p. 95. 
Chicago: Rand, McNally & Co. 

Greece, The Southern Kingdom Strong. — During the reign of its 
[Egypt's] second monarch, Ptolemy Philadelphus (285-246 b. a), its 
capital, Alexandria, was the London of the ancient world. Its only rival 
in trade and commerce was its neighbor to the west, Carthage. The 
golden age of the Ptolemies coincides with the one epoch in the history 
of the world in which Africa was the leader in business enterprise, in 
money power, in naval strength, in luxury, in science, and, till the real 
test came, in political prestige and influence. The commercial aristoc- 
racy of Carthage and the enlightened despots of Alexandria had the 
Mediterranean divided between them. — " Greek Imperialism," W. S. 
Ferguson, p. 155. 

Greece, The Northern Kingdom Strongest. — Of the four powers 
thus established [at Ipsus, 301 b. a], the most important, and that with 
which we are here especially concerned, was the kingdom of Syria (as 
it was called), or that ruled for 247 years by the Selucidse. Seleucus 
Nicator, the founder of this kingdom, was one of Alexander's officers. 
— " The Sixth Great Oriental Monarchy," George Rawlinson, M. A., 
chap. 3, p. 31. New York: Dodd, Mead & Co. 

Greece, Appian on the Kingdom of Seleucus. — At this division 
[301 b. c] all Syria from the Euphrates to the sea, also inland Phrygia, 
fell to the lot of Seleucus. Always lying in wait for the neighboring 
nations, strong in arms and persuasive in council, he acquired Meso- 
potamia, Armenia, the so-called Seleucid Cappadocia, the Persians, 
Parthians, Bactrians, Arabs, Tapryi, Sogdiani, Arachates, Hyrcanians, 
and other adjacent peoples that had been subdued by Alexander, as far 
as the river Indus, so that the boundaries of his empire were the most 
extensive in Asia after that of Alexander. The whole region from 
Phrygia to the Indus was subject to Seleucus. — " The Roman History ," 
Appian of Alexandria, " The Foreign Wars," book 11, chap. 9, par. 55 
(Vol. I, p. 314). 

Greece, The North Becomes the Territory of Seleucus. — He 
[Seleucus] then [312 b. c] proceeded to conquer Susiana, Media, and 
the eastern provinces of Alexander's empire to the banks of the Oxus 



192 



GREECE, NORTH AND SOUTH. 



and the Indus. He carried on war, too, with an Indian king, Sandra- 
cottus or Chandragupta. In 306 he assumed the title of king, and in 
302 he again joined Lysimachus, Cassander, and Ptolemy against Antig- 
onus; and the victory at Ipsus in 301 was largely due to his general- 
ship. By this victory he acquired half of Asia Minor and all Syria. 
After capturing Demetrius in 286 b. c, Seleucus declared war on Ly- 
simachus, and defeated and slew him at Corupedion. This victory made 
Seleucus master of all Asia, and left the throne of Macedonia vacant. 
Seleucus crossed the Hellespont to seize it; but he was murdered in 
Thrace by Ptolemy Ceraunus, a son of Ptolemy, king of Egypt. He 
was a great conqueror, and founded many cities. . . . These foundations 
were centers of Greek life and culture; and two of them, Antioch in 
Syria and Seleucia on the Tigris, ranked among the greatest cities of 
the world. — Nelson's Encyclopedia, art. "Seleucus" Vol. XI, p. 91. 
New York: Thomas Nelson & Sons, 1907. 

Greece, Capital of Seleucus Removed to North. — The empire of 
Seleucus might have been conveniently ruled from the site of the 
ancient Nineveh, or from either of the two still existing and still 
nourishing cities of Susa and Babylon. . . . Babylon was Seleucus's first 
choice; and there his court was held for some years previously to his 
march against Antigonus. But either certain disadvantages were found 
to attach to Babylon as a residence, or the mere love of variety and 
change caused him very shortly to repent of his selection, and to 
transfer his capital to another site. He founded, and built with great 
rapidity, the city of Seleucia upon the Tigris, at the distance of about 
forty miles from Babylon, and had transferred thither the seat of gov- 
ernment even before b. c. 301. . . . 

But after Ipsus a further change was made. . . . Seleucus once 
more transferred the seat of empire, exchanging this time the valley of 
the Tigris for that of the Orontes, and the central position of Lower 
Mesopotamia for almost the extreme western point of his vast terri- 
tories. Antioch arose in extraordinary beauty and magnificence during 
the first few years that succeeded Ipsus, and Seleucus in a short time 
made it his ordinary residence. The change weakened the ties which 
bound the empire together, offended the bulk of the Asiatics, who saw 
their monarch withdraw from them into a remote region, and particu- 
larly loosened the grasp of the government on those more eastern dis- 
tricts which were at once farthest from the new metropolis and least 
assimilated to the Hellenic character. Among the causes which led to 
the disintegration of the Seleucid kingdom, there is none that deserves 
so well to be considered the main cause as this. — " The Sixth Great Ori- 
ental Monarchy," George Bawlinson, M. A., chap. 3, pp. 34, 35. New 
York: Dodcl, Mead & Go. 

Greece, Warfare Between North and South over Palestine. — It 
was the fond dream of each " successor " of Alexander that in his per- 
son might, perhaps, be one day united all the territories of the great 
conqueror. Seleucus would have felt that he sacrificed his most cher- 
ished hopes if he had anowed the West to go its own way, and had 
contented himself with consolidating a great power in the regions east 
of the Euphrates. 

And the policy of the founder of the house was followed by his 
successors. The three Seleucid sovereigns who reigned prior to the 
Parthian revolt were, one and all, engaged in frequent, if not continual, 
wars with the monarchs of Egypt and Asia Minor. The first Seleucus, 
by his claim to the sovereignty of Lower Syria, established a ground of 
constant contention with the Ptolemies; and though he did not prosecute 



GREECE, NORTH AND SOUTH. 



193 



the claim to the extent of actual hostility, yet in the reign of his son. 
Antiochus I, called Soter, the smothered quarrel broke out. — Id., chap. 
S, p. 37. 

The Ptolemies gained Cyrene and Cyprus, and struggled hard with 
the Syrian kings for the possession of Phoenicia; Palestine was as of 
old the battlefield for the king of the north and the king of the south. 
The Ptolemies even held Seleucia at the mouth of the Orontes for some 
time. The history of these times is lost in its detail. — Encyclopedia 
Britannica, Vol. XV, art. "Macedonian Empire.'' p. 144, 9th edition. 
New York: The Werner Company, 1903. 

Greece, Outline Histoey of Conflicts of the Kings of North and 
South. — Ptolemy became master of Palestine in 312 b. c, and though, 
as Josephus complains, he may have disgraced his title, 8oter [Pre- 
server], by momentary severity at the outset, later he created in the 
minds of the Jews the impression that in Palestine or in Egypt he was 

— in deed as well as in name — their preserver. Since 315 b. c. Pales- 
tine had been occupied by the forces of Antigonus. Ptolemy's successful 
forward movement was undertaken by the advice of Seleucus (Diodorus 
xix. 80 sqq.), who followed it up by regaining possession of Babylonia. 
So the Seleucid era began in 312 b. c. (cf. Maccabees 1: 10) and the 
dynasty of Seleucus justified the "prophecy" of Daniel (11: 5): "And 
the king of the south [Ptolemy] shall be strong, but one of his captains 
[Seleucus] shall be strong above him and have dominion." . . . 

But when Seleucus came to claim Palestine as part of his share, 
he found his old chief Ptolemy in possession and retired under protest. 
From 301 b. c. to 1S8 b. c. Palestine remained, with short interruptions, 
in the hands of the Ptolemies. . . . 

Halfway through this century (249 b. c.) the desultory warfare 
between Egypt and the Seleucid power came to a temporary end (Dan. 
11: 6). Ptolemy II, Philadelphus, gave his daughter Berenice with a 
great dowry to Antiochus II, Theos. When Ptolemy died (247 b. c), 
Antiochus's divorced wife Laodice was restored to favor, and Antiochus 
died suddenly in order that she might regain her power. Berenice and 
her son were likewise removed from the path of her son Seleucus. In 
the vain hope of protecting his sister Berenice, the new king of Egypt, 
Ptolemy III Euergetes I, invaded the Seleucid territory, " entered the 
fortress of the king of the north" (Dan. 11: 7 sqq.), and only returned 

— laden with spoils, images captured from Egypt by Cambyses, and 
captives (Jerome on Daniel loc. cit.) — to put down a domestic rebellion. 
Seleucus reconquered northern Syria without much difficulty (Justin 
xxxvii. 2, 1), but on an attempt to seize Palestine he was signally de- 
feated by Ptolemy (Justin xxvii. 2, 4). 

In 223 b. c. Antiochus III the Great came to the throne of the 
Seleucid Empire and set about extending its boundaries in different di- 
rections. His first attempt on Palestine (221 b. c.) failed; the second 
succeeded by the treachery of Ptolemy's lieutenant, who had been re- 
called to Alexandria in consequence of his successful resistance to the 
earlier invasion. But in spite of this assistance the conquest of Coele- 
Syria was not quickly achieved; and when Antiochus advanced in 
218 b. c. he was opposed by the Egyptians on land and sea. Neverthe- 
less he made his way into Palestine, planted garrisons at Philoteria on 
the Sea of Galilee and Scythopolis, and finally stormed Rabbath-ammon 
(Philadelphia) which was held by partisans of Egypt. [Dan. 11: 10.] 
Early in 217 b. c. Ptolemy Philopater led his forces towards Raphia, 
which with Gaza was now in the hands of Antiochus, and drove the 
invaders back. The great multitude was given into his hand, but he 
13 



194 



GREEK CHURCH. 



was not to be strengthened permanently by his triumph (Dan. 11: 11 
sqq.). Polybius describes his triumphal progress (v. 86): "All the 
cities vied with one another in returning to their allegiance. The in- 
habitants of those parts are always ready to accommodate themselves 
to the situation of the moment and prompt to pay the courtesies re- 
quired by the occasion. And in this case it was natural enough because 
of their deep-seated affection for the royal house of Alexandria." 

When Ptolemy Philopater died, in 205 b. a, Antiochus and Philip 
of Macedon, his nominal friends, made a secret compact for the division 
of his possessions outside Egypt. The time had come of which Daniel 
(11: 13 sqq.) says: "The king of the north shall return after certain 
years with a great army and with much riches. And in those times 
there shall many stand up against the king of the south." . . . Pales- 
tine was apparently allotted to Antiochus and he came to take it, while 
Philip created a diversion in Thrace and Asia Minor. . . . But in the 
year 200 b. c. Rome intervened with an embassy, which declared war 
upon Philip and directed Antiochus and Ptolemy to make peace (Polyb. 
xvi. 27). And in 198 b. c. Antiochus heard that Scopas, Ptolemy's hired 
commander-in-chief, had retaken Coele-Syria (Polyb. xvi. 39) and had 
subdued the nation of the Jews in the winter. For these sufficient 
reasons Antiochus hurried back and defeated Scopas at Paneas, which 
was known later as Csesarea Philippi (Polyb. xvi. 18 sqq.). After his 
victory he took formal possession of Batansea, Samaria, Abila, and 
Gadara; " and after a little the Jews who dwelt round about the shrine 
called Jerusalem came over to him" (Polyb. xvi. 39). Only Gaza with- 
stood him, as it withstood Alexander; and Polybius (xvi. 40) pauses to 
praise their fidelity to Ptolemy. The siege of Gaza was famous; but in 
the end the city [thus "fenced cities" were taken. Dan. 11:15] was 
taken by storm, and Antiochus, secure at last of the province, which his 
ancestors had so long coveted, was at peace with Ptolemy, as the Roman 
embassy directed. . . . But war between Rome and Antiochus was clearly 
inevitable — and Antiochus was joined by Hannibal. After much di- 
plomacy, Antiochus advanced into Greece, and Rome declared war upon 
him in 191 b. c. (Livy xxxvi. 1). He was defeated on the seas and 
driven first out of Greece and then out of Asia Minor. His army was 
practically destroyed at Magnesia, and he was forced to accept the terms 
of peace, which the Romans had offered and he had refused before the 
battle. [At last one had " come against him " before whom he could 
not stand, the mighty power of Rome. Dan. 11: 16 j. — Encyclopedia 
Britannica, Vol. XX, art. " 'Palestine,'' 1 pp. 618, 619, 11th edition. 

Note. — It should be noted that in this article explanatory insertions in 
brackets [] are by the publishers of this book, while those in curves are in the 
Encyclopedia article itself. — Eds. 

Greece — See Rome, 431, 432. 

Greek Church, Sepaeation or, from Rome. — It [the separation 
between the Greek and the Roman Churches] is due chiefly to three 
causes. The first cause is the politico-ecclesiastical rivalry of the Pa- 
triarch of Constantinople backed by the Byzantine Empire, and the 
Bishop of Rome in connection with the new German Empire. The 
second cause is the growing centralization and overbearing conduct of 
the Latin Church in and through the Papacy. The third cause is the 
stationary character of the Greek and the progressive character of the 
Latin Church during the Middle Ages. [311] . . . 

The first serious outbreak of this conflict took place after the middle 
of the ninth century, when Photius and Nicolas, two of the ablest rep- 
resentatives of the rival churches, came into collision. Photius is one 



GREEK CHURCH. 



195 



of the greatest of patriarchs, as Nicolas is one of the greatest of popes. 
The former was superior in learning, the latter in statesmanship; 
while in moral integrity, official pride, and obstinacy both were fairly 
matched, except that the papal ambition towered above the patriarchal 
dignity. Photius would tolerate no superior, Nicolas no equal; the 
one stood on the Council of Chalcedon, the other on Pseudo-Isidor. 

The contest between them was at first personal. The deposition of 
Ignatius as Patriarch of Constantinople, for rebuking the immorality 
of Caesar Bardas, and the election of Photius, then a mere layman, in 
his place (858), were arbitrary and uncanonical acts which created a 
temporary schism in the East, and prepared the way for a permanent 
schism between the East and the West. Nicolas, being appealed to as 
mediator by both parties (first by Photius), assumed the haughty air 
of supreme judge on the basis of the Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals, but 
was at first deceived by his own legates. The controversy was compli- 
cated by the Bulgarian quarrel. King Bogoris had been converted to 
Christianity by missionaries from Constantinople (861), but soon after 
applied to Rome for teachers, and the Pope eagerly seized this oppor- 
tunity to extend his jurisdiction (866). 

Nicolas, in a Roman synod (863), decided in favor of the innocent 
Ignatius, and pronounced sentence of deposition against Photius with 
a threat of excommunication in case of disobedience. Photius, en- 
raged by this conduct and the Bulgarian interference, held a counter- 
synod, and deposed in turn the successor of St. Peter (867). In his 
famous encyclical letter of invitation to the Eastern patriarchs, he 
charged the whole Western Church with heresy and schism for inter- 
fering with the jurisdiction over the Bulgarians, for fasting on Satur- 
day, for abridging the time of Lent by a week, for taking milk-food 
(milk, cheese, and butter) during the quadragesimal fast, for enforcing 
clerical celibacy, and despising priests who lived in virtuous matrimony, 
and, most of all, for corrupting the Nicene Creed by the insertion of 
the Filioque, and thereby introducing two principles into the Holy 
Trinity. 

This letter clearly indicates all the doctrinal and ritual differences 
which caused and perpetuated the schism to this day. The subsequent 
history is only a renewal of the same charges aggravated by the mis- 
fortunes of the Greek Church, and the arrogance and intolerance of old 
Rome. [312-314] — " History of the Christian Church," Philip 8 chaff, Vol. 
IV, pp. 311-814. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1885. 

Greek Church, Date of Final Separation of. — Leo [IX, 1049-1055] 
sent an embassy to Constantinople, at the head of which stood the 
masterful and passionate Cardinal Humbert. Leo's letters censured the 
assumption of Michael Caerularius, in calling himself the ecumenical 
patriarch, and desiring thereby to subordinate to himself the Eastern 
patriarchs; so also his procedure against the Roman custom in the 
Supper. Plainly under the pressure of the imperial wish, Nicetas Pec- 
toratus, a monk of the monastery of Studion, agreed to repudiate his 
treatise against the Latins in the presence of the court and the Roman 
ambassadors, and the emperor caused it to be burned. But Michael 
Cserularius [Patriarch of Constantinople] proved unapproachable and 
broke off all intercourse with the Roman legates. They then deposited 
a bull of excommunication against him on the altar of St. Sophia, on the 
16th July, 1054, in which he was accused of all possible heresies, and 
every one who received the Supper from a Greek who blamed the 
Roman sacrifice was threatened with the ban. Once more the emperor 
induced the already departed legates to return; but the populace took 
the side of their Patriarch, the legates were obliged to take flight, and 



196 



GREGORY VH. 



were placed under the ban by Michael at a synod, which the Oriental 
patriarchs also approved. The popular disposition, which was fostered 
by the Greek clergy, annulled the plans of the emperor. Although the 
council represented the matter as though Humbert and his companions 
were not really legates of the Bishop of Rome, as a matter of fact the 
decisive and momentous schism was thus completed. — "History of the 
Christian Church in the Middle Ages," Dr. Wilhelm Moeller, p. 230. 
London: George Allen & Co. 

Greek Church and Roman Compared. — No two churches are so 
much alike in their creed, polity, and cultus, as the Greek and Roman; 
and yet no two are such irreconcilable rivals, perhaps for the very 
reason of their affinity. They agree much more than either agrees with 
any Protestant church. They were never organically united. They 
differed from the beginning in nationality, language, and genius, as the 
ancient Greeks differed from the Romans; yet they grew up together, 
and stood shoulder to shoulder in the ancient conflict with paganism 
and heresy. They co-operated in the early ecumenical councils, and 
adopted their doctrinal and ritual decisions. But the removal of the 
seat of empire from Rome to Constantinople by Diocletian and Con- 
stantine, the development of the papal monarchy in the West, and the 
establishment of a Western empire in connection with it, laid the foun- 
dation of a schism which has never been healed. The controversy cul- 
minated in the rivalry between the Patriarch of Constantinople and the 
Pope of Rome. — The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious 
Knowledge, Vol. IV, art. " Eastern Church," p. 49. 

Gregory VII, Last Days of. — As death approached, no conscious- 
ness of the great woes he had occasioned, of the fierce wars he had 
stirred up, of the ruin he had brought upon Germany, of the desola- 
tion he had spread over Italy, of the miserable fate of Rome, seems to 
have disturbed his sublime serenity. At one moment he had believed 
himself a prophet, at another an infallible guide; he was always the 
vicegerent of Heaven; and just before his death he gave a general 
absolution to the human race, excepting only Henry and his rival pope. 
He died May 25, 1085, having bequeathed to his successors the principle 
that the Bishop of Rome was the supreme power of the earth. This was 
the conception which Gregory plainly represents. — " Historical Studies," 
Eugene Lawrence, p. 41. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1876. 

Gregory VII was the creator of the political Papacy of the Middle 
Ages because he was the first who dared to completely enforce the 
Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals. He found the Pope elected by the emperor, 
the Roman clergy, and the people; he left the election in the hands of 
an ecclesiastical College of Cardinals. He found the Papacy dependent 
upon the empire; he made it independent of the empire and above it. 
He declared the states of Europe to be fiefs of St. Peter, and demanded 
the oath of fealty from their rulers. He found the clergy, high and low, 
dependent allies of secular princes and kings; he emancipated them and 
subjected them to his own will. He reorganized the church from top 
to bottom by remodeling the papal Curia, by establishing the College 
of Cardinals, by employing papal legates, by thwarting national 
churches, by controlling synods and councils, and by managing all 
church property directly. He was the first to enforce the theory that 
the Pope could depose and confirm or reject kings and emperors. He 
attempted to reform the abuses in the church and to purify the clergy. 
Only partial success attended these efforts, but triumph was to come 
later on as a result of his labors. His endeavor to realize his theocracy 



HEALTH AND TEMPERANCE. 



197 



was grand but impracticable, as proved by its failure. It was like 
forcing a dream to be true; yet Innocent III almost succeeded in Western 
Europe a little more than a century later. The impress of Gregory 
VII's gigantic ability was left upon his own age and upon all succeeding 
ages. — " The Rise of the Mediceval Church," Alexander Clarence Flick. 
Ph. D., Litt. D., p. 470. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. 

Gregory VII. — See Papacy, 342, 349-351; Papal Supremacy, 359; 
Pope, 382, 383, 384, 385; Rome, 452, 453, 455; Sabbath, 467. 

Health and Temperance, Alcohol a " Mocker." — It can be demon- 
strated that every action of alcohol in the body is an action on tissue 
cells, and is paralytic in its effect, the cells of the brain suffering in the 
inverse order of their development, the last developed suffering first and 
most, the first developed suffering last and least. ... If this is true, why 
do not all believe it? For two reasons: Because alcohol mocks those 
who take it, and enriches those who make it. Wine is a mocker. It 
promises what it does not give. It gives one and takes ten. But this is 
its primary deception. Its secondary deception is the crave for more 
that it ultimately engenders. Like morphia, it creates a craving for 
itself. — W. A. Chappie, M. D.; cited in "Shall I Drink?" by Joseph H. 
Crooker, pp. 9, 10. New York: The Pilgrim Press, 1914. 

Health and Temperance, Alcohol a Habit-Foeming Drug.- — Scien- 
tists differ as to the fractional value of alcohol as a food. Physicians 
differ upon the minor value of alcohol as a medicine. Scientific and 
medical men agree that alcohol is a drug, and that it belongs to the 
group of habit-forming drugs which beget pleasurable but destructive 
effects. All of them agree that alcohol predisposes the user to disease, 
and is a common cause of insanity. All of them agree that the habitual 
and even moderate use of alcohol induces tissue handicapped by a nerv- 
ous system prone to insanity, epilepsy, and other major faults. — Rich- 
ard Glding Beard, M. D., Professor of Physiology, University of Minne- 
sota; quoted in the Pioneer, Toronto, May 26, 1916. 

Health and Temperance, Scientific Congress on Nature oe Alco- 
hol. — In the summer of 1909 an international conference on alcoholism 
was held in London, to which most of the great nations sent scientific 
men or delegates. Comparing the results of investigation made in all 
parts of the world, finding that these results agreed, representative 
medical leaders of the conference drew up a report in the form of a 
statement defining the nature of alcohol, as follows: 

" Exact laboratory, clinical, and pathological research has demon- 
strated that alcohol is a dehydrating, protoplasmic poison, and its use as 
a beverage is destructive and degenerating to the human organism. Its 
effects upon the cells and tissues of the body are depressive, narcotic, 
and anesthetic. Therefore, therapeutically, its use should be limited 
and restricted in the same way as the use of other poisonous drugs." — 
" Speech of Hon. Richmond P. Hobson, in the House of Representatives. 
Feb. 2, 1911," pp. 2, 3. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1912. 

Health and Temperance, Alcohol a Poison. — The last word of sci- 
ence, after exact research in all the domains, is that alcohol is a poison. 
It has been found to be a hydrocarbon of the formula. C 2 H 6 0, that is 
produced by the process of fermentation, and is the toxin, or liquid ex- 
cretion or waste product, of the yeast or ferment germ. According to 
the universal law of biology, that the toxin of one form of life is a 
poison to all forms of life of a higher order, alcohol, the toxin of the low 



198 



HEALTH AND TEMPERANCE. 



yeast germ, is a protoplasmic poison to all life, whether plant, animal, 
or man, and to all the living tissues and organs. — Id., p. S. 

Health and Temperance, Alcohol Paralyzes the Powers of Re- 
sistance. — Nearly all the diseases of mankind and nearly all the deaths 
hang upon the vitality and vigor of the white blood corpuscles. Under 
the microscope it was found that even a moderate drink of alcoholic 
beverage passing quickly into the blood paralyzes the white blood cor- 
puscles. They behave like drunken men. In pursuit they cannot catch 
the disease germs. In conflict they cannot hold the disease germs for 
devouring, and they cannot operate in great phalanxes, as they do when 
sober, against such powerful germs as those of consumption. Every 
time a man takes a drink of alcoholic beverage, he lays himself open 
for a time to contracting diseases. Every time a man takes a drink, he 
puts his life in peril. No wonder the mortality statistics show, as they 
do, that a total abstainer has nearly twice the security and hold on life 
that the average drinker has, and about three times the hold of heavy 
drinkers. — Id., p. 4. 

Health and Temperance, Railroads and the Use of Alcoholic 
Drink. — We received answers from ten railroads having over 400,000 
employees. . . . There has been a marked change in attitude among 
these corporations since the government study of twenty years ago. 
At that time there was a large number of railroad organizations that 
had no rule in regard to the use of alcohol and made no attempt to 
reduce its consumption among their employees. Now, apparently, it is 
difficult for a man to secure a position in the operating branches unless 
he is a teetotaler; and any employee is liable to lose his position if he 
indulges in intoxicants or frequents places where alcoholic beverages 
are sold. — " Railroads and the Use of Alcohol," in the Monthly Bulletin 
of the Department of Health of the City of Neio< York, June, 1916, pp. 
160-16 B. 

Health and Temperance, Alcohol and Degeneracy. — The physi- 
cians in charge of our insane asylums and our institutions for the care 
of the mentally deficient, have given us a tremendous amount of statis- 
tical information during the past few years; and under the heading of 
the principal causes of insanity, apoplexy, mental deficiency, moral de- 
generacy, and criminal tendencies, alcohol is given the prime etiological 
place. — " The Baneful Influences of Alcohol,' 9 J. Wallace Beveridge, 
M. D., in Medical Times, September, 1914, p. 281. 

Health and Temperance, Lincoln's Plan for Reform. — " Merwin, 
we have cleared up, with the help of the people, a colossal job. Slavery 
is abolished. After reconstruction, the next great question will be the 
overthrow and abolition of the liquor traffic; and you know, Merwin, 
that my head and heart and hand and purse will go into that work. In 
1842 — less than a quarter of a century ago — I predicted, under the 
influence of God's Spirit, that the time would come when there would be 
neither a slave nor a drunkard in the land. Thank God, I have lived to 
see one of those prophecies fulfilled. I hope to see the other realized." 
Major Merwin was so impressed by this remarkable statement that he 
said, " Mr. Lincoln, shall I publish this from you? " " Yes," was his 
prompt and emphatic reply, " publish it as wide as the daylight shines." 
—"Latest Light on Abraham Lincoln" Ervin 8. Chapman, D. D., p. 174. 
New York: Fleming H. Revell Company. 

Note. — Major Merwin started for New York immediately after this conver- 
sation, and the next morning heard that Lincoln had been shot. — Eds. 



HEALTH AND TEMPERANCE. 



199 



Health and Temperance, The Liquob Tbaffio. — I hate it for the 
load it straps to labor's back, for its wounds to genius. I hate it for 
the human wrecks it has caused. I hate it for the almshouses it peo- 
ples, for the prisons it fills, for the insanity it begets, for its countless 
graves in potters' fields. 

I hate it for the mental ruin it imposes upon its victims, for its 
spiritual blight, for its moral degradation. I hate it for the crimes it 
has committed. I hate it for the homes it has destroyed. I hate it for 
the hearts it has broken. I hate it for the grief it causes womanhood 
— the scalding tears, the hopes deferred, the strangled aspirations. I 
hate it for its heartless cruelty to the aged, the infirm, and the helpless, 
for the shadow it throws upon the lives of children. 

I hate it as virtue hates vice, as truth hates error, as righteousness 
hates sin, as justice hates wrong, as liberty hates tyranny, as freedom 
hates oppression. — Ex-Governor J. Frank Hanly, of Indiana; cited in 
" The Shadow of the Bottle," p. SO. 

Health and Temperance, Cardinal Gibbons on Intempebance. — 
The great curse of the laboring man is intemperance. It has brought 
more desolation to the wage-earners than strikes, or war, or sickness, or 
death. It is a more unrelenting tyrant than the grasping monopolist. 
It has caused little children to be hungry and cold, to grow up among 
evil associates, to be reared without the knowledge of God. It has 
broken up more homes and wrecked more lives than any other curse on 
the face of the earth. — Cardinal Gibbons, of Baltimore; cited in "The 
Shadow of the Bottle" p. 102. 

Health and Temperance, Tobacco in Abctic Cold. — Tobacco is 
equally or more objectionable in polar work. It affects the wind en- 
durance of a man, particularly in low temperatures, adds an extra and 
entirely unnecessary article to the outfit, vitiates the atmosphere of 
tent or igloo, and, when the supply gives out, renders the user a nui- 
sance to himself and those about him. — " The Secrets of Polar Travel," 
Rear-Admiral Robert E. Peary, p. 77. 

Health and Temperance, Nansen on Tobacco. — Though tobacco is 
less destructive than alcohol, still, whether it is smoked or chewed, it 
has an extremely harmful effect upon men who are engaged in severe 
physical exertion, and not least so when the supply of food is not abun- 
dant. Tobacco has not only an injurious influence upon the digestion, 
but it lessens the strength of the body, and reduces nervous power, 
capacity for endurance, and tenacity of purpose. — "First Crossing of 
Greenland," Fridtjof Nansen, p. 41. 

Health and Temperance, Nansen on Tea, Coffee, and Otheb Stim- 
ulants. — My experience, however, leads me to take a decided stand 
against the use of stimulants and narcotics of all kinds, from tea and 
coffee on the one hand, to tobacco and alcoholic drinks on the other. 
It must be a sound principle at all times that one should live in as nat- 
ural and simple a way as possible, and especially must this be the case 
when the life is a life of severe exertion in an extremely cold climate. 
The idea that one gains by stimulating the body and mind by artificial 
means betrays, in my opinion, not only ignorance of the simplest physio- 
logical laws, but also a want of experience, or perhaps a want of capacity 
to learn from experience by observation. It seems indeed quite simple 
and obvious that one can get nothing in this life without paying for it 
in one way or another, and that artificial stimulants, even if they had 
not the directly injurious effect which they undoubtedly have, can pro- 



200 



HEALTH AN1> TEMPERANCE. 



duce nothing but a temporary excitement followed by a corresponding 
reaction. — Id., pp. 40, 41. 

Health and Temperance, John Wesley's Letter on Tea. — " But I 
cannot leave it off; for it helps my health. Nothing else agrees with 
me." I answer, First, Will nothing else agree with you? I know not 
how to believe that. . . . Secondly, If in fact nothing else will, if tea 
has already weakened your stomach and impaired your digestion to 
such a degree, it has hurt you more than you are aware; it has preju- 
diced your health extremely. You have need to abhor it as deadly poi- 
son, and to renounce it from this very hour. . . . How few understand, 
' Whether ye eat or drink, or whatever ye do, do all to the glory of 
God.' And how glad ought you to be of a fair occasion to observe that 
though the kingdom of God does not consist in meats and drinks, yet 
without exact temperance in these, we cannot have either righteousness 
or peace or joy in the Holy Ghost. — " Letter to a Friend on Tea." John 
Wesley, dated Dec. 10, 1748. (Tract in British Museum Library.) 

Health and Temperance, What the Smoker Inhales and Exhales. 
— If all boys could be made to know that with every breath of cigarette 
smoke they inhale imbecility and exhale manhood; that they are tap- 
ping their arteries as surely and letting their life blood out as truly as 
though their veins and arteries were severed, and that the cigarette is 
a maker of invalids, criminals, and fools, not men, — it ought to deter 
them some. — Hudson Maxim; cited in Youth's Instructor, Washington. 
D. C, Aug. 28, 1917. 

Health and Temperance, Importance of Preserving the Nerves 
Unimpaired. — I never contracted the habit of smoking tobacco, and from 
my youth I always regarded as a pitiful object an engraver endeavoring 
to engrave with a pipe in his mouth, or dividing his attention between 
his cigarette and his burin. Our nerves are undoubtedly our most pre- 
cious possession, and in proportion as we realize this will we abstain 
from anything that tends, even remotely, to affect them deleteriously. — 
Timothy Cole (the famous wood-engraver), in Youth's Instructor. Wash- 
ington, D. C, Aug. 28, 1917. 

Health and Temperance, the Need for Immediate Action. — Every 
year finds King Tobacco more firmly intrenched, his resources vaster, 
his followers more numerous, their chains more firmly riveted. Every 
year we delay in our fight against it, makes the warfare more difficult. 
There is immediate need that the churches take determined action. 
The enemy's progress has been at the rate of five hundred per cent a 
decade. What has been ours? — Amos R. Wells; quoted in Youth's In- 
structor, Washington, D. C, Aug. 28, 1917. 

Health and Temperance, Tobacco, Injurious Effects of. — It leads 
to impaired nutrition of the nerve centers. 

It is a fertile cause of neuralgia, vertigo, and indigestion. 

It irritates the mouth and throat, and thus destroys the purity of 
the voice. 

By excitation of the optic nerves it provokes amaurosis and other 
defects of vision. 

It causes a tremulous hand and an intermittent pulse. 

One of its conspicuous effects is to develop irritability of the heart. 

It retards the cell change upon which the development of the ado- 
lescent depends. 

It will be remembered that when the Boer War broke out, 11,000 
volunteered for service in the Manchester District alone; 8,000 of whom 



HERESY. 



201 



were at once rejected as physically unfit, and only 1,200 finally passed 
the doctors. The chief cause of unfitness was proved to be smoking by 
boys and young men. — Dr. A. E. Gilson, of the United States Navy; 
quoted in Youth's Instructor, Washington, D. G., Aug. 28, 1917. 

Health and Temperance, Tobacco One of the Greatest of Modern 
Evils. — No, I do not smoke. Tobacco is one of the greatest evils of the 
modern world. It is one of the great degenerators of the race. None 
of my direct ancestry, as far back as I am able to trace, ever used 
tobacco, consequently tobacco is unusually poisonous to me through 
lack of immunity. Up to the time I was thirty-five years old I found 
the use of tobacco by others an insufferable nuisance. Frequently I 
would become so poisoned by tobacco smoke as to be ill for days. One 
time while in London, attending a dinner, I was made sick for six weeks. 
— Hudson Maxim (inventor), in Youth's Instructor, Washington, D. G., 
Aug. 28, 1917. 

Health and Temperance, The Cigarette and Railway Service. — 
George Baumhoff, superintendent of the Lindell Railway, St. Louis, once 
said: "Under no circumstances will I hire a man who smokes cigarettes. 
He is as dangerous at the front end of a motor as the man who drinks; 
in fact, he is more dangerous. His nerves are bound to give way at a 
critical moment. A motorman needs his nerve all the time, and a ciga- 
rette smoker cannot stand the strain." — New York Journal, May 19. 
1911. 

Health and Temperance, the Cigarette Habit a Serious Handi- 
cap. — The boy or the young man whose brain is fogged by the use of 
cigarettes finds himself hopelessly handicapped. His services are ac- 
cepted only as a last resort; and if there is any one else available, he 
is not intrusted with important matters or considered for future pos- 
sibilities. 

This is the testimony of men in every walk of life, . . . men who 
have made good, and who know exactly why some boys succeed and 
why others make a sorry failure of anything they attempt. 

But the most any one can do is to point out the dangers that con- 
front you. You must avoid them if you play safe. If you are not 
already enslaved, the safest and easiest way to escape the danger is to 
follow the advice of Pliny the Elder, who is wise in our generation as 
well as in his own, and " profit by the folly of others," by avoiding ciga- 
rettes. — Henry Ford, in his cigarette bulletin, "The Little White 
Slaver," No. 4; cited in Youth's Instructor. Washington, D. G., Aug. 28, 
1917. 

Health and Temperance, Cigarettes Affect Boys as Sand Does a 
Watch. — I have never used tobacco in any form, and being of a nerv- 
ous temperament, I am entirely satisfied that I should not have sur- 
vived if I had. Many of my young friends are now in their graves, 
undoubtedly from cigarette smoking alone. I have never met any 
person who thought that cigarettes were beneficial to any one, under any 
circumstances. Why do people use them? That is too much for me, for 
the effect of them on boys is exactly like that of sand in a watch. — 
Luther Burbank, in Youth's Instructor, Washington, D. C., Aug. 28, 1917. 

Heresy. — A view or opinion not in accord with the prevalent stand- 
ards. The Greek word hairesis, meaning originally a choice, then a 
self-chosen belief, is applied by the Fathers as early as the third cen- 
tury to a deviation from the fundamental Christian faith, which was 



202 



HERESY. 



punished by exclusion from the church. Prom the end of the fourth 
century the emperors accepted the view that they were bound to use 
their temporal power against heretics for the maintenance of purity of 
doctrine; Theodosius the Great attempted to exterminate heretics by a 
system of penalties, which was extended by his successors and main- 
tained by Justinian. Any deviation from the orthodox belief might be 
punished by infamy, incapacity to hold office or give testimony, banish- 
ment, and confiscation of property; the death penalty was only pre- 
scribed for certain sects, such as the Manichean. The severer pun- 
ishments were imposed on the leaders of heretical sects, or for the 
conferring and receiving of orders within them and for public gather- 
ings. 

This legislation was not accepted in the Merovingian kingdom, 
which left it to the church to combat heresy with spiritual weapons; 
the Visigothic law, on the other hand, took the same standpoint as the 
Roman. The Carolingian period provided penalties for the practice of 
paganism; but in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the rise and 
spread of heretical sects, especially the Cathari, led to active eccle- 
siastical legislation against heresy. As early as the eleventh century, 
the secular authorities in France and Germany had punished individual 
heretics with death, and the councils of the twelfth declared them bound 
to use their power in this way. 

While Frederick I and II, and Louis VIII, IX, and X of France 
were enacting laws of this kind, the ecclesiastical view that heresy 
came by right before the church's tribunal led to the erection of special 
church courts with a procedure of their own. 

In the present Roman Catholic practice, heresy is the wilful holding 
by a baptized person of doctrines which contradict any article of faith 
defined by the Catholic Church, or which have been condemned by a 
pope or a general council as heretical, provided that the holder knows 
the right faith and makes open profession of his departure from it. 
. . . Theoretically, the Roman Catholic Church still holds to the old 
severe legislation, and as late as 1878 Leo XIII confirmed a ruling of 
the cardinal vicar based on these principles in relation to those who 
attended Protestant services in Rome. But the altered position of the 
church in modern times permits only the imposition of ecclesiastical 
penalties. — The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowl- 
edge, Vol. V, art. " Heresy" pp. 234, 235. New York: Funk and Wag- 
nalls Company. 

Heresy, Guilt of, Defined. — The theory [of fundamental arti- 
cles] is repugnant to the nature of Christian faith as understood by the 
church. According to her teaching, the essential note of this faith lies 
in the complete and unhesitating acceptance of the whole depositum on 
the ground that it is the revealed word of God. The conscious rejection 
of a single article of this deposit is sufficient to render a man guilty of 
heresy. The question is not as to the relative importance of the article 
in question, but solely as to whether it has been revealed by God to 
man. . . . The Catholic Church knows of one and only one test to de- 
termine this question of membership in Christ's body. This test does 
not lie in the acceptance of this or that particular doctrine, but in com- 
munion with the apostolic hierarchy. — The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. 
VI, art. " Fundamental Articles," p. 320. 

Heresy a Crime. — In all these states [into which the Roman Em- 
pire was divided] heresy was generally regarded as a crime, not less 
opposed to public order and to the good of society than to the honor of 
God and of religion. With such severity was it punished, that during 



HERETICS. 



203 



many centuries its partisans or abettors dared not appear; and hardly a 
single example of it appears in the kingdoms of France, Spain, or Eng- 
land, from the conversion of these kingdoms to the Catholic faith until 
the close of the ninth century.* An obstinate heretic was immediately 
prosecuted by the two powers, and cut off from society as a rotten mem- 
ber; exile or perpetual imprisonment was the ordinary penalty of his 
impiety. It was thus that a Monothelite heretic was treated in France 
in the year 639; and some other innovators who endeavored to pervert 
the people.2 — "Library of Translations: The Power of the Pope During 
the Middle Ages" M. Gosselin (R. C), Vol. I, p. 86. London: C. Dolman, 
1853. 

Heresy and the Deposing Power. — In 1876 Cardinal Manning 
'committed the work of editing" Cardinal Allen's Letters to the 
Brompton Oratorians. The book was published in 1882. In the intro- 
duction to this volume it is affirmed that " the relation which ought to 
exist between the Church [of Rome] and a temporal sovereign " (p. 26) 
is that which obtained " in the Middle Ages." That relation is de- 
scribed in the introduction in the following terms: 

" It was chiefly in the case of heresy that the Pope had recourse to 
his deposing power. Other sins might be tolerated for a time in a 
sovereign, and their evil effects abated by lesser remedies; but not so 
heresy, which, under the protection of an heretical sovereign, will soon 
pervert a nation. Hence the greatness of the evil- calls for prompt and 
unsparing measures. No monarch so manifestly uses his authority for 
the destruction, not the good, of the commonwealth as the heretical 
prince. No one, therefore, so justly deserves to lose his throne as he. 
It was, in fact, an axiom in those days that the heretic, whatever his 
degree, was an enemy and alien to the Christian commonwealth, and 
that, so long as he continued in heresy, he had no part or lot with 
Christian men. . . . Hence no one saw ground for complaint when the 
church punished heretics or delivered them over to the civil power for 
punishment, and men greeted as an act of supreme justice the solemn 
deposition of an heretical king" (p. 27). — "Notes on the Papal Claims,"" 
Arthur Brinckman, p. 213. London: A. R. Mowbray & Co., 1910. 

Heresy, to Deny Both Temporal and Spiritual Power to the 
Roman Catholic Church. — All those are branded with the error of 
heresy who take away from the Roman Church, the chair of Peter, one 
of the two swords, and concede only the spiritual. — Annal. Baron. 
An. 1053, Sec. XIV (The Annals of Baronius for the year 1053, sec. 14). 

Heresy, to Deny Primacy of Peter. — It is a pernicious heresy to 
deny that the primacy of blessed Peter was instituted by Christ. — De 
Romano Pontifice, Bellarm., Tom. I, lib. 1, cap. x, par. 2 (On the Roman 
Pontiff, Bellarmine, Vol. I, book 1, chap. 10, par. 2). 

Heretics Defined. — 26. What is a heretic? 

A heretic is any baptized person, professing Christianity, and choos- 
ing for himself what to believe and what not to believe as he pleases, 
in obstinate opposition to any particular truth which he knows is taught 
by the Catholic Church as a truth revealed by God. . . . 

30. How many kinds of heretics (Protestants) are there? 

1 Thomassin, " Traite des tdits," Vol. I, chap. 57, note 2 ; Vol. II, chap. 13, 
note 1 ; etc. Lingard, " Antiquities of the Anglo-Saxon Church," chap. 6, p. 226. 
Daniel, ' Hist, de France/' Vol. IV, p. 153. 

2 Fleury, " Hist. Eecl," Vol. VIII. book 37. note 40. "Hist, de I'Uglise 
Gallicane/' Vol. Ill, ann. 639. 



204 



HERETICS. 



There are three kinds of heretics: 

(1) Those who are guilty of the sin of heresy. 

(2) Those who are not guilty of the sin of heresy, but commit 
other grievous sins. 

(3) Those who are not guilty of the sin of heresy and live up to 
the dictates of their conscience. ... 

38. Can a Christian be saved, who has left the true church of Christ, 
the Holy Catholic Church? 

No; because the church of Christ is the kingdom of God on earth, 
and he who leaves that kingdom, shuts himself out from the kingdom 
of Christ in heaven. 

39. Have Protestants left the true church of Christ? 
Protestants left the true church of Christ, in their founders, who 

left the Catholic Church, either through pride, or through the passion 
of lust and covetousness. 

40. Who were the first Protestants? 
The first Protestants were: 

(1) Martin Luther, a bad German priest, who left his convent, 
broke the solemn vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, which he 
had made to God, married a nun, and became the founder of the 
Lutherans. 

(2) Henry VIII, a bad Catholic king of England, who murdered 
his wives, and founded the Episcopalian or Anglican Church. 

(3) John Calvin, a wicked French Catholic, who was the founder 
of the Calvinists. 

(4) John Knox, a bad Scottish priest, who was the founder of the 
Presbyterians or Puritans. 

41. What great crime did these wicked men commit? 

Those authors of heresies rebelled against the church of Jesus 
Christ, and caused a great number of their Catholic countrymen to 
follow their bad example. 

42. What will be the punishment of those who wilfully rebel 
against the Holy Catholic Church? 

Those who wilfully rebel against the Holy Catholic Church, will, 
like Lucifer, and the other rebellious angels, be cast into the everlast- 
ing flames of hell. — " Familiar Explanation of Catholic Doctrine'' Rev. 
M. Miiller (R. C), No. IV, pp. 170, 171, 176, 177. New York: Benziger 
Brothers, Printers to the Holy Apostolic See. 

A heretic is one who is baptized and claims to be a Christian, but 
does not believe all the truths that our Lord has taught. He accepts 
only a portion of the doctrine of Christ and rejects the remainder, and, 
hence, is a rebellious child of the church. By baptism he belongs to the 
true church, but does not submit to its teaching, and is therefore an 
outcast child, disinherited until he returns to the faith. — Benziger' s 
Magazine (R. C), September, 1915. 

Heretics, Keeping Faith with. — No one is obliged to keep faith 
with excommunicated persons until they have been reconciled. — The De- 
cretum of Gratian,* part 2, case 15, ques. 6. par. 5. 

Christians should not regard the sanctity of an oath towards him 
who is the enemy of God and who tramples underfeet the decrees of 



1 Gratian's collection obtained great authority and superseded all other 
collections ; yet it remained a private compilation, was never clothed with an 
official character, or approved by the Holy See. — "Elements of Ecclesiastical 
Law/' Rev. S. B. Smith, D. D. (R. C.J, Vol. I, p. 69 (Book I, part 1, chap. 9, par. 
156) New York: Benziger Brothers, 1877. 



HERETICS. 



205 



the church. — From the Anathema of Gregory IX against Frederick II 
of Germany, " History of the Popes," Be Gormenin, Vol. I, p. 470. 

" It pertains also to the punishment and to the hatred of heretics 
that faith given to them must not be kept; for if faith is not to be 
kept with tyrants, pirates, and other public robbers because they slay 
the body, much less is it to be kept with obstinate heretics because they 
slay the soul." 

Rightly, therefore, were certain heretics consigned to lawful flames 
by the judgment of the grave Council of Constance, although their 
safety had been promised to them; and blessed Thomas [St. Thomas 
Aquinas] likewise holds, that an intractable heretic is to be delivered 
up to the judges, notwithstanding the faith and oath by which he may 
have bound a Catholic. — Simanca [a Portuguese Roman Catholic 
bishop], "On Catholic Institutions;" cited in "Delineation of Roman 
Catholicism." Rev. CJias. Elliott, D. D., p. 572. London: John Mason, 
1844. 

Yet further, it [the General Synod of Trent] promises in true and 
good faith, all guile and deceit being excluded, that the said synod will 
neither openly nor covertly seek for any opportunity, nor make use of, 
nor suffer any one to make use of, any authority, power, right, or stat- 
ute, privilege of laws or canons, or of any councils soever, especially 
those of Constance and Siena, under what form soever of words ex- 
pressed; to the prejudice in any way of this public faith, and most full 
security, and of the public and free hearing, granted by this said synod 
to the above-named; as it suspends the force of the aforesaid [acts] in 
this instance and for this occasion. — Extract from a decree of the eight- 
eenth session of the Council of Trent, "History of the Councils," Labbe 
and Cossart (R. C), Vol. XIV, col. 844. 

Heretics and Safe-Conducts. — This present sacred synod [of Con- 
stance] declares that whatsoever safe-conduct, granted by the emperor, 
kings, or other secular princes to heretics, or such as are defamed for 
heresy, and by whatsoever bond they have obliged themselves to the 
observance of it, no prejudice can arise, no impediment can or ought 
to be put to the Catholic faith, or other ecclesiastical jurisdiction, but 
that (notwithstanding the safe-conduct) it may be lawful for any com- 
petent and ecclesiastical judge to inquire into the errors of such persons, 
and duly otherways proceed against them, and punish them so far as 
justice shall require, if they shall pertinaciously refuse to revoke their 
errors; yea, though they come to the place of judgment, relying upon 
such safe-conduct, and would not otherwise come thither; nor doth he 
who so promiseth, remain obliged in anything, when he has done what 
lies in him. — "History of the Councils," Labbe and Cossart (R. C), 
Vol. XII, cols. 169, 170. 

Heretics, Safe-Conduct of Huss. — " The Holy Synod [of Con- 
stance] decrees: Forasmuch as certain persons presumptuously or with 
a sinister intention, or wishing to be wise above what is right, not only 
calumniate the emperor, but also this Sacred Council with slanderous 
tongues, publicly and secretly saying or insinuating that the safe- 
conduct given by the most invincible Prince Sigismund, king of the 
Romans, Hungary, etc., to John Huss, the Heresiarch, of execrable mem- 
ory, was unduly violated, contrary to justice or honor; although the 
said John Huss, by obstinately impugning the orthodox faith, forfeited 
all safe-conduct and privileges, and no faith or promise was to be kept 
with him by natural law, either human or divine, to the prejudice of 
the Catholic faith; therefore, the said Holy Synod declares by the tenor 



206 



HERETICS. 



of these presents, that the said most Invincible Prince, notwithstanding 
the said safe-conduct, did what he could and what became his Imperial 
Majesty, with respect to the said John Huss; and it enjoins and forbids 
all and singular Christians of whatever dignity, grade, preeminence, 
condition, state, or sex, henceforth to slander or in any way disparage 
the Sacred Council or the Imperial Majesty for their deeds in the mat- 
ter of John Huss: and it decrees that whosoever transgresses this com- 
mand, shall be punished without pardon as an abettor of heresy, and 
guilty of high treason." 

Such is the second decree of the Sacred Ecumenical Synod of Con- 
stance, concerning John Huss. — " Sequel to Letters to M. Gondon, On 
the Destructive Character of the Church of Rome," Chr. Wordsworth, 
D. D., pp. 151-153. London: Francis and John Rivington, 1848. 

Heretics, Lord Acton on Keeping Faith with. — In the religious 
struggle a frenzy had been kindled which made weakness violent, and 
turned good men into prodigies of ferocity; and at Rome, where every 
loss inflicted on Catholicism and every wound was felt, the belief that, 
in dealing with heretics, murder is better than toleration prevailed 
for half a century. The predecessor of Gregory had been Inquisitor- 
General. In his eyes Protestants were worse than pagans, and Luther- 
ans more dangerous than other Protestants. 

The Capuchin preacher, Pistoja, bore witness that men were hanged 
and quartered almost daily at Rome; and Pius declared that he would 
release a culprit guilty of a hundred murders rather than one obstinate 
heretic. He seriously contemplated razing the town of Faenza because 
it was infested with religious error, and he recommended a similar 
expedient to the king of France. He adjured him to hold no intercourse 
with the Huguenots, to make no terms with them, and not to observe 
the terms he had made. He required that they should be pursued to 
the death, that not one should be spared under any pretense, that all 
prisoners should suffer death. He threatened Charles with the punish- 
ment of Saul when he forebore to exterminate the Amalekites. He told 
him that it was his mission to avenge the injuries of the Lord, and that 
nothing is more cruel than mercy to the impious. When he sanctioned 
the murder of Elizabeth, he proposed that it should be done in execu- 
tion of his sentence against her. It became usual with those who medi- 
tated assassination or regicide on the plea of religion to look upon the 
representatives of Rome as their natural advisers. . . . 

The theory which was framed to justify these practices has done 
more than plots and massacres to cast discredit on the Catholics. This 
theory was as follows: Confirmed heretics must be rigorously punished 
whenever it can be done without the probability of greater evil to reli- 
gion. Where that is feared, the penalty may be suspended or delayed 
for a season, provided it be inflicted whenever the danger is past. 
Treaties made with heretics, and promises given to them, must not be 
kept, because sinful promises do not bind, and no agreement is lawful 
which may injure religion or ecclesiastical authority. No civil power 
may enter into engagements which impede the free scope of the church's 
law. It is part of the punishment of heretics that faith shall not be 
kept with them. It is even mercy to kill them, that they may sin no 
more. — » Th e History of Freedom and Other Essays," John Emerich 
Edward Dalberg-ActKyp (R. C); edited by John Neville Figgis, Litt. D., 
and Reginald Vere Laurence, M. A., pp. 138-141. London: Macmillan 
& Co., 1909. 

Heretics, Facts Concerning Keeping Faith with. — The Third 
Lateran Council, which was held at Rome in 1167 [1179] under the pon- 



HERETICS. 



207 



tificate of Alexander III, and which all papists admit to be infallible, 
decreed in its sixteenth canon, that " oaths made against the interest 
and benefit of the church are not so much to be considered as oaths, but 
as perjuries." i The fourth or great Lateran Council absolved from 
their oath of allegiance the subjects of heretical princes. 

The Council of Constance, which was holden in 1414, expressly 
decreed that no faith was to be kept with heretics. The words of this 
decree, as preserved by M. L'Enfant, in his learned history of that 
famous council, are, that " by no law, natural or divine, is it obligatory 
to keep faith with heretics, to the prejudice of the Catholic faith." 2 
This fearful doctrine the council ratified in a manner not less fearful, 
in the blood of John Huss. It is well known that this Reformer came 
to the council trusting in a safe-conduct, which had been given him 
under the hand of the emperor Sigismund. The document in the 
amplest terms guaranteed the safety of Huss, in his journey to Con- 
stance, in his stay there, and in his return home. Notwithstanding, he 
was seized, imprisoned, condemned, and burnt alive, at the instigation 
of the council, by the very man who had so solemnly guaranteed his 
safety. 

When the Council of Trent assembled in the sixteenth century, it 
was exceedingly desirous of obtaining the presence of the Protestants at 
its deliberations. Accordingly, it issued numerous equivocal safe-con- 
ducts, all of which the Protestants, mindful of the fate of Huss, rejected. 
At last the council decreed, that for this time, and in this instance, the 
safe-conduct should not be violated, and that no " authority, power, 
statute, or decree, and especially that of the Councils of Constance and 
Siena," should be employed against them. In this enactment of the 
Council of Trent, canons, decrees, and laws, to the prejudice of safe- 
conducts to heretics, are expressly recognized as already existing. These 
decrees are not revoked or abjured by the council; they are only sus- 
pended for the time, — " pro hac vice." This is a plain declaration, that 
on all other occasions Rome means to act upon them, and will, when- 
ever she has the power. There has been no general council since; and 
as no decree of the Pope has repudiated the doctrine of these decrees 
and canons, they must be regarded as still in force. — " The Papacy: Its 
History, Dogmas, Genius, and Prospects," Rev. J. A. Wylie, LL. D., pp. 
379-381. London: Hamilton, Adams & Co., 1889. 

Note. — This was written before 1870. — Eds. 

Heretics, Sentenced to Death by the Church. — Therefore we 
conclude that the church cannot of itself put to death any one, but 
nevertheless it has the right to sentence obstinate or relapsed heretics, 
not only to corporal punishments, but also to condemn to capital 
punishment, if it shall have judged it expedient; whence those enemies 
of the faith equally err from the truth who falsely charge that the 
church has of itself consigned some heretics to the pyre, and many 
Catholic apologists, who think that all sentences of death must be 
attributed to the secular power, or timidly concede that the church, 
yielding to the spirit of the times, has deviated a little in this matter. 
History surely testifies that the Roman Inquisition, if not in express 
words, at least in equivalent terms, has sentenced heretics to capital 
punishment, to be inflicted without fail by the secular arm, with mani- 
fold censures lest it fail of its duty; who, then, would dare to say that 
the church has erred in so serious a matter? — " Be Stabilitate et Pro- 
gressit Dogmatis" Alexius M. Lepicier (R. C), p. 203. Rome, 1910. 

lte Non quasi juramenta, sed quasi perjuria." 

2 "Nec aliqua sibi fides, ant promissio de jure naturali, divino, et humano, 
fuerit in prejudicium Catholics fidei observanda." 



208 



HERETICS. 



Heretics, Extermination of, Justified. — With regard to heretics 
two elements are to be considered, one element on their side, and the 
other on the part of the church. On their side is the sin whereby they 
have deserved, not only to be separated from the church by excommu- 
nication, but also to be banished from the world by death. For it is 
a much heavier offense to corrupt the faith, whereby the life of the soul 
is sustained, than to tamper with the coinage, which is an aid to tem- 
poral life. Hence if coiners or other malefactors are at once handed 
over by secular princes to a just death, much more may heretics, im- 
mediately they are convicted of heresy, be not only excommunicated, 
but also justly done to die. But on the part of the church is mercy in 
view of the conversion of them that err; and therefore she does not 
condemn at once, but " after the first and second admonition," as the 
apostle teaches. After that, however, if the man is still found perti- 
nacious, the church, having no hope of his conversion, provides for the 
safety of others, cutting him off from the church by the sentence of 
excommunication; and further she leaves him to the secular tribunal 
to be exterminated from the world by death. — "Aquinas Ethicus; or. 
The Moral Teaching of St. Thomas;' Joseph Rickaby, S. J. (R. C), Vol. I, 
pp. 332, 333. London: Burns and Oates, 1892. 

Heretics, to be Put to Death. — In actual fact, the church at first 
dealt more leniently with heretics, excommunicating them, confiscating 
their property . . . till at last she was compelled to inflict the extreme 
penalty; "secondly, experience shows (says Bellarm., " Be Laicis" I. 
3, c. 21) that there is no other remedy: for the church gradually ad- 
vanced, and tried every means, first excommunication alone, then a 
pecuniary fine was added, then exile, finally she was compelled to 
fall back on death [the capitals here are the author's own]. Heretics 
despise excommunication and say that that bolt is powerless; if you 
threaten them with a pecuniary fine, they neither fear God nor respect 
men, knowing that they will find fools enough to believe them and sup- 
port them. If you imprison them or send them into exile, they corrupt 
those near them with their words and those at a distance with their 

bOOkS. SO THE ONLY REMEDY IS TO SEND THEM SOON TO THEIR OWN PLACE 

[capitals are the author's]. The society of the church and its public 
order, against the disturbance of which there are many ecclesiastical 
charges, must necessarily be preserved, that men's souls may be sanc- 
tified by the true faith and good works, and that they may gain eternal 
salvation. — " Institutiones Juris Ecclesiastici Publici" (Institutes of 
Public Ecclesiastical Law), P. Marianus de Luca, 8. J. (R. C), Profes- 
sor in the Gregorian University of Rome, Vol. I, p. 143. 1901. 

Note. — This work was highly recommended by Pope Leo XIII. — Eds. 

Heretics, to be Punished with Death. — He who publicly avows 
a heresy and tries to pervert others by word or example, speaking abso- 
lutely, can not only be excommunicated but even justly put to death, 
lest he ruin others by pestilential contagion; for a bad man is worse 
than a wild beast, and does more harm, as Aristotle says. Hence, as it 
is not wrong to kill a wild beast which does great harm, so it must be 
right to deprive of his harmful life a heretic who withdraws from di- 
vine truth and plots against the salvation of others. — " De Stabilitate et 
Progressu Dogmatis;' Fr. Alexius M. Lepicier. 0. 8. M. (R. C), p. 194. 
Printed at the official printing office in Rome, in 1910. 

Heretics, Edicts of Constantine Against. — Some years later, that 
is, about 325, Arius having been condemned in the Council of Nice, 



HERETICS. 



209 



Constantine published several edicts branding him as infamous, con- 
demning him and the bishops of his party to exile, ordering all his 
writings to be burned, compelling his partisans to deliver them up, and 
threatening with capital punishment all who refused. All private per- 
sons, moreover, who persisted in this error, were condemned to pay, in 
addition to their capitation tax, the tax of ten other persons. In the 
following year, a new edict restricted to the Catholics the immunities 
conferred on the clergy, and ordered that heretics and schismatics, in- 
stead of enjoying that immunity, should be subjected to heavier burdens 
than others. From this law the emperor excepted the Novatians, whom, 
it would appear, he did not regard at the time as being absolutely 
condemned; but, becoming afterwards better informed about that sect, 
he prohibited them, as well as the Valentinians, Marcionites, and all 
others, to hold any meetings, public or private; ordered that their 
churches should be given to the Catholics, that their other places of 
assembly should be confiscated, and that all their books should be dili- 
gently searched for and destroyed. — ''Library of Translations: The 
Power of the Pope During the Middle Ages" M. Gosselin (R. G), Vol. I, 
p. 78. London: C. Dolman, 1853. 

Heretics, Justinian's Law Against. — We declare forever infa- 
mous, and deprived of their rights., and condemned to exile, all heretics 
of either sex, whatever be their name; their property shall be confis- 
cated without hope of restoration, or of being transmitted to their chil- 
dren by hereditary succession, because crimes which attack the majesty 
of God are infinitely more grievous than those which attack the majesty 
of earthly princes. With regard to those who are strongly suspected of 
heresy, if, after having been ordered by the church, they do not demon- 
strate their innocence by suitable testimony, they also shall be de- 
clared infamous, and condemned to exile. — Codex Justinianus, lib. 1, 
tit. 5, n. 19; cited in "Library of Translations: The Power of the Pope 
During the Middle Ages" M. Gosselin (R. C.). Vol. I, pp. 83, 84. Lon- 
don: G. Dolman, 1853. 

Heretics to be Extirpated by Princes. — Temporal princes shall be 
reminded and exhorted, and if need be, compelled by spiritual censures, 
to discharge every one of their functions; and that, as. they desire to 
be reckoned and held faithful, so, for the defense of the faith, let them 
publicly make oath that they will endeavor, bona fide with all their 
might, to extirpate from their territories all heretics marked by the 
church; so that when any one is about to assume any authority, whether 
spiritual or temporal, he shall be held bound to confirm his title by this 
oath. And if a temporal prince, being required and admonished by the 
church, shall neglect to purge his kingdom from this heretical pravity, 
the metropolitan and other provincial bishops shall bind him. in fetters 
of excommunication; and if he obstinately refuse to make satisfaction 
this shall be notified within a year to the Supreme Pontiff, that then 
he may declare his subjects absolved from their allegiance, and leave 
their lands to be occupied by Catholics, who, the heretics being exter- 
minated, may possess them unchallenged, and preserve them in the 
purity of the faith. — " The Decretals of Gregory IX," book 5, title 7. 
chap. 13. 

Heretics, Protestants Declared to be. — In the eyes of the church, 
Protestants are heretics pure and simple; and if the name be offensive, 
it's nothing more than the offensiveness of truth. . . . 

We do not question the possibility of good faith, or of the theo- 
logical distinction between material and formal heresy. That there are 
14 



210 



H I LD ERRAND. 



among Protestants material heretics, those who in invincible ignorance 
deny some dogmas of faith while honestly believing themselves to be 
in possession of the whole deposit, is not for us or even for the church 
to positively affirm or deny. Only the all-seeing Searcher of hearts can 
know aught of that. But in our opinion, the assertion that Protestants 
in general are not to be considered as heretics, as men who have volun- 
tarily, in one or other of the many ways in which an act can be volun- 
tary, refused the light, merits unqualified condemnation as militating 
against the present economy of salvation as well as against the effi- 
ciency of the means that God infallibly gives to all who do what lies 
in their power to come into the possession of the truth. 

In this, as in all other matters of doctrine, the church alone is to 
be our guide. That the church has ever regarded Protestants as here- 
tics, has ever called them heretics, has ever conducted herself towards 
them as heretics, is undeniably true, and it ill becomes us to dictate to 
the church that her terms are " only partly true " and " unnecessarily 
offensive." 

We abominate these spineless Catholics who adopt such methods of 
kinship and co-operation with Protestants in view of their conversion. 
— The Western Watchman (R. G.), Jan. 27, 1916. 

Heretics. — See Church of Rome, 114; Fathers; Heresy; Popes, 387, 

388. 

Heruli. — See Rome, 450-452; Ten Kingdoms. 

Hildebrand, Dictates of. — There is a document known as Greg- 
ory's " Dictate " (Dictatus) which may be regarded as embodying the 
principles of his system. The origin of this piece is, indeed, uncertain. 
Some have supposed it to have been drawn up by the Pope himself; and 
here again we have a consent between the extreme Romanists, who 
think both him and the Dictate perfectly right, and the extreme Prot- 
estants, who abominate both Gregory and the principles ascribed to him 
in that document. Others hold, not only that it was not drawn up by 
Gregory, but that it is an enemy's misrepresentation of him; but this 
view would seem to have been devised, merely in order to save the 
Pope's credit, by writers of the Gallican school, who disliked the Dic- 
tate, but had no wish to quarrel with Gregory's memory. Gieseler says 
that the propositions in the Dictate look much as if they were the head- 
ings and summaries of a set of canons passed at some Roman council 
held under Gregory; and this view of their origin seems very probable. 
But, however the paper may have come into existence, it seems to be 
certain — notwithstanding the denial of the Gallican writers whom I 
have mentioned — that there is nothing in the Dictate but what might 
be paralleled from the unquestioned writings of Gregory himself, or 
from the actions in which his principles were exemplified. — " Plain Lec- 
tures on the Growth of the Papal Poiver," James Graigie Robertson, 
M. A., pp. 204, 205. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowl- 
edge. 

1. That the Romish Church was founded by our Lord alone. 

2. That the Roman Pontiff alone is justly styled universal. 

3. That he alone can depose bishops and restore them. 
9. That all princes should kiss his feet only. 

12. That it is lawful for him to depose^ emperors. 

18. That his sentence is not to be reviewed by any one; while he 
alone can review the decisions of all others. 

19. That he can be judged by no one. 

22. That the Romish Church never erred; nor will it, according to 
the Scriptures, ever err. 



HITTITES. 



211 



27. That he can absolve subjects from their allegiance to unright- 
eous rulers. — " Dictates " in " Annals of Baronius," 1076, Vol. XI, col. 
506; cited in Gieseler's " Ecclesiastical History," period 3, div. 3, par. 47, 
note 3. 

Hiidebrand. — See Papacy, Builders of, Gregory VII, 349-351. 
Hippolytus. — See Fathers, 168. 

Hittites. — It is now known that this people is to be identified 
with the Kheta of the Egyptians and the Khatti of the Assyrians. It 
will be recalled that the Egyptians under Tehutimes III waged war 
against the Kheta, as did Seti in a later succeeding generation. . . . 

At a slightly later period, when the new Assyrian Empire was 
waxing strong, the Hittites found an enemy on the other side in Tiglath- 
pileser, who defeated them in a memorable battle, as also a few cen- 
turies later did Ashurnazirpal. The latter prince, it would appear, 
completely subjected them and carried their princes into captivity. Yet 
they waxed strong again, and took up arms in alliance with Ben-Hadad 
of Syria against Shalmaneser II in the year 855; and though again 
defeated, their power was not entirely broken until the year 717 b. c, 
when Sargon utterly subjected them and deported the inhabitants of 
their city of Carchemish to a city of Assyria, repeopling it with his 
own subjects. 

All these details of the contests of the Hittites against the Egyp- 
tians on the one hand and Assyrians on the other were quite unknown 
until the records of the monuments of Egypt and Assyria were made 
accessible through the efforts of recent scholars. But it now appears, 
judged only by the records of their enemies, that the Hittites were a 
very powerful and important nation for many centuries, and more 
recent explorations of Asia Minor have brought to light various monu- 
ments, which are believed to be records made by the Hittites them- 
selves. — " The Historians' History of the World" Henry Smith Wil- 
liams, LL. D., editor, Vol. II, pp. 391, 392. New York: The Outlook 
Company, 1904. 

Holy Roman Empire, Meaning of. — The Holy Roman Empire, 
taking the name in the sense which it commonly bore in later centu- 
ries, as denoting the sovereignty of Germany and Italy vested in a 
Germanic prince, is the creation of Otto the Great. Substantially, it is 
true, as well as technically, it was a prolongation of the empire of 
Charles; and it rested (as will be shown in the sequel) upon ideas 
essentially the same as those which brought about the coronation of 
a. d. 800. But a revival is always more or less a revolution: the one 
hundred and fifty years that had passed since the death of Charles had 
brought with them changes which made Otto's position in Germany 
and Europe less commanding and less autocratic than his predecessor's. 
With narrower geographical limits, his empire had a less plausible claim 
to be the heir of Rome's universal dominion; and there were also dif- 
ferences in its inner character and structure sufficient to justify us in 
considering Otto (as he is usually considered by his countrymen) not 
a mere successor after an interregnum, but rather a second founder of 
the imperial throne in the West. — " The Holy Roman Empire," James 
Bryce, D. C. L., p. 80. London: Macmillan & Co., 1892. 

Holy Roman Empire, Duration of. — The year 888 is the birth 
year of modern Europe. France, Germany, Italy, stood distinct as 
three separate units, with Burgundy and Lorraine as debatable lands, 



212 



HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE. 



as they were destined to remain for centuries to come. If the concep- 
tion of empire was still to survive, the Pope must ultimately invite the 
ruler of the strongest of these three units to assume the imperial 
crown; and this was what happened when in 962 Pope John XII invited 
Otto I of Germany to renew once more the Roman Empire. As the 
imperial strength of the whole Frankish tribe had given them the em- 
pire in 800, so did the national strength of the East Frankish kingdom, 
now resting indeed on a Saxon rather than a Frankish basis, bring the 
empire to its ruler in 962. . . . Begun in 952, the acquisition was com- 
pleted ten years later; and all the conditions were now present for 
Otto's assumption of the imperial throne. He was crowned by John 
XII on Candlemas Day 962, and thus was begun the Holy Roman Em- 
pire, which lasted henceforth with a continuous life until 1806. — The 
Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. IX. art. " Empire," pp. 351, 352, 11th ed. 

Holy Roman Empire, Papal Idea of. — As God, in the midst of 
the celestial hierarchy, ruled blessed spirits in Paradise, so the Pope, 
his vicar, raised above priests, bishops, metropolitans, reigned over the 
souls of mortal men below. But as God is Lord of earth as well as 
of heaven, so must he (the Imperator ccelestis) be represented by a sec- 
ond earthly viceroy, the emperor (Imperator terrenus), whose author- 
ity shall be of and for this present life. And as in this present world 
the soul cannot act save through the body, while yet the body is no 
more than an instrument and means for the soul's manifestation, so 
must there be a rule and care of men's bodies as well as of their souls, 
yet subordinated always to the well-being of that which is the purer 
and the more enduring. It is under the emblem of soul and body that 
the relation of the papal and imperial power is presented to us through- 
out the Middle Ages. — " The Holy Roman Empire," James Bryce, 
D. C. L., pp. 104, 105. London: Macmillan & Co., 1892. 

Holy Roman Empire, The Double Aspect of. — Thus the Holy Ro- 
man Church and the Holy Roman Empire are one and the same thing, 
in two aspects; and Catholicism, the principle of the universal Chris- 
tian society, is also Romanism; that is, rests upon Rome as the origin 
and type of its universality; manifesting itself in a mystic dualism 
which corresponds to the two natures of its Founder. As divine and 
eternal, its head is the Pope, to whom souls have been intrusted; as 
human and temporal, the emperor, commissioned to rule men's bodies 
and acts. — Id., pp. 106, 107. 

Holy Roman Empire, Two Vicaes in. — The German king was 
the emperor, the medieval head of the Holy Roman Empire, the "king 
of the Romans." Some idea of what underlay the thought and its ex- 
pression may be had when one reads across Albert Diirer's portrait of 
Maximilian, ''Imperator Cwsar Divus Maximilianus Pius Felix Au- 
gustus" just as if he had been Trajan or Constantine. The phrase 
carries us back to the times when the Teutonic tribes swept down on 
the Roman possessions in Western Europe and took possession of them. 
They were barbarians with an unalterable reverence for the wider 
civilization of the great empire which they had conquered. They crept 
into the shell of the great empire and tried to assimilate its jurispru- 
dence and its religion. 

Hence it came to pass, in the earlier Middle Ages, as Mr. Freeman 
says, " The two great powers in Western Europe were the church and 
the empire, and the center of each, in imagination at least, was Rome. 
Both of these went on through the settlements of the German nations, 
and both in a manner drew new powers from the change of things. 



HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE. 



213 



Men believed more than ever that Rome was the lawful and natural 
center of the world. For it was held that there were of divine right 
two vicars of God upon earth, the Roman emperor, his vicar in tem- 
poral things, and the Roman bishop, his vicar in spiritual things." 
This belief did not interfere with the existence either of separate com- 
monwealths, principalities, or of national churches. But it was held 
that the Roman emperor, who was the lord of the world, was of right 
the head of all temporal states, and the Roman bishop, the Pope, was 
the head of all the churches. — " A History of the Reformation," Thomas 
M. Lindsay, M. A., D. D., pp. 31. 82. New York: Charles Scribnefs Sons, 
1906. 

Note. — There is in the Church of the Lateran at Rome a ninth-century 
mosaic in which Pope Leo III and the emperor Charlemagne are represented as 
kneeling at the feet of St. Peter, the Pope on Peter's right hand, the emperor 
on his left, in which position the saint gives to Leo the stole of the bishop, 
signifying spiritual power, and to Charlemagne the banner of Rome, the symbol 
of temporal or political power. For a printed miniature of this noted work of 
art, see Myers's " Mediaeval and Modern History," edition 1905, p. 112. — Eds. 

Holy Roman Empire, a Tuening Point in History. — This al- 
liance between the most powerful representative of the Germanic world 
and the leader of Roman Christendom in the West, was one oi the most 
eventful coalitions in the history of Europe. It was the event upon 
which all medieval history turned. It created a new political organiza- 
tion in Western Europe with the Pope and German emperor at the head. 
For centuries, it affected every institution in Western Europe. After 
Pepin, each new pope sent a delegation with the key and flag of Rome 
and the key of St. Peter's tomb to the Frankish rulers for confirmation 
of the election and to give the king the oath of allegiance. Thus, the 
strongest Western king assumed the same prerogative over the church 
which the Eastern emperor had exercised. — " The Rise of the Mediaeval 
Church" Alexander Clarence Flick, Ph. D., Litt. D., pp. 306, 307. New 
York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. 

Holy Roman Empire, Its Influence upon the Relation Between 
Church and State. — Whilst the idea of a holy empire was influencing 
both the civil and ecclesiastical institutions of society, it did not fail 
to affect the mutual relations of the two. Though it may seem para- 
doxical to say so, that idea, in itself so grand and inspiring, could only 
be realized as long as it was imperfect: two rival authorities intrench- 
ing on each other's province could only exist side by side when the reins 
of all authority hung loosely. But when society became more settled 
and better regulated, one of the two rival powers must stand, and the 
other must fall. The idea itself was clung to with extreme tenacity for 
more than two centuries, until men had come to perceive that the popes, 
by encroaching on civil matters, were undermining the foundations of 
all settled political government. When Philip of France wrote to Boni- 
face VIII, " Render to Caesar the things that are Caesar's, and to God 
the things that are God's," he exposed the untenableness of the idea 
of the ecclesiastical state; but before that blow was dealt it had given 
rise to many an internal struggle. 

Such was that struggle in which the two heads of the Holy Empire, 
the Pope and the emperor, were brought into collision with each other. 
The religious character of the emperor gave him a religious sanction 
for interfering in matters connected with the Papacy, and thus popes 
in the imperial interests were raised up to dispute the See of Rome 
with popes in the Roman interest. On the other hand, the Pope, owing 
to his relations to the world, had reasonable grounds for interfering 
in the affairs of the empire, and on more than one occasion set up a 



214 



IDOLATRY, NATURE OF. 



rival emperor, when his claims to authority had been denied by those 
in power. 

For more than a century — from the decree of Nicolas II to the 
decree of Alexander III — the Papacy was disturbed by antipopes; 
Honorius II, Clement III, Gregory VIII, Victor IV, Paschal III being 
set up and supported by the emperors Henry IV, Henry V, and Frederic 
Barbarossa. For nearly two centuries — from the time of Henry IV to 
the fall of the House of Hohenstaufen — the empire was distracted by 
rival emperors, Rudolph of Swabia, Conrad and Henry, Henry Raspe, 
William of Holland — emperors whom the popes had approved, and 
whom they had put forward in their own interests. The antipopes and 
the rival emperors were counterparts to each other. Both were a con- 
sequence which might have been easily anticipated from the attempt 
to realize the idea of the Holy Empire. — " The See of Rome in the 
Middle Ages'' Rev. Oswald J. Reichel, B. C. L., M. A., pp. 300-302. 
London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1870. 

Horns, Ten. — See Ten Kingdoms. 

Huguenots. — See Massacre. 

Huns.— See Rome. 437, 438, 444, 452; Ten Kingdoms. 
Huss, John — See Heretics, 205, 206, 207. 

Idolatry, Nature of. — Idolatry is not, as some have supposed, the 
natural outcome of the pious ignorance of men in a state of barbarism, 
nor are its different forms the varied inventions of different nations 
and peoples separated from each other. All are similar in nature and 
origin, and emanated from the most highly civilized nation of antiquity. 
For although there is good reason for believing that idolatry first orig- 
inated in antediluvian times, and brought upon the world the judgment 
of the deluge, yet it arose again, after that event, with the Chaldeans 
of ancient Babylon, whose mighty works and wisdom were famed 
throughout antiquity. " Babylon," says the prophet, " hath been a 
golden cup in the hand of the Lord to make all the earth drunken. 
The nations have drunken thereof; therefore are the nations mad." 

Although the gods and goddesses of the heathen were so numerous, 
yet " all," says Faber, " as we are repeatedly informed by the ancient 
mythological writers, are ultimately one and the same person." Strictly 
speaking, they are resolved into one or other of a Trinity, c.ompo&ou of 
a Father, Mother, and Son, the various attributes of wnum were per- 
sonified and worshiped under different titles, and known under dif- 
ferent names in different nations. — " The True Christ and the False 
Christy J. Gamier, Vol. II, pp. 4, 5. London: George Allen, 1900. 

Moreover, although it was taught that they were one and the same 
god, yet, as even the prince of the demons is neither omniscient nor 
omnipresent, it was necessary that he should be represented at the in- 
numerable temples and shrines, and in the multitude of idols all over 
the world, by a host of subordinate spirits, the demons over whom he 
was prince, who personated the various gods. — Id., pp. 20, 21. 

It will be noticed that the worship of the pagan gods was always 
carried on through their idols or images, and that these idols being the 
characteristic, and apparently an inseparable feature of that worship, 
it had the appearance of being the worship of idols, and is spoken of 
as " idolatry." The reason of this has already been alluded to. The 



IDOLATRY, RITES OF. 



215 



demon gods were neither omniscient nor omnipresent, and to have in- 
voked their aid at all times and in all places would therefore have 
been useless. Hence the necessity for some local habitation for them, 
such as an image, temple, grove, or sacred symbol, which when conse- 
crated by the priestly adept who had already established communica- 
tion with them, might become the special abode of some one spirit, who 
would thus be ever at hand to influence and delude those who sought 
his aid. — Id., pp. 22, 23. 

Idolatry, The Pagan Idea of, Romanized. — The real presence of 
our divine Lord in the blessed eucharist [the host kept in the mon- 
strance] makes every Catholic church a tabernacle of the Most High. 
— The True Voice (R. C), Omaha, Nebr., April 18, 1913. 

Idolatry, Unspikitual Rites of. — The pagan rites were regarded 
as a service done to the Deity, as acts of homage which satisfied his 
demands and appeased his anger, while they were rites also which were 
supposed to purify the souls, and obtain pardon for the sins of the 
worshipers. But there was nothing spiritual in them, nothing which 
could call forth a single spiritual thought, or produce the slightest 
moral change, save the blinding and satisfaction of the conscience of 
the sinner. Holy water purified him; the sacrifice of the round cake 
atoned for his sins; charms, relics, and holy signs preserved him from 
danger; righteousness consisted of ritual acts and ordinances, penances 
and self-mortifications; auguries and oracles revealed the will of the 
gods, whom he worshiped through their images; while the priesthood 
stood in the place of God to him, both as mediators between the gods 
and men, and as the sole channel through which all spiritual effects 
were to be obtained. 

Thus the mind and affections, and entire dependence of the pagan, 
were confined to that which was earthly, material, and created, and this, 
as the apostle implies, is the whole spirit and principle of idolatry. It 
is " worshiping and serving the creature rather than the Creator," seek- 
ing spirit from matter, life from that which is without life, and placing 
the dependence due to God on men and created things; by which it both 
satisfied and deadened the conscience, and shut out from the mind all 
thoughts of spiritual things and true righteousness. — " The True Christ 
and the False Christ," J. Gamier, Vol. II, pp. 37, 38. London: George 
Allen, 1900. 

Idolatry Transferred from Babylon to Rome. — On the overthrow 
of Babylon by the Persians, who nourished a traditional hatred for its 
idolatry, the Chaldean priesthood fled to Pergamos in Asia Minor, and 
made it the headquarters of their religion. Hence Christ in his charge 
to the church in that city speaks of it as being " where Satan's seat is." 
The last pontiff king of Pergamos was Attalus III, who at his death 
bequeathed his dominions and authority to the Roman people, 133 b. c, 
and from that time the two lines of Pontifex Maximus were merged in 
the Roman one. . . . 

But just as pagan Rome was the true offspring and successor of 
Babylon, so is papal Rome the true offspring and successor of pagan 
Rome. When paganism was nominally abolished in the Roman Empire, 
the head of the pagan hierarchy was also suppressed. Some of the 
Christian emperors did indeed accept the title of Pontifex Maximus, 
while others, refusing it themselves, appointed a pagan priest, until the 
reign of Gratian, who, refusing to do either, abolished the office 376 a. d. 
Two years afterwards, however, fearing that religion might become dis- 
organized, he offered the title and office to Damasus, Bishop of Rome. 



216 



IDOLATRY, MODERN. 



. . . This bishop, less scrupulous than the emperor, accepted the office, 
and from that time until now the title has been held by the popes of 
Rome, from whom, and through whom, the whole hierarchy of Western 
Christendom have received their ordination. So also the honors and 
powers attached to the title, the dominion of the civilized world, pre- 
viously wielded by the pontiff emperors of pagan Rome, passed to the 
pontiffs and hierarchy of papal Rome, who for centuries imposed their 
will upon kings, and held the nations in thraldom. . . . 

Hence we see that there was good reason for entitling the seven- 
hilled city of papal Rome " Babylon Roma " or " Babylon the Great." 
Moreover, although the actual city of Rome is the center and seat of 
that vast organization which for centuries " ruled over the kings of the 
earth," and over " peoples and multitudes and nations and tongues," 
yet " the great city " includes all, in every place, who can claim to be 
its citizens, all who are subject to its laws and ordinances, who bow to 
its authority, or are morally identified with it. Just as the citizens of 
pagan Rome included multitudes who had never seen Rome but who 
claimed to be its citizens, bowed to its laws and authority, and were 
entitled to its privileges. — Id., pp. 94-96. 

Idolatry, Modern. — The image worshipers in Christianity allege 
that the whole worship is merely representative and symbolical, ex- 
hibiting to them an invisible Deity in visible types and images; so that 
every image has reference to its prototype, and no virtue is inherent 
in the image or in its material substance. So said all the enlight- 
ened among the heathen, and yet the Christian apologists convicted 
them of idolatry, notwithstanding all the refinements of their relative 
worship. . . . 

But it is said, as an apology for this semipagan system, that 
" images are laymen's books," and that the gospel is read by the un- 
learned in these visible types and representations of its history and 
founders. If this be so, the whole system must pass away before the 
progress of education; and had the work of instruction been earlier 
and more successful, must have been obsolete long since. Yet we 
cannot but remember that the same apology was advanced in behalf 
of the idol worship of heathenism. " Images of this kind," as the 
heathen advocate alleges in St. Athanasius, " are like literary ele- 
ments (wawep ypdfj.fjLa.Ta) to men; which when they meet with, they are 
able to realize the conception Of God (yivuxrKeiv irept ttjs tov deov /caraX^i/'ews)." 

Would that the Church of Rome had gone no further even than this 
in its imitation, and in a certain sense revival, of the idolatry of the 
Gentile world! 

But here another stage is given us by St. Athanasius, who shows 
that images were regarded by the heathens as means of " discovering 
to them the divine will, — that they might acquire the knowledge of 
sacred things through angelic apparitions." No one who is even super- 
ficially acquainted with the image worship of the modern Church of 
Rome, with its wonder-working shrines and votive offerings and oracles, 
can fail to confess how faithfully she has reproduced this worst feature 
of heathen idolatry, and how fatally she clings to those idols from 
which once she turned in order to serve the living God. — "Romanism: 
A Doctrinal and Historical Examination of the Creed of Pope Pius IV," 
Rev. Robert Charles Jenkins, M. A., pp. 220-222. London: The Religious 
Tract Society. 

Idolatry, Veneration of Images Enjoined. — The Holy Synod en- 
joins on all bishops and others who sustain the office and charge of 
teaching that . . . they especially instruct the faithful diligently con- 



IDOLATRY, PROTEST AGAINST. 



217 



cerning the intercession and invocation of paints; the honor (paid) to 
relics; and the legitimate use of images. . . . Moreover, that the images 
of Christ, of the Virgin Mother of God, and of the other saints, are to 
be had and to be retained particularly in temples, and that due honor 
and veneration are to be given them; not that any divinity or virtue 
is believed to be in them, on account of which they are to be worshiped; 
or that anything is to be asked of them; or that trust is to be reposed 
in images, as was of old done by the Gentiles who placed their hope in 
idols; but because the honor which is shown them is referred to the 
prototypes which those images represent; in such wise that by the 
images which we kiss, and before which we uncover the head, and 
prostrate ourselves, we adore Christ; and we venerate the saints whose 
similitude they bear; as, by the decrees of councils, and especially the 
second Synod of Nicsea, has been denned against the opponents of 
images. — "Dogmatic Canons and Decrees" pp. 167-169. New York: The 
Devin-Adair Company, 1912. 

Idolatry, Protest or the Reformers Against. — The protest of the 
Reformers was directed, not only against the worship of the Virgin 
and saints, but against the priestly assumptions of the clergy and the 
principle of sacramental efficacy, and it was the protest against the 
latter which evoked the chief fury of their persecutors. Their protest, 
in short, was against the principle of Catholicism, which is idolatry, 
or the substitution of material and created things for Christ. For 
whether it is the mediation of the Virgin and saints, or a- trust in the 
guidance of the priesthood and in the spiritual efficacy of the sacra- 
ments administered by them, or a belief in the virtue of holy water, 
holy oil, images, crucifixes, relics, and other material symbols and 
ritual acts, they one and all combine to take the place of Christ to 
the sinner, and keep him from going to Him for life. 

Instead of these things, the Reformers asserted that salvation was 
dependent on Christ alone, and that the sinner, instead of assuming 
himself to be a Christian in virtue of the rite of baptism, could only 
become so by a true, living, and constant faith in Christ; and that 
the Word of God and the Spirit of God, and not the priesthood, were 
the only guide to the truth. — " The True Christ and the False Christ," 
J. Gamier, Vol. II, p. 140. London: George Allen, 1900. 

Idolatry, a Plain Parallel. — Romanism is the same perversion of 
Christianity that paganism was of patriarchal truth, and its false 
Christ is morally identical with the false Christ of paganism. — " The 
True Christ and the False Christ," J. Gamier, Vol. II, p. 104. London: 
George Allen, 1900. 

Idolatry, Rome Guilty of. — On four counts at least Rome can be 
proved guilty of idolatry without any difficulty. 

She worships graven and molten images, and to justify the idolatry 
frequently omits the second commandment in her catechisms, and di- 
vides the tenth into two, in order to make up the number. 

She worships dead men and women, and angels. 

She worships relics, especially pieces of the cross, to which she 
gives the highest kind of worship, called latria. 

She worships a piece of bread in the mass, in that sacrament which 
the Church of England, in her thirty-ninth article, designates as " a 
blasphemous fable." 

On these four counts, then, without going further, we maintain that 
Rome is guilty of idolatry. — 11 Rome: Pagan and Papal," Mourant Brock, 
M. A., p. 33. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1883. 



218 



IDOLATRY IN THE CHURCH OF ROME. 



Idolatry, of the Church of Rome. — The awful idolatry of the 
Church of Rome, as it respects the worship of the Virgin Mary, needs 
no other proof than what is afforded hy a book entitled, " The Glories 
of Mary," written in Italian, by Alphonsus de Liguori, and translated 
into English and published with the formal approval of Cardinal Wise- 
man. I will give a few quotations from the edition of 1852. 

Of Mary it is said, that " she opens the abyss of the mercy of God 
to whomsoever she wills, when she wills, and as she wills " (p. 16), and 
" that the Son is under great obligation to her for having given him 
his humanity" (p. 17). "We say that Mary is the mediatress of 
grace." " Whatever graces we receive, they come to us through her in- 
tercession." ..." There is certainly nothing contrary to faith in this, 
but the reverse; it is quite in accordance with the sentiments of the 
church, which in its public and approved prayers teaches us continually 
to have recourse to this Divine Mother, and to invoke her as the ' health 
of the weak, the refuge of sinners, the help of Christians, and as our 
life and hove'" (pp. 124, 125). "Shall we scruple to ask her to save 
us, when 'the way of salvation is open to none otherwise than through 
Mary'?" (p. 135). 

Of the prayers to be addressed to her, the following may serve as 
a specimen: "'I am thine; save me.' Accept me, Mary, for thine 
own, and as thine take charge of my salvation" (pp. 20, 21). "Thou 
hast all power to change hearts, take thou mine and change it" (p. 42). 
" Behold, O Mother of my God, my only hope, Mary, behold at thy feet 
a miserable sinner, who asks thee for mercy. Thou art proclaimed and 
called by the whole church and by all the faithful the refuge of sinners. 
Thou art consequently my refuge, thou hast to save me. ... I present 
thee, O my Mother, the sufferings of Jesus" (p. 58). "Thou art the 
Queen of heaven, the Mistress of the universe" (p. 77). — ''Fulfilled 
Prophecy," Rev. W. Goode, D. D., F. S. A., 2d ed., p. 197. London: 
James Nisbet & Co., 1891. 

Idolatry, The Douai Version of Ex. 20: 5. — It is worth remarking 
that Roman Catholics, who translate the passage in Exodus 20: 5, 
" Thou shalt not adore them," sometimes complain that the Authorized 
Version, " Thou shalt not bow down to them," is a misleading render- 
ing, and goes too far. As a fact, the Hebrew verb shachafi, here found, 
strictly means to bow or prostrate one's self, and only secondarily 
comes to mean worship or adoration, and is translated bowed down in 
the Douai Version of Genesis 42: 6, speaking of Joseph's brethren's 
obeisance towards him. — " Plain Reasons Against Joining the Church 
of Rome," Richard Frederick Littledale, LL. D., D. C. L., p. 39, note. 
London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1905. 

Idolatry, Reappearance of, in the Church. — The early Christian 
Fathers believed that painting and sculpture were forbidden by the 
Scriptures, and that they were therefore wicked arts; and, though the 
second Council of Nicsea asserted that the use of images had always 
been adopted by the church, there are abundant facts to prove that the 
actual worship of them was not indulged in until the fourth century, 
when, on the occasion of its occurrence in Spain, it was condemned by 
the Council of Illiberis. During the fifth century the practice of in- 
troducing images into churches increased, and in the sixth it had 
become prevalent. The common people, who had never been able to 
comprehend doctrinal mysteries, found their religious wants satisfied 
in turning to these effigies. With singular obtuseness, they believed 
that the saint is present in his image, though hundreds of the same 
kind were in existence, each having an equal and exclusive right to 



IMAGES, WORSHIP OF. 



219 



the spiritual presence. The doctrine of invocation of departed saints, 
which assumed prominence in the fifth century, was greatly strengthened 
by these graphic forms. Pagan idolatry had reappeared. — ''History of 
the Intellectual Development of Europe,'" John William Draper, M. D., 
LL. D., Vol. I, p. 414. New York: Harper & Brothers. 

Idolatry, the Gigantic Sin. — I hold that no reader of the Bible 
can be unaware of the fact that the gigantic sin which looms out in 
gloomiest form throughout the sacred pages is that of idolatry or 
apostasy from the true worship of the Almighty. There are only two 
kinds of worship, true and false. The true worship is to be found in 
the Bible, and there alone; false worship is to be found in all systems 
of so-called religion not founded on God's Word, and even in infidelity 
itself. The heart-infidel — if there be such a person — is a false 
worshiper and an idolater of self. He is his own god; and a false god 
he is. Apostasy, then, and idolatry — for they are in many cases in- 
separable from each other — are the great objects of prophetic denuncia- 
tion and apostolic warning. — " Rome, Antichrist, and the Papacy," 
Edward Harper, p. 15. London: Protestant Printing and Publishing 
Company. 

Idolatry. — See French Revolution, 175, 176; Images; Mass, 297. 
Ignatius. — See Greek Church, 195. 

Images, Worship of. — Next, let us ' take the worship of images 
and pictures. Here it must first be said (a) that the Roman Church in 
terms denies that any such act as can be strictly called worship is done 
to pictures and images, even by the most ignorant, since no one believes 
that these representations can see, hear, or help of themselves; (b) that 
there is no question as to the lawfulness of making some such images 
and representations, if not intended to receive homage, as even the Jews 
had the brazen serpent, and the figures of the cherubim in the .holy of 
holies, where, however, only one man ever saw them, and that only 
once a year; and the early Christians set up pictures of our Lord in the 
catacombs, still to be seen there. But, on the other hand, there is a 
very suspicious fact which meets us at the outset of the inquiry as to 
the actual Roman practice, as distinguished from any finespun theories 
in books, namely, that many Roman catechisms omit the second com- 
mandment, while no Roman catechism teaches that there is either dan- 
ger or sin in any making or using of images for religious honor, short 
of actual paganism. The point is . . . whether in practice one Roman 
Catholic in a million ever knows that image worship can be abused or 
sinful without virtual apostasy from Christianity. The Shorter Lu- 
theran Catechism cuts down the first and second commandments just 
in the same way as many Roman ones do; but, then, on the one hand, 
Lutherans have free access to the Bible in their own language, and, on 
the other, nothing of the nature of image worship has ever been prac- 
tised amongst them. 

Intelligent and shrewd heathens, when arguing in favor of idols, 
say exactly what Roman Catholic controversialists do in defense of 
their practice, namely, that they do not believe in any sentient power 
as residing in the mere stone, wood, or metal, of which their idols are 
made, but regard them as representing visibly certain attributes of 
Deity, to bring them home to the minds of worshipers; and that homage 
addressed to these idols on that ground is acceptable to the unseen 
spiritual Powers, who will listen to and answer prayers so made indi- 
rectly to themselves. — "Plain Reasons Against Joining the Church of 



220 



IMMACULATE CONCEPTION. 



Rome" Richard Frederick Littledale, LL. D., D. C. L., pp. 87-39. Lon- 
don: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1905. 

Immaculate Conception, the Dogma Defined. — Since we have 
never ceased in humility and fasting to offer up our prayers and those 
of the church to God the Father through his Son, that he might deign 
to direct and confirm our mind by the power of the Holy Ghost, after 
imploring the protection of the whole celestial court, and after invoking 
on our knees the Holy Ghost the Paraclete, under his inspiration we 
pronounce, declare, and define, unto the glory of the holy and invisible 
Trinity, the honor and ornament of the Holy Virgin, the mother of God, 
for the exaltation of the Catholic faith and the increase of the Christian 
religion, by the authority of our Lord Jesus Christ and the blessed 
apostles Peter and Paul, and in our own authority, that the doctrine 
which holds the Blessed Virgin Mary to have been, from the first mo- 
ment of her conception, by a singular grace and privilege of Almighty 
God, in view of the merits of Christ Jesus the Saviour of mankind, 
preserved free from all stain of original sin, was revealed by God, and 
is, therefore, to be firmly and constantly believed by all the faithful. 
Therefore, if some should presume to think in their hearts otherwise 
than we have defined (which God forbid), they shall know and thor- 
oughly understand that they are by their own judgment condemned, 
have made shipwreck concerning the faith, and fallen away from the 
unity of the church; and, moreover, that they by this very act subject 
themselves to the penalties ordained by law, if by word, or writing, or 
any other external means, they dare to signify what they think in their 
hearts. — Extract from the Bull " Ineffabilis Deus," of Pope Pius IX, Dec. 
8, 1854, promulgating the dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the 
Virgin Mary; cited in " Dogmatic Canons and Decrees," pp. 183, 184. 

Immaculate Conception, Its Significance. — Who can believe that, 
it being in the power of God the Son to prepare a spotless holy temple 
wherein, to dwell incarnate for nine months, he preferred to have one 
which had been first profaned by the stain of original sin? 

Who can imagine that God, who could become incarnate by prepar- 
ing for himself a mother immaculate in her conception, should have 
preferred a mother who had first been stained by sin and once in the 
power and slavery of Satan? 

To admit such suppositions is shocking to Christian minds. ... It 
being in the power of God to preserve Mary unstained from original sin, 
there is every reason to believe that he did it. God is able; therefore 
he did it. — " Catholic Belief," Joseph Fad di Bruno, D. D. (R. C), p. 218. 
New York: Benziger Brothers. 

God the Son, by assuming this perfect human nature, which he took 
from the Blessed Virgin, was born in the flesh. — Id., p. 208. 

Note. — The Scripture plainly teaches that Jesus, when born of woman, as- 
sumed sinful flesh (Heb. 2 : 14 ; Rom. 8:3), and thus became united with man in 
his fallen condition. This doctrine of the immaculate conception of the Virgin 
Mary separates Jesus from the human family in its present state, by giving him 
a " perfect human nature," free from the stain of original sin, and thus prepares 
the way for the introduction of that human mediation which is one of the promi- 
nent features of the Roman Catholic system. The very essence of Christianity 
being the experience, " Christ in you, the hope of glory," it thus appears that 
the dogma of the immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary strikes at the very 
heart of Christianity. — Eds. 

Immaculate Conception, Explained by a Roman Catholic. — Mary 
was preserved exempt from all stain of original sin at the first moment 
of her animation, and sanctifying grace was given to her before sin 



INCREASE OF KNOWLEDGE. 



221 



could have taken effect in her soul. Simultaneously with the exclusion 
of sin, the state of original sanctity, innocence, and justice, as opposed 
to original sin, was conferred upon her, by which gift every stain and 
fault, all depraved emotions, passions, and debilities were excluded. But 
she was not made exempt from the temporal penalties of Adam — from 
sorrow, bodily infirmities, and death. 

The person of Mary, in consequence of her origin from Adam, should 
have been subject to sin, but, being the new Eve who was to be the 
mother of the new Adam, she was, by the eternal counsel of God and by 
the merits of Christ, withdrawn from the general law of original sin. 
Her redemption was the very masterpiece of Christ's redeeming wis- 
dom. — "Immaculate Conception," William Bernard Ullathorne, p. 89; 
quoted in Truth (R. C), December, 1914. 

Immaculate Conception, Some Objections to the Doctrine of. — 

(1) The doctrine contradicts the express Biblical teaching of "Christ 
alone without sin," and the teaching of antiquity for eleven centuries. 

(2) It supposes the creation of one sui generis, neither strictly human 
nor divine. (3) It interferes with the reality of the incarnation, since 
by this doctrine Christ did not partake of that human nature which he 
came to redeem. (4) It takes away from Christ's glory in the miracle 
of the incarnation by conferring a portion of it upon Mary. (5) It is 
the climax of a monstrous doctrine which ought to have been nipped in 
the bud — a doctrine which attributes to Mary a more perfect love and 
sympathy towards sinners than to Christ, with a more accessible and 
powerful mediation than that of the Son of God, and indirectly aims at 
exalting Mary to an equality with the incarnate Son of the Highest. — 
"Modern Romanism Examined," Rev. H. W. Dearden, M. A... pp. 240, 
241. London: James Nisbet d Co., 1899. 

Immaculate Conception. — See Infallibility, 249, 250. 

Immortality. — See Nature of Man. 

Dicrease of Knowledge, Study of Prophecy as Time of End Ap- 
proached. — But I may say, that I did not out of choice apply myself 
to the study of the prophecies: I found myself forced to it by a kind 
of violence, which I could not resist. 

Two things led me to it: 1. The cruel and horrible persecution 
[revival of persecution in France, preceding Revocation of the Edict of 
Nantes. — Eds.], which at this day makes such terrible ravage and deso- 
lation in the church: endeavoring some consolation under the deepest 
sorrow I ever felt, by searching into the grounds, we may have to hope 
for a speedy deliverance of the church, and not finding them other 
where, I inquired after them in the prophecies, which foretell the des- 
tiny of the church, and the most remarkable changes through which she 
is to pass. — " The Accomplishment of the Scripture Prophecies," Peter 
Jurieu, Preface, pp. 6, 7. London, 1687. 

Increase of Knowledge, Sir Isaac Newton on. — But in the very 
end, the prophecy should be so far interpreted as to convince many. 
Then, saith Daniel, many shall run to and fro, and knowledge shall be 
increased. For the gospel must be preached in all nations before the 
great tribulation, and end of the world. . . . An angel must fly through 
the midst of heaven with the everlasting gospel to preach to all nations, 
before Babylon falls, and the Son of man reaps his harvest. The two 
prophets must ascend up to heaven in a cloud, before the kingdoms of 
this world become the kingdoms of Christ. 'Tis therefore a part of 
this prophecy, that it should not be understood before the last age of 



222 



INCREASE OF KNOWLEDGE. 



the world; and therefore it makes for the credit of the prophecy, that 
it is not yet understood. But if the last age, the age of opening these 
things, be now approaching, as by the great successes of late interpret- 
ers it seems to be, we have more encouragement than ever to look into 
these things. If the general preaching of the gospel be approaching, it 
is to us and our posterity that those words mainly belong: " In the time 
of the end the wise shall understand, but none of the wicked shall 
understand." Dan. 12: 4, 10. "Blessed is he that readeth, and they 
that hear the words of this prophecy, and keep those things which are 
written therein." Apoc. 1: 3. — "Observations upon the Prophecies of 
Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John," Sir Isaac Neivton, Part II, 
chap. 1, pp. 250, 251. London: J. Darby and T. Browne, 1733. 

Increase of Knowledge, Events of Fkench Revolution Lead to 
Prophetic Study. — The prophecies respecting the downfall of the anti- 
Christian usurpations, must have their accomplishment in some era, — 
it may be the present. It is therefore surely worth our while to inquire 
how far the predictions of God's Word will agree with the rise and 
progress of known events. 

Thus it has appeared to me, and the more I examine and think 
upon the subject, the more I am convinced that the last days spoken of 
by God's servants the prophets, are fast approaching. — " The Signs of 
the Times, or the Overthrow of the Papal Tyranny in France" J. Bi- 
cheno, M. A., Preface to first edition, dated Jan. 19, 1793. London, 1793. 

But the consequences of this terrible convulsion to the church were 
most important and beneficial. She was thereby shaken out of the sloth 
which had crept over her; was driven in her terror to the Scriptures, 
her only anchor and pole-star; and found, to her joy, that they were no 
longer a sealed book, but that the mystery of God was drawing to its 
close, and that the events of every year explained something previously 
unknown. Multitudes, no doubt, thus strengthened their faith, who 
have never published the results; but many did immediately publish, 
and the sudden perspicuity of interpretation is very observable. — The 
Morning Watch, or Quarterly Journal on Prophecy, December, 1829, 
Vol. I, p. 540. London: James Nisbet, 1830. 

Increase of Knowledge, Unsealing the Book of Prophecy. — The 
wonderful events which have taken place since the year 1792, have so 
much increased the number of facts forming prophetic data, as to have 
introduced a new era for prophetic history; and writers of the present 
day, in their attempts to elucidate the prophecies, possess advantages 
very superior to those enjoyed 'jy their predecessors. — " Combined View 
Of the Prophecies of Daniel, Esdras, and St. John," James Hatley Frere, 
Esq., p. 2. London, 1815. 

Increase of Knowledge, John Wesley on Prophecies About to be 
Fulfilled. — Happy is he that readeth, and they that hear the words 
of this prophecy." Some have miserably handled this book. Hence 
others are afraid to touch it. And while they desire to know all things 
else, reject only the knowledge of those which God hath shown. They 
inquire after anything rather than this: as if it were written, Happy is 
he that doth not read this prophecy. Nay, but happy is he that readeth, 
and they that hear and keep the words thereof: especially at this time, 
when so considerable a part of them is on the point of being fulfilled. 
— "Explanatory Notes on the New Testament," John Wesley, Vol. Ill, 
On Revelation 1:3; first American edition. Philadelphia: John Dick- 
ens, 1791. 



INCREASE OF KNOWLEDGE. 



223 



Increase of Knowledge, The Knowledge of Salvation. — " Many- 
shall run to and fro," hither and thither, like couriers in the time of 
war, and "knowledge shall be increased: " knowledge of the most im- 
portant kind, the knowledge of God's salvation. Then, those who are 
wise themselves, shall endeavor to enlighten others; to "turn them 
from darkness to light," and from sin to righteousness. — " The Cottage 
Bible," Thomas Williams's note on Daniel 12:1-13 (Vol, II, p. 937 J. 
Hartford: Case, Tiffany d- Co., 1853. 

Increase of Knowledge, Sir Isaac Newton on Opening of Proph- 
ecies. — Amongst the interpreters of the last age there is scarce one of 
note who hath Dot made some discovery worth knowing; and thence I 
seem to gather that God is about opening these mysteries. The success 
of others put me upon considering it; and if I have done anything which 
may be useful to following writers, I have my design. — " Observations 
upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John," Sir 
Isaac 'Newton, Part II, chap. 1, p. 253. London: J. Darby and T. Browne, 
1733. 

Increase of Knowledge, Accompanied by World Travel. — The nat- 
ural meaning [of the phrase, "many shall run to and fro." Dan. 12: 4. 

— Eds.] must be upheld, i. e., wandering to and fro. — "Daniel and Its 
Critics,'" Rev. Charles H. H. Wright, D. D., p. 209. London: Williams 
and Nor gate, 1906. 

Why should not that expression be used in the sense in which it is 
employed in Jeremiah 5: 1, namely, of rapid movement hither and 
thither? — "Daniel and His Prophecies," Rev. Charles H. H. W?~ight. 
D. D., p. 321. London : Williams and Norgate, 1906. 

Increase of Knowledge, Spirit Animating Columbus. — In the 
execution of my enterprise to the Indies, human reason, mathematics, 
and maps of the world have served me nothing. It has accomplished 
simply that which the prophet Isaiah had predicted, — that before the 
end of the world all the prophecies should have their accomplishment. 

— Christopher Columbus, quoted in " Examen Critique," A. von Hum- 
boldt, Vol. I, pp. 15-19 ; cited in " The Reign of Christ on Earth," Dan- 
iel T. Taylor, p. 294. Boston: Scriptural Tract Repository, 1882. 

In a letter to his sovereign, dated Jamaica, July 7, 1503, Columbus, 
after saying he must hasten and finish up his work of divine in- 
spiration, namely, the opening up of the whole earth to the spread of 
Christianity preparatory to the coming of the Lord, added as follows: 
"According to my calculations there remain now to the end of the 
world but one hundred and fifty years! " How very striking it is that 
the great discoverer of the earth's Western Hemisphere should have 
been impelled to his task and have enthusiastically performed it all 
under a deep and solemn conviction of the fast approaching, and, we 
may say, the actual imminence of the Great Consummation. — Id. 
(Taylor), p. 295. 

Increase of Knowledge, Era Long Foreseen. — Nor should the 
prophecy of Daniel be forgotten, touching the last ages of the world: 
"Many shall go to and fro, and knowledge shall be increased;" 
clearly intimating that the thorough passage of the world (which now 
by so many distant voyages seems to be accomplished, or in course of 
accomplishment), and the advancement of the sciences, are destined by 
fate, that is, by divine Providence, to meet in the same age. — "Novum 



224 



INCREASE OF KNOWLEDGE. 



Organum," Francis Bacon (died, 1626), book 1, p. xciii ; in Bacon's; 
Works, Vol. IV, p. 92. Spedding and Ellis, 

Increase of Knowledge, Jurietj, on Invention of Sea Compass. — 
Why did God reserve the invention of the sea compass to these last 
times? why was it not known three or four hundred years ago, what 
it was to sail upon the ocean far from the shore? was there less curios- 
ity, covetousness, or industry among men formerly than now? for what 
reason would God that one half of the world should live in ignorance 
of the other for so long a time? Why hath God in these latter days 
more visibly favored the designs which men have always had, to en- 
rich themselves by commerce and trade, going in pursuit of riches to 
the end of the world? For my own part, I cannot but look upon this 
as a work of a most wise Providence, discovering to us unknown peo- 
ple, whose conversion he intends to bring about within a short time. — 
" The Accomplishment of the Scripture Prophecies," Peter Jurieu, 
Preface, p. 13. London, 1687. 

Increase of Knowledge, All Lands Now Explored. — The same 
task [the penetration of every unknown tract, to which eighteenth-cen- 
tury explorers set themselves. — Eds.] has occupied modern explorers, 
who pride themselves on not passing over in their surveys the smallest 
corner of the earth, or the tiniest islet. With a similar enthusiasm are 
imbued the intrepid navigators who penetrate the ice-bound solitudes 
of the two poles, and tear away the last fragments of the veil which 
has so long hidden from us the extremities of the globe. 

All then is now known, classed, catalogued, and labeled! Will the 
results of so much toil be buried in some carefully laid down atlas, to 
be sought only by professional savants? No! it is reserved to our use, 
and to develop the resources of the globe, conquered for us by our fa- 
thers at the cost of so much danger and fatigue. Our heritage is too 
grand to be relinquished. We have at our command all the facilities 
of modern science for surveying, clearing, and working our property. 
No more lands lying fallow, no more impassable deserts, no more use- 
less streams, no more unfathomable seas, no more inaccessible moun- 
tains! We suppress the obstacles nature throws in our way. The isth- 
muses of Panama and Suez are in our way; we cut through them. — 
''Great Explorers of the Nineteenth Century," Jules Verne, p. 378. 

Increase of Knowledge, Travel and Spread of Information. — One 
very remarkable feature of this Day of God defies adequate description. 
We might call it acceleration, concentration, condensation; but there is 
no fit word for it. Centuries are practically crowded into years, and 
years into days. Travel is so rapid that what would have taken months, 
one hundred years ago, is now easily accomplished in weeks, perhaps 
in days. We keep in touch, day by day, with the whole world, so that, 
in the morning papers, we read the news from Japan and China, India 
and Africa as naturally as from London and Dublin, New York and 
Chicago. So much can be done, in a brief space of time, and over a 
vast space of territory, that practically time and space are annihilated, 
and nothing seems any longer impossible to human achievement. The 
last fifty years have brought to the race an absolutely new era and 
epoch, abundant illustrations of which it would be easy to adduce. — 
" The Modern Mission Century" Arthur T. Pier son, p. 44. New York: 
The Baker and Taylor Company. 

Increase of Knowledge, Spread of Geographical Study. — The 
first [geographical society] was founded at Paris in 1821, the second 
at Berlin in 1828, and the third, which is now the most influential, at 



INCREASE OF KNOWLEDGE. 



225 



London in 1830. The largest is the National Geographic Society at Wash- 
ington, which had 30,000 members in 1908. There were in 1901 no less 
than 89 active geographical societies in Europe, with more than 60,000 
members, 6 in Asia, 8 in North America, 5 in South America, 3 in 
Africa, and 4 in Australia, — 115 altogether. There are also more than 
150 different geographical journals or magazines published regularly in 
all parts of the world. It may safely be said that this argues a more 
widespread interest in geography than exists in any other science. — 
"International Geography" H. R. Mill. p. 12. Neiv York: D. Appleton 
& Co., 1909. 

Increase of Knowledge, " The Century of Wonders." — The nine- 
teenth century is conceded to be a century of wonders. Judged by hu- 
man progress along the highway of scientific discovery and invention, 
and by the general widening out of the horizon of human knowledge, 
it is not only unsurpassed, but it leaves all previous centuries far be- 
hind. Mr. Gladstone thought that a single decade of years might be 
found, within its limits, during which the race had advanced farther 
than during five hundred decades preceding. This estimate is probably 
not an exaggeration; but, if so, what must be true of the whole century! 

The catalogue of its achievements is both long and lustrous. In 
modes of travel, it has given us the railway and steamship, and come 
near to aerial navigation [now achieved] ; in labor-saving machinery, 
it has invaded every department of handiwork; in transmission of 
thought and intelligence, it has bequeathed us the telegraph, ocean cable, 
and telephone, and, last of all, wireless telegraphy; in the department 
of fire and light, the lucifer match, gas, and electricity; in the new ap- 
plication of light, photography, the Rontgen ray, and the miracle of 
spectrum analysis; in the department of physics, the conservation of en- 
ergy and the molecular theory of gases, and solidified air; in the appli- 
cation of physical principles, the velocity of light, and the phonograph; 
it has demonstrated the " importance of dust " and the " ethics of dust," 
and unveiled great mysteries of chemistry; it has multiplied the ele- 
mental substances by the score; in astronomy, unveiled new worlds; 
... in physiology, this last century gave us the cell theory and the 
germ theory; in medicine and surgery, anesthetics and antiseptics; 
... it has improved prison discipline, revolutionized tne treatment of 
lunatics, introduced aniline dyes, and given us a new set of explosive ; 
it has carried on investigation in anthropology and archeology, and has 
explored land and sea until the secrets of ages have been unlocked. — 
" The Modern Mission Century" Arthur T. Pierson, pp. 41. 42. New 
York: The Baker and Taylor Company. 

Increase of Knowledge, The Steamship Comes at a Providential 
Hour. — There was one other force which was needed to fully equip the 
church for its universal activity, and to draw the nations of the world 
together into a net, as the peoples of old had been drawn into the Greco- 
Roman Empire. That was the power of steam, which was to bind the 
lands together with bands of steel, turn the oceans into a Mediterranean, 
make the locomotive an emissary of God's kingdom, and the steamer a 
morning star to herald the day. That invention was not ready to begin 
its task of annihilating space until the dawn of the nineteenth cen- 
tury. But it was ready in time, for not until then was the purified 
church itself roused to a fidelity grand enough to undertake the work 
for which God had been preparing this equipment. It was in 1807, 
while the young men at Williamstown [Massachusetts] were praying 
and studying about missions, that Robert Fulton was making the first 
trip of the " Clermont " from New York to Albany. — " Introduction to 
Foreign Missions" Dr. Edward Lawrence, p. 20. 
15 



226 



INCREASE OF KNOWLEDGE. 



Increase of Knowledge, When Transatlantic Steamships were 
Counted Impossible. — As to the project, however, which was announced 
in the newspapers, of making the voyage directly from New York to 
Liverpool [under steam alone], it was, he had no hesitation in saying, 
perfectly chimerical, and they might as well talk of making a voyage 
from New York or Liverpool to the moon. — Report of Lecture by Dr. 
Lardner, quoted in Liverpool Albion, Dec. 14, 1835. 

Increase of Knowledge, Fulton's First Steamship, 1807. — Ful- 
ton's biographer [Dyer] describes the trial: "Before the boat had made 
the progress of a quarter of a mile, the greatest unbeliever was con- 
verted, and Fulton was received with shouts and acclamations of con- 
gratulation and applause. The vessel, ' Clermont,' made her first 
voyage from New York to Albany, 140 miles, at the average rate of 
five miles an hour; stopping some time at Clermont to take in water 
and coals. 

The whole progress up the Hudson was a continual triumph. 
The vessel is described as having the most terrific appearance. The dry 
pine-wood fuel sent up many feet above the flue a column of ignited 
vapor, and, when the fire was stirred, tremendous showers of sparks. The 
wind and tide were adverse to them, but the crowds saw with astonish- 
ment the vessel rapidly coming towards them; and when it came so near 
that the noise of the machinery and paddles was heard, the crew, in 
some instances, shrunk beneath their decks from the terrific sight; 
while others prostrated themselves, and besought Providence to protect 
them from the approach of the horrible monster, which was marching 
on the tide, and lighting its path by the fire that it vomited." 

Mr. Dyer had sailed in the " Clermont," and remembers the sensa- 
tion created by her appearance, and the high admiration bestowed on 
the projector of so great an enterprise. That sensation in 1807 was pre- 
cisely the same as the " Margery " created among the vessels on the 
Thames in 1815. In 1816, the Marquis de Jauffroy complained that the 
" Fulton " steamboat on the Seine had taken the " paddle wheels " in- 
vented by him and used at Lyons thirty-four years before, but also 
abandoned by him. To this charge Mons. Royou replied in the Journal 
des Debats, thus: " It is not concerning an invention, but the means of 
applying a power already known. Fulton never pretended to be an 
inventor with regard to steamboats in any other sense. The application 
of steam to navigation had been thought of by all artists, but the means 
of applying it were wanting, and Fulton furnished them." The " Ful- 
ton," of 327 tons, was built in 1813, and the first steamer for harbor 
defense, was built under Fulton's direction, 2,740 tons, launched in 
1814. — " Wonderful Inventions,'" John Timbs, p. 258. London, 1868. 

Increase of Knowledge, Beginning of Steamships in Britain. — 
[Symington, in England, had preceded Fulton in steamship building, 
but his scheme was frowned down. Some objected that the river and 
and canal banks would be v/ashed away by the stirring of the waters. 
After Fulton's success, Dyer revived the matter in England. — Eds.] 

" We don't doubt the success of steamboats in the wide rivers and 
harbors of America [said the engineers], but in our comparatively small 
rivers and crowded harbors they will never answer." Even such scien- 
tific engineers as John Rennie and Peter Ewart, both advised Dyer to 
relinquish the attempt to introduce steamboats, as sure to prove a 
waste of time and money to no purpose. However, when conviction 
came over the public mind that steam navigation ^ould answer here — 
but not until after more than 5,000 tons of steamboats had been 
launched on the Hudson in 1816, did it so come — then began the spread 



INCREASE OF KNOWLEDGE. 



227 



of steam navigation, since extended with such marvelous rapidity and 
perfection as to atone for the sluggish beginning. 

The success of these enterprises was not likely to pass unnoticed 
by the shipowners and builders of the greatest port in the world; and 
we find that in 1814, a steamboat was employed between London and 
Richmond. George Dodd, son of Ralph Dodd, the well-known engineer, 
from 1814 to 1828, had more to do with establishing steamboats on the 
Thames than any other individual. He it was who started the Rich- 
mond packet, in 1814 — the first steamboat which succeeded in plying 
for hire on the Thames. He had to contend against the Watermen's Com- 
pany, who for a long time succeeded in preventing any steamboat plying 
for hire unless navigated by free watermen. The " Richmond " was 
not, however, the first steamboat seen on the Thames. Sir I. M. Brunei, 
as may be read in his " Life " by Beamish, made a voyage to Margate 
in a boat of his own, propelled by a double-acting engine, and met with 
such opposition and abuse that the landlord of the hotel where he 
stopped, refused him a bed! — Id., p. 261. 

Increase of Knowledge, Establishment of Transatlantic Steam- 
ship Service. — What may be the ultimate fate of this excitement 
[arrival of steamships " Sirius " and " Great Western " in New York, 
from England] — whether or not the expense of equipment and fuel 
will admit of the employment of these vessels in the ordinary packet 
service — we cannot pretend to form an opinion; but of the entire 
feasibility of the passage of the Atlantic by steam, as far as regards 
safety, comfort, and dispatch, even in the roughest and most boisterous 
weather, the most skeptical must now cease to doubt. — New York Cou- 
rier and Enquirer, April 24, 1838. 

Increase of Knowledge, Progress in Steamships. — It is a far cry 
from the year 1838, when the steam conquest of the ocean was achieved 
definitely and commercially, to 1912. Yet in these seventy-four years 
progress has been marked. The pioneer liner " Sirius " [from England 
to New York, 1838] was driven by paddle wheels, and with the collective 
energy of three hundred twenty horses resolved into harnessed steam, 
her engines were able to give her an average speed of seven and a half 
knots — eight and three-fourths miles — per hour. At the time, this 
was considered an amazing engineering achievement, but it pales into 
insignificance when ranged beside the pace of the crack liners of today. 
. . . They travel three and a h'alf times faster than did the " Sirius," 
but their engines are more than two hundred times as powerful in 
order to cross the North Atlantic in a quarter of the time occupied by 
the little vessel which led the way. This comparison offers a graphic 
idea of the enormous strides that have been made by the marine engi- 
neer in the space of three quarters of a century. — " Steamship Conquest 
of the World;' F. A. Talbot* 

Increase of Knowledge, Transportation Changes in Nineteenth 
Century. — From the earliest historic and even in prehistoric times till 
the construction of our great railways in the second quarter of the pres- 
ent century [the nineteenth], there had been absolutely no change in 
the methods of human locomotion. — " The Wonderful Century," Prof. 
Alfred Russel Wallace, p. 7. 

Increase of Knowledge, The First Steam Railway.— The first 
public steam railway in the world was formally opened in England, 
Sept. 27, 1825. The^Stockton and Darlington was thirty-eight miles in 
length. The line was laid with both malleable and cast-iron rails, and 
cost £250,000. Its opening was attended with great curiosity and ex- 



228 



INCREASE OF KNOWLEDGE. 



citement. There was to be a competition between various kinds of mo- 
tive power, horses, stationary engines, and a locomotive being tried. 
The train consisted of six loaded wagons, a passenger carriage, twenty- 
one trucks fitted with seats, and six wagons filled with coal. George 
Stephenson [the builder of it] drove the locomotive. " The signal being 
given," says a writer of the time, " the engine started off with this 
immense line of carriages, and such was the velocity that in some parts 
the speed was frequently twelve miles an hour, and the number of pas- 
sengers was counted to be 450, which, together with the coals, merchan- 
dise, and carriages, would amount to near ninety tons. 

" The engine, with its load, arrived at Darlington, traveling the last 
eight and three quarter miles in sixty-five minutes. The six wagons 
loaded with coals, intended for Darlington, were then left behind, and 
obtaining a fresh supply of water, and arranging the procession to ac- 
commodate a band of music and numerous passengers from Darlington, 
the engine set off again, and arrived at Stockton in three hours and seven 
minutes, including stoppages, the distance being nearly twelve miles." 

The passenger coaches, with their rough, uncomfortable seats, 
were in great contrast to the plainest passenger cars of today, but peo- 
ple crowded the " wagons " with feelings of mingled curiosity, delight, 
suspense, and fear, and there were six hundred persons on the train when 
it returned to Darlington. 

In 1829 the Stephensons invented the steam blast, which, continu- 
ally feeding the flame with a fresh supply of oxygen, enabled the 
" Rocket," their prize engine, to make steam enough to draw ten pas- 
senger cars, at the rate of ten miles an hour. 

In 1830 the Liverpool and Manchester Railway was opened in spite 
of bitter opposition from landowners and canal companies, who sought 
in every way to prevent the building of the road. The surveyor and his 
assistants were attacked with guns and pitchforks and sticks. — " The 
World's History and Its Makers: Achievements of the Nineteenth 
Century" * 

Increase of Knowledge, First Railway Expectations. — In, 1825, 
Mr. Nicholas Wood, in his work on railways, took the standard at six 
miles an hour, drawing forty tons on a level; and so confident was he 
that he had gauged the power of the locomotive, that he said: " Nothing 
could do more harm towards the adoption of railways than the promul- 
gation of such nonsense, as that we shall, see locomotive engines travel- 
ing at the rate of twelve, sixteen, eighteen, and twenty miles an 
hour." . . . 

[The London] Quarterly Revieio gravely observed: "As to those 
persons who speculate on the making of railroads generally throughout 
the kingdom, and superseding all the canals, all the wagons, mail and 
stage coaches, postchaises, and in short every other mode of convey- 
ance by land and by water, we deem them and their visionary schemes 
unworthy of notice. — "Wonderful Inventions,'''' John Timbs, p. 291. 
London, 1868. 

Increase of Knowledge, When Railways Were Counted Impos- 
sible. — Henry Meigs, a member of the New York Legislature in 1817, 
a young man of fine talents, lost his influence, ruined his prospects, and 
came to be regarded as a proper subject for a strait-jacket, because he 
expressed his belief that steam carriages would be operated successfully 
on land. — " When Railroads Were Neui," C. F. Garter, p. 8. 

Increase of Knowledge, When Railways Were New in France. — 
The council of ministers, on being acquainted with His Majesty's project 



INCREASE OF KNOWLEDGE. 



229 



[to go by rail from Paris to Rouen, 1S43], held a sitting, and came to 
the conclusion that this mode of traveling by railway was not suffi- 
ciently secure to admit of its being used by the king, and consequently 
His Majesty went to 3izy with post horses. — "Railways of Enjland," 
W. M. Acivorth, p. 19. 

Increase of Knowledge, A Massachusetts Town Avoiding a Rail- 
way. — Dorchester, Mass., in a town meeting assembled in 1842, in- 
structed its representatives in the legislature to use their utmost en- 
deavors to prevent, if possible, so great a calamity to our town as must 
be the location of any railroad through it. — " When Railroads Were 
New," C. F. Carter, p. 11. 

Increase of Knowledge, First Railway Office in New York City. 
— Cornelius Vanderbilt opened a railway office on Manhattan Island in 
1844, and that was the beginning of the railway methods that have 
grown into such enormous proportions on the island today, with ninety- 
six railway corporations and all of their direct and indirect interests 
represented here. All of this means the interests of 280,000 miles of 
railway. — New York Herald, Jan. 22, 1911. 

Increase of Knowledge, Growth of Railways in United States. — 
The American railway system has grown as follows: 



The United States have the most wonderful system of railways. 
Their mileage n far greater than t at cf all Europe, which in 1910 had 
only 207,432 miles of railway. . . . The great republic po~S8ss.es forty per 
cent of the railway mileage of tie world. — J. Ellis Barker, in the 
Nineteenth Century and After, London, Kay, 1j18, pp. 941, 912. 

Increase of Knowledge, Railway Crossing of Australian Con- 
tinent. — At 428 miles from Augusta the route [of the railway connect- 
ing Western Australia with South Australia, completed in 1918] de- 
bouches suddenly on to the famous " Nullarbor," an absolutely level 
and treeless plain — a plain as big as France, averaging GOO feet above 
the sea level. . . . For 330 miles on the " Nullarbor ' ; tie line runs with- 
out a curve — the longest tan ent in the world. There is no surface 
water, but an extensive boring is producing fre~h water in large quan- 
tities. ... It renders possible one of the lcnge:t railway r ms in the 
world. From Tropical Townsville, sheltered behind the barrier Reef, 
the traveler may soon run by way of Brisbane, Sydney, Melbourne, and 
Adelaide, to Perth, on the surf-beaten shores of the Indian Ocean- — a 
run of 4,000 miles. He may do this in the running time of 150 hours. 
— "Engineering," London; reprinted in Literary Digest, New York, 
May 18, 1918. 

Increase of Knowledge, Birth of Modizrn Postal System, of 1839- 
1843. — Coleridge, when a young mac, was walking through the lake 
district, when he one day saw the postman deliver a letter to a woman 
at a cottage door. The woman turned it over aid examined it, and then 
returned it, saying she could net pay the postage, which was a shilling. 
Heaiing that t^e letter was from l er brother, Coleridge pail t -e post- 
age in spite of the manifest unwillingness of the woman. As soon as 



Miles 

9,021 
30,626 
52,922 
93,267 



Miles 



1850 
1860 
1870 
1880 



1890 
1900 
1910 



167,191 
198,964 
249,992 



230 



INCREASE OF KNOWLEDGE. 



the postman was out of sight, she showed Coleridge how his money had 
been wasted, as far as she was concerned. The sheet was blank. There 
was an agreement between her brother and herself that as long as all 
went well with him, he should send a blank sheet in this way once a 
quarter; and she thus had tidings of him without expense of postage. 
Most persons would have remembered this incident as a curious story 
to tell; but there was one mind which wakened up at once to a sense of 
the significance of the fact. It struck Mr. Rowland Hill that there must 
be something wrong in a system which drove a brother and sister to 
cheating, in order to gratify their desire to hear of one another's wel- 
fare. — " A Short History of Our Own Times" Justin McCarthy, pp. 10, 
11. London: Chatto and Windus, 1904. 

Increase of Knowledge, Coming of the Electric Telegraph.-— It 
is a somewhat curious coincidence that in the year [1837] when Pro- 
fessor Wheatstone and Mr. Cooke took out their first patent " for im- 
provements in giving signals and sounding alarms in distant places by 
means of electric currents transmitted through metallic circuit," Pro- 
fessor Morse, the American electrician, applied to Congress for aid in 
the construction and carrying on of a small electric telegraph to convey 
messages a short distance, and made the application without success. In 
the following year he came to this country [England] to obtain a patent 
for his invention; but he was refused. He had come too late. Our own 
countrymen were beforehand with him. — Id., p. 9. 

Increase of Knowledge, First Long-Distance Establishment of 
Telegraph, 1844. — The system is daily extending. It was, however, in 
the United States of America that it was first adopted on a great scale, 
by Professor Morse, in 1844, and it is there that it is now already de- 
veloping most extensively. — Speech in 1847 by Sir Robert Inglis, Presi- 
dent of the British Associatio?i ; quoted in " Lives of the Electricians," 
W. F. Jeans, p. 285. London. 

Increase of Knowledge, Morse on the Telegraph as a Gift of 
Providence. — If not a sparrow falls to the ground without a definite 
purpose in the plans of Infinite Wisdom, can the creation of an instru- 
ment so vitally affecting the interests of the whole human race have 
an origin less humble than the Father of every good and perfect gift? 
I am sure I have the sympathy of such an assembly as is here gathered 
together, if in all humility, and in the sincerity of a grateful heart, I 
use the words of Inspiration in ascribing honor and praise to Him to 
whom first of all and most of all it is pre-eminently due. " Not unto us, 
not unto us, but to God be all the glory " — not, What hath man, but, 
" What hath God wrought! " [the words of the first long-distance mes- 
sage, sent by Morse from Washington to Baltimore, May, 1844. — Eds.] 
— Prof. S. F. B. Morse, in speech, Dec. 31, 1868; quoted in " Lives of the 
Electricians, ,J W. F. Jeans, p. 315. London. 

Increase of Knowledge, Telephony. — Long-distance transmission 
from coast to coast by metallic circuits has been successfully accom- 
plished during past year. By the use of well-known and commercially 
practicable apparatus, the human voice may now be clearly transmitted 
over the span of 3,409 miles between New York and San Francisco. 
This transcontinental line is now in regular commercial use, and al- 
ready the traffic over it has reached sufficient proportions to justify the 
expense involved. — The American year Book, 1915, edited by Francis 
G. Wickware, B. A., B. Sc., p. 560. New York: D. Appleton & Company, 
1916. 



INCREASE OF KNOWLEDGE. 



231 



Increase of Knowledge, Wireless Telephony — In September, 
1915, the human voice was carried by wireless transmission from Ai v 
lington, Va., near Washington, to Honolulu, a distance of 4,900 miles. 
Two weeks later words spoken at Arlington were received by the sta- 
tion on the Eiffel Tower in Paris. Since the rirst successful transmis- 
sion, messages have been sent from Arlington to Mare Island, San 
Diego, Darien, and Paris. — Id., p. 561. 

Increase of Knowledge, Modern Inventions Counted Gospel Agen- 
cies. — The development of scientific invention in the past hundred years 
is sufficient to bewilder the careful thinker. He feels almost like 
Alice in Wonderland. It is said that when the battle of Waterloo was 
fought, in 1815, all haste delivered the thrilling dicpatches in London 
three days later. How does that appear in contrast with wireless teleg- 
raphy and wireless telephony? All the world is now becoming a vast 
whispering gallery. 

The Watchman and Examiner, in a July issue, refers to three events 
which it calls modern marvels. The first is the Institute of American 
Electrical Engineers' simultaneous convention in Boston, New York, 
Philadelphia, Atlanta, Chicago, Salt Lake City, and San Francisco. 
Telephone connection was made so that speakers in each city were 
perfectly heard by the members of the Institute in all the other cities 
named. At the close, each city furnished a song. Atlanta's song was 
" Way Down South in Dixie," other cities furnished other songs, while 
Philadelphia closed with " The Star Spangled Banner." When the first 
notes of this last song were heard, the president of the Institute asked 
all to stand, and the five thousand men composing the Institute in the 
seven cities stood loyally while this national song was being sung. 
The song was heard in the different places, and also the applause at 
the close. The second wonder was the sending of two thousand words 
from Nauen, Germany, to Long Island by wireless telegraphy, beating 
the cable message of the German government by over seven hours. 
The third of these remarkable events was the hearing of the human voice 
at the wireless telephone in New York City, by an operator in Honolulu. 

Such astonishing facts are suggestive of the greatness of the 
world's future. God is developing these agencies for the welfare of 
the human race, and the progress of his kingdom in this world. They 
are intended to be conveyors of his truth. Satan is quick to employ 
new inventions in his work, and he uses them most effectively; but 
they are also channels for the work of the kingdom. God wants his 
people to control them in his service; and the day is coming when they 
will. These things are developments in the providence of God, and fore- 
tokens of a far greater era of spirituality for this world than it has 
ever seen. — The Christian Statesman, Pittsburgh, Pa., August-Septem- 
ber, 1916. 

Increase of Knowledge, A Lifetime's Measurement. — There 
ought to be no reluctance of imagination. No dream should be too bold 
to be dreamed by inhabitants of a world which has passed through 
the marvels of the last half-century. Lord Avebury, writing for the 
New York Times the other day, remarked : " Though not eighty, I am 
older than any railway company in the world, any gas company, any 
steamboat company, any telegraph, telephone, or electric light company." 

One need only ponder these words — pondering is required before 
it is possible to realize that they can be true — to get a sense of the 
world of yesterday. No electric light, no telephone — any man of forty 
can remember that he lived in that world, but nobody can quite re- 
member what it was like. Fifty years ago all Africa, except its coast, 



232 



INCREASE OF KNOWLEDGE. 



was a blank on fie map; Asia was a dwelling place of mystery; Japan 
was unborn; United Italy had no existence, and the German Empire was 
still a dream. Transportation was primitive; business was done on the 
basis of the country tore; the feats of modern engineering were un- 
attempted; electricity was an interesting toy; machinery had only be- 
gun its revolutionising service . Ex-president Eliot's saying — that the 
world has been practically rtmaae in the last half century — is a mod- 
erate and truthiul statdneit. — Tie World's Work, New York* 

Increase of Knowledge, The Rise ok Modern Missions. — The clos- 
ing years of the eighteenth century eon titute in the history of l rot- 
estant missions an epoch indeed, since they witnessed nothing less 
than a revolution, a renaissance, an effectual and manifold ending of 
the old, a substantial inauguration of the new. It was t-ien taat for the 
first time since the apostolic period, occurred an outburst of general 
missionary zeal and activity. Beginning in Great Britain, it soon 
spread to the Continent and across the Atlantic. It was no mere push 
of fervor, but a mighty tide set in, which from that day to this has 
been steadily rising and spreading. — " A Hundred Years of Missions," 
Rev. Lelevan L. Leonard, p. t9. New York: Funk and Wagnalls Com- 
pany, 1895. 

Increase of Knowledge, Europe's Message to Britain on Birth of 
Modlrn Missions. — It is like the dawn promising the beautiful day 
after the dark night. It is the beginning of a new epoch for the king- 
dom of God on earth. Your undertaking and its success fills our hearts 
with joy and our eyes with tears. The history of Great Britain is sanc- 
tified by this unparalleled mission. What harmony among different per- 
suasions! You cail on the wise and good of every nation to take in- 
terest in the work and bi.ar a pait. Such a call was never heard of 
before. It was reserved for the close of the eighteenth century to be 
distinguished by it. — iLe6v(,.>.e 0/ Basle (Cw-tjet iaad) i>el.e-oers, days 0/ 
1796-98; cited in " A Hundred Years of Missions," p. 91. 

Increase of Knowledge. Wm. C\ key's Ptoneek Mission vry Society. 
— Carey's Baptist society [1792], which originated in his brain, was 
the model for the scores and hundreds which followed after. Thus was 
ushered in the happy day of voluntary societies, organizations sus- 
tained by such as are interested in the promotion of th objects sought. 

And the year of grace 1792 is annus mirabilis, the famous date 
from which to reckon backward and forward. Well may it stand side 
by side with 44 a. d., when the Holy Ghost said, " Separate me Barna- 
bas and Saul for the work whereunto I have called them; " or 53 a. d., 
when in vision Paul was bidden to lay the foundations of the gospel 
in Europe. Whatever has been accomplished since can be traced to 
forces which began to operate a hundred years ago. — " A Hundred 
Years of Missions," ttev. Delevan L. Leonard, p. 70. New York: Funk 
and Waynalls Company, 1895. 

Increase of Knowledge, The Hour at Hand, Delay Impossible. — 
Even Andrew Fuller, in 1787, replied to Carey's urgency for immediate 
action: " If the Lord should make windows in heaven, tnen might this 
thing be." The fact, published by his contemporaries in 1793, and 
verified by all the history since, is thus expressed ty Dr. Ryland, an- 
other unbeliever in immediate duty, like Fuller: " I believe God him- 
self infused into tne mind of Carey that solicitude for the salvation of 
the heathen which cannot be fairly traced to any other source." — " Short 



INCREASE OF KNOWLEDGE. 



233 



History of Christian Missions" George Smith, LL. D., F. R. G. S., p. 
•160. revised edition. Edinburgh: T. d- T. Clark. 

Increase of Knowledge, Origin of the Id~a of Bble Societies — 
[Mary Jones, Welsh girl, walked twerty-five miles vitb six year-?' sav- 
ings to buy a Welsh Bible — only to find that Mr. Thcmae Charles, 
minister, had no copies ?ave a few spohen for, and knew not how to 
get further copies. — Eds.] Poor Mary! When s v e heard this answer, 
her disappointment wa=? sd great that she burst into tears, and sobbed 
as if her heart would break. Mr. Charles was deeply moved, and tears 
filled his eyes, partly in sorrow for his country, where the Word of God 
was so scarce, and partly in pity for Mary. He could not bear that -^he 
should return home in grief and disappointment. "You shall have a 
Bible," he said, and he gave her one of the reserved copies. Mary's 
tears were now tears of joy as she paid for her treasure. "Well, 
David Edward," said Mr. Charles, turnirg to the elder, who >ad been 
weeping too, "is not this very sad — that there should be such a scar- 
city of Bibles in the country, and that this poor child should have 
walked some twenty-eight or thirty mile^ to get a copy? If something 
can be done to alter this state of things, I will not rest till it is accom- 
plished." — " Little Hands and God's Book," William Canton, p. 22. Lon- 
don: The Bible House. 

Increase of Knowledge. Diary Recording Birtti of Brtttsii Btble 
Society. — March 7, 1804. — Memorable day! The British and Foreign 
Bible Society founded. I and others belonging to the tract society had 
long had it in view; and after much preparation, in which we did not 
publicly appear, a meeting was called in the I ondon Tavern, and the 
society began with a very few. . . . Nations unborn will have cause to 
bless God for the meeting of this day. — Entry in George Burdefs 
Diary, quoted in British and Foreign Bible Society's Centenary Report, 
" After a Hundred Years," p. 2. 

Increase of Knowledge, Wonderful Development of the Print- 
ing Press. — If the spirit of the man [Gutenberg] who invented print- 
ing from movable type could animate his striking statue outside the 
big Hoe building [New York] and step down from his pedestal, how he 
would marvel at the triumphs of his beloved art at the dawn of the 
twentieth century! 

R. Hoe & Co. have ju~t completed the construction of the largest 
printing press in the world. ... It is a double octuple press, .and so 
called, but in reality is much more than this, inasmuch es it combines 
the ability to do printing in colors as well as in black. . . . Altogether 
there are 18 plate cylinder^ in the machine, each carrying eight plates 
the size of a newspaper page. . . . 

The full capacity of the machine, when printing all black, on eight 
roll^, is equivalent to 300.000 four-, six-, or eight-page papers per hour. 

The maximum product of the machire when running a" a color 
press is 50,00.0 twenty-four-page papers per hour, with two outside pages 
printed in three colors and b'ack; the other ragfs in black only. Pa- 
pers with any number of pa?;es from four to twenty-four, with four 
colors and black on t^e outside rage*, the other oa^es in black only, can 
be obtained at a speed of 50,000 to 100,000 ner hour. . . . Running at a 
speed of 300 revolutions per minute of the cylinders and using eight 
rolls of paoer, the consumption of paper will be at the rate of 108 miles 
an hour, six feet wide, or 21G mile^ an hour three feet wide. The 
weight of this paper would be about eighteen tons. — Statement to Pub- 
lishers, from R. Hoe & Co., March 29, 1916. 



234 



ESDUliGENCES, DEFINED. 



Index of Prohibited Books. — See Censorship of Books; Galileo, 
180, 181. 

Indulgences, Origin of. — Under the head of "Discipline" we should 
not pass over a custom, under pretense of which the modern theory of 
indulgence has been introduced. Such as were convicted of notorious 
crimes were compelled to make confession of them publicly before the 
whole congregation, to implore pardon, and to undergo whatever punish- 
ment should be imposed on them. The church inflicted some punish- 
ment on them. This was done as well for example, as also to prevent 
reproach to the Christian religion amongst infidels. These punishments 
were not supposed to be satisfactions to God by redeeming temporal 
punishments. Such an idea cannot be traced in any of the writers of 
the age who mention this practice. We refer to the period a. d. 160. At 
the latter end of the third century, when several lapsed through fear of 
persecution, the punishment and period of probation were more severe 
and lengthened before they were readmitted. Sometimes the period was 
protracted for years together. Hence arose the custom of prescribing 
times or periods — five, ten, or more years of penance. 

But, lest the penitent should die, lose heart and courage, or despair, 
the bishops took upon themselves, under certain circumstances, to miti- 
gate the period of punishment. This act was termed a relaxation or 
remission. It was long after this period that the term indulgence was 
substituted; but still, when introduced, it was quite in another sense to 
its modern use. It signified only a discharge or a mitigation of eccle- 
siastical censures and penalties inflicted by the church, and not a for- 
giveness of the penalty due to God's justice for the sin of the penitent 
which had been forgiven, which is the modern theory. But the transi- 
tion from one to the other can well be comprehended, when we have 
craft and avarice on the one side, and superstition and ignorance on 
the other. — " The Novelties of Romanism," Charles Hastings Collete, 
pp. 115, 116. London: William Penny, 1860. 

Indulgences Defined. — What is an indulgence? 

It is the remission of the temporal punishment due to sins, remitted 
as to their guilt, by the power of the keys, without the sacrament, by 
the application of the satisfactions which are contained in the treasury 
of the church. 

What is understood by the treasury of the church? 

It is the collection (cumulus) of the spiritual goods remaining in the 
divine possession, the distribution of which is intrusted to the church. 

From whence is this treasury collected? 

In the first place it is collected from the superabundant satisfactions 
of Christ, next from the superfluous satisfactions of the Blessed Virgin 
Mary and of the other saints. 

This treasury is the foundation or matter of indulgences, and is 
that infinite treasury made up in part from the satisfactions of Christ; 
moreover it is never to be exhausted; and it daily receives the super- 
abundant satisfactions of pious men. — Dens' " Theologia," Tom. VI, 
Tractatus de Indulgentiis ; De Indulgentiarum Natura (Dens' Theology 
[R. C], Vol. VI, Treatise on Indulgences; On the Nature of Indulgences). 

Indulgences. — A plenary indulgence is a receipt in full for the 
penalties inflicted in purgatory for sins forgiven but not satisfied for by 
works worthy of repentance. ... In dealing with sinners, he [God] 
distinguishes between the principal and the interest, or sins and the 
temporal pains incurred by them. He forgives the principal in the con- 
fessional; but the accrued interest must be met by good works or indul- 



INDULGENCES, MEANING OE. 



gences earned by the good works of others and imputable to us in the 
communion of saints. — The Western Watchman (R. C), St. Louis, Mo., 
July S, 1913. 

Indulgences, The Meaning of, Explained. — 5. What means does 
the church offer us to cancel the temporal punishment due still to sin? 

The means that the church offers us to cancel the temporal punish- 
ment due still to sin is to grant us indulgences. 

6. What is an indulgence? 

An indulgence is the remission of temporal punishment due still to 
sin, after the guilt of sin (the offense of God) has been forgiven in the 
sacrament of penance. 

10. Is it not true, then, that the church, by granting indulgences, 
frees us from the obligation of doing penance? 

No; the church does not free us from the obligation of doing pen- 
ance; for the greater our spirit of penance and love for God are, the 
more certain we are of gaining indulgences. The church wishes to 
assist us in our efforts to expiate in this life all temporal punishments, 
in order thus to effect what in ancient times she endeavored to attain by 
rigorous penitential canons. 

12. Who has the power to grant indulgences? 

(1) The Pope has the power to grant plenary and partial indul- 
gences; for, as successor of St. Peter, he has received from Christ the 
keys of the kingdom of heaven; that is, he has power to remove such 
obstacles as hinder our entrance into heaven. Temporal punishment is 
an obstacle to our entrance into heaven. Therefore, the Pope has power 
to remit temporal punishment. 

" Whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth, it shall be loosed also in 
heaven." Matt. 16:19; 18:18. 

(2) The bishops also have power to grant partial indulgences. 

14. How does the church remit the temporal punishment due to 
our sins? 

The church remits temporal punishment due to sin by making to 
divine justice compensation for us from the inexhaustible treasure of 
the merits of Christ and his saints. 

16. Can indulgences be applied to the souls in purgatory? 
Indulgences can be applied to the souls in purgatory, when the Pope 

has declared that they can be so applied. 

17. What awaits us in the next life, if we neglect to make due sat- 
isfaction to divine justice? 

If, in this world, we neglect to make due satisfaction to divine jus- 
tice, greater suffering, without any merit, will await us in purgatory. — 
''Familiar Explanation of Catholic Doctrine,'" Rev. M. Miiller (R. C), 
pp. 390-392. New York: Benziger Brothers. 

Indulgences, the Treasury of Merit. — Upon the altar of the 
cross, Christ shed of his blood not merely a drop, though this would have 
sufficed, by reason of the union with the Word, to redeem the whole 
human race, but a copious torrent, . . . thereby laying up an infinite 
treasure for mankind. . . . This treasure he neither wrapped up in a 
napkin, nor hid in a field, but intrusted to blessed Peter, the key bearer, 
and his successors, that they might, for just and reasonable causes, dis- 
tribute it to the faithful in full or in partial remission of the temporal 
punishment due to sin. — Extrav. Com., lib. v, tit. ix, cap. ii (The Com- 
mon Extravagants [R. C], book 5, title 9, chap. 2). 

Indulgences, Decree Concerning. — The sacred, holy synod teaches 
and enjoins that the use of indulgences for the Christian people, most 



236 



INDULGENCES, BONIFACE VIII ON. 



salutary and approved of by the authority of sacred councils, is to be 
retained in the church; and it condemns with anathema those who 
either assert that they are useless, or who deny that there is in the 
church the power of granting them. ... It ordains generally by this 
decree that all evil gain^ for the obtaining thereof — whence a most 
prolific cause of abuses amongst the Christian people has been derived 
— be wholly abolished. — " Dogmatic Canons and Decrees''' Decree Con- 
cerning Indulgences, published in tine twenty -fifth session of the Council 
of Trent, pp. 173, 174. New York: The Devin- Adair Company, 1912. 

TnUil^en^es, th 17 P\roon of Sins. — Further, it is much insisted 
on in Roman Apologetic books that indulgences are in no sense pardons 
for sin. far less licences to commit sin, nor purchasable for money. 
This is true now, but it was not always true. The existing practice, 
whatever its errors and abuses may be, is at any rate free from the hor- 
rible scandals which attended the older method, abolished by the Council 
of Trent in consequence of the outcry raised on the subject at the Refor- 
mation — one proof, amongst many, that Rome can be forced to mend 
her ways by pressure from without, though she never does it voluntarily. 
The Roman Catholic princes of Germany, alarmed at the progress of 
Lutberanism. met in Diet at Nuremberg in 1523, and addressed a peti- 
tion to Pope Hadrian VI for the remedy of a " Hundred Grievances of 
the German Nation," which they set forth in that document. Amongst 
the^e occur — 

No. 5. How license to sin with impunity is granted for money. 

No. 67. How more money than penitence is exacted from sinners. 

No. 91. How bishops extort money from the concubinage of priests. 
They restate! these grievances more at length, clarifying them in chap- 
ters, and alleged that the vendors of bulls of indulgence " declare that 
by means of these purchasable pardons, not only are past and future 
sins of the living forgiven, but also those of such as have departed this 
life and are in the purgatory of fire, provided only something be counted 
down. . . . Every one, in proportion to the price he had expended in 
these wares, rrcmi ed himself impunity in sinning. Hence came forni- 
cations, incests, adulteries, perjuries, homicides, thefts, rapine, usury, 
and a whole hydra of evils. For what wickedness will mortals shudder 
at any longer, when they have once persuaded themselves that license 
and impunity for sinning can be had for money, however extravagant 
the sum, not only in this life but after death also, by means of these 
marketings of indulgences?" — " Plain Reasons Against Joining the 
Church cf Rome." Richard Frederick- Littledale. LL. D.. pp. 102, 103. 
London: Society for Promoting Christian Knoioledge, 1905. 

Indulgences, Boniface VIII on. — We, by the mercy of Almighty 
God, etc., relying on his merits and authority and in the fulness of our 
apostolic power, will and do grant to all who, in the present year 1300, 
beginning with tie feast of the nativity of our Lord Jesus Christ just 
past and in every following hundredth year, reverently come to the 
basilicas themselves, truly repenting and after confession, or who shall 
truly repent and confess in this present year and in every succeeding 
hundredth year, not only full and greater, but indeed most full pardon 
for all their sins, provided that those who desire to be partakers in this 
indulgence granted by us visit the aforesaid basilicas, if they are Ro- 
mans, at least on thirty consecutive or non-consecutive days, and at least 
once each day, but if they are strangers or foreigners, on fifteen days in 
like manner. — Extract from the Bull cf Boniface VIII (R. C), published 
in 1300; " Extravagantes Communes,"' lib. v, tit. ix, cap. i (The Common 
Extravagants, book 5, title 9, chap. 1). 



INDULGENCES, UNCERTAINTY OF. 



237 



Indulgences, Some of Luther's Ninety-Five Theses Against. — 
5. The Pope lias neither the will nor the power to remit any penal- 
ties, except those which he has imposed by his own authority, or by 
that of the canons. 

27. They preach man, who say that the soul flies out of purgatory 
as soon as the money thrown into the chest rattles. 

28. It is certain that, when the money rattles in the chest, avarice 
and gain may be increased, but the suffrage of the church depends on 
the will of God alone. 

32. Those who believe that, through letters of pardon, they are 
made sure of their own salvation, will be eternally damned along with 
their teachers. 

35. They preach no Christian doctrine, who teach that contrition is 
not necessary for those who buy souls out of purgatory or buy confes- 
sional licenses. 

39. It is a most difficult thing, even for the most learned theolo- 
gians, to exalt at the same time in the eyes of the people the ample 
effect of pardons and the necessity of true contrition. 

43. Christians should be taught that he who gives to a poor man, or 
lends to a needy man, does better than if he bought pardons. 

50. Christians should be taught that, if the Pope were acquainted 
with the exactions of the preachers of pardons, he would prefer that the 
basilica of St. Peter should be burnt to ashes, than that it should be 
built up v/ith the skin, flesh, and bones of his sheep. 

52. Vain is the hope of salvation through letters of pardon, even if 
a commissary — nay, the Pope himself — were to pledge his own soul 
for them. 

56. The treasures of the church, whence the Pope grants indul- 
gences, are neither sufficiently named nor known among the people of 
Christ. 

66. The treasures of indulgences are nets, wherewith they now fish 
for the riches of men. — "Luther's Primary Works," Wace and Buch- 
heim, pp. 414-419. Lo?idon: Rodder and Stoughton. 

Indulgences, Doctrine of, Developed by Schoolmen. — The devel- 
opment of this doctrine in explicit form was the work of the great 
Schoolmen, notably Alexander of Hales, Albertus Magnus, and St. 
Thomas. — The Catholic Encyclopedia, art. "Indulgences," sec. on " The 
Treasury of the Church" Vol. VII, p. 784. New York: Rooert Appleton 
Company. 

Indulgences, Uncertainty of, for Souls in Purgatory. — There is 
this difference between indulgences gained for the living and the dead, 
that in the former case their effect is produced by way of absolution, 
and in the latter by way of suffrage. The church exercises direct au- 
thority over the faithful on earth; and when she absolves them from 
censures, from sin, or from the debt of punishment, the effect is infal- 
lible, provided the person so absolved be in proper dispositions. We are 
certain, therefore, in this case, that the fruit of the indulgence will be 
applied where there is no obstacle, because Christ has promised the 
church that " whatever she [sic] shall loose upon earth, shall be loosed 
also in heaven." Matt. 16: 19. It is an article of faitn that the souls 
in purgatory are helped by our prayers; but the church does not exer- 
cise the same authority over the faithful departed that she does over 
those upon earth. She cannot, therefore, directly release the suffering 
souls by absolving them from their debt of punishment; but she offers 
to God a satisfaction equal to that debt, and she begs him to accept it 
in their behalf. The indulgences thus gained will certainly not be lost, 



238 



INDULGENCES, TAXES ON. 



and should God not see fit to accept them in behalf of the particular 
souls for whom they are offered, he will not fail to allow them to serve 
for the benefit of others. — "A Manual of Instructions in Christian Doc- 
trine," edited by the late Provost Wenham, revised by the Rev. W. J. B. 
Richards, D. D., and the Rt. Rev. James Carr, V. O. (R. C), 15th edition, 
pp. 359, 360. London: W. J. Cahill, 1901. 

Indulgences, " Taxes of the Apostolic Chanceby." — It is not 
only in the rituals or penitentials we have quoted that the nomenclature 
of the commutations of penalties and that of the taxes imposed upon 
penitents by the popes, bishops, and monks, is to be found. There ex- 
isted such in every diocese in the Middle Ages; but they varied accord- 
ing to the period and the spirit in which they were composed. If a 
greater number of them have not reached our own time, it is because 
they were kept secret in the hands of a limited number of confessors 
without it being lawful to communicate them to the laity. Accordingly, 
we find that Pope Nicholas, on being consulted thereon in 1366, replied: 
" It is not meet that laymen should be acquainted with these things, for 
they have no right to judge the acts of the priesthood." 

The custom of obtaining absolution for sins having been gradually 
introduced into the Latin Church, the popes took almost exclusive pos- 
session of this lucrative branch of revenue. Leo X then ordered lists 
and catalogues of sins to be drawn up at Rome, designating the sum 
that was to be paid to obtain absolution for them. Therein we find also 
permissions and dispensations which concern either the laity or the 
ecclesiastics, and for the obtaining of which payment was to be made, 
as is also the custom in the present day in several cases. This eccle- 
siastical budget is entitled: "Taxes of the Apostolic Chancery," and 
" Taxes of the Holy Apostolic Penitentiary." This monstrous abuse, as 
pernicious to morality as to religion, was, for several centuries, set 
working on a large scale, and procured considerable revenues to the 
court of Rome. To satisfy the reader's curiosity, we give here an ex- 
tract of a few of the articles which are found in this work: 

For a town to be entitled to coin money, 500 drachms fgros). 

Remission given to a rich man for the wealth which he has ab- 
sconded with, 50d. 

For a poor man, 20d. 

For a layman not to be bound to observe fasts commanded by the 
church, and to eat cheese, 20d. 

For permission given to counts to eat meat and eggs on forbidden 
days, on account of their health, 12d. 

For exempting a layman from a vow thoughtlessly made, 12d. 

For enabling a king and queen to procure indulgences, as if they 
had been to Rome, 200d. 

For permission to have mass celebrated in a forbidden place, lOd. 

For absolution at the point of death, for one person, 14d. 

For the absolution of any one practising usury in secret, 7d. 

For the absolution of any one who has been intimate with a woman 
in a church, and has done any other harm, 6d. 

For the absolution of him who has connu charnellement any female 
of his kindred, 5d. 

For the absolution of him who has violated a virgin, 6d. 

For the absolution of perjury, 6d. 

For the absolution of any one who has revealed the confession of 
another person, 7d. 

For permission to eat meat, butter, eggs, and whatever is made of 
milk, during Lent or other fast days, 7d. 

For the absolution of him who has killed his father, mother, brother, 
sister, wife, or any other of his lay relations, 5 or 6d. 



INFALLIBILITY , DEFINED. 



239 



For the absolution of a husband who, beating his wife, causes 
abortion, 6d. 

For a woman who takes any beverage or employs any other means 
to cause her child to perish, 5d. 

For an absolution for spoilers, incendiaries, thieves, and homicidal 
laymen, 8d. 

It would be supererogatory to give further extracts from a book 
which contains more than eight hundred cases subject to the apostolic 
tax. — " History of Auricular Confession" Count C. P. de Lasteyrie, (2 
vols.) Vol. II, pp. 131-135. London: Richard Bentley, 1848. 

Indulgences, Tetzel's Claims Concerning. — Tetzel conducted him- 
self, on his commercial journeys, like a high prelate. He drove into 
the cities in superb style, amidst the pealing of bells. The papal in- 
dulgence bull was carried before him on a velvet cushion. Solemn pro- 
cessions, bearing crosses and banners, went to meet him and escorted 
him into the church. Then a red cross, upon which were the pontifical 
arms, was set up, and this Tetzel affirmed to be as efficacious as the 
cross of Christ himself. One of his train even tried to make the 
multitude believe that he saw the blood of Christ flowing gently down 
over it (the red color of the cross, if steadily gazed upon by the credu- 
lous, might easily engender such an optical illusion). Indulgences were 
offered upon every condition — even for future sins. The little couplet 
of which the indulgence vendors made use is well known: "When in the 
chest the coin doth ring, the soul direct to heaven doth spring " [" Wenn 
nur das Geld im Kasten ringt, die Seele gleich gen Himmel springt "]. 
— "History of the Reformation in Germany and Switzerland Chiefly" 
Dr. K. R. Hagenoach, Vol. I, pp. 95, 96. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1878. 

Infallibility, Importance of the Doctrine of. — For what is the 
subject in dispute when we discuss the primacy of the Pontiff? In a 
few words, it is the sum and substance of Christianity. The inquiry is 
nothing less than, Whether the church ought any longer to maintain its 
existence, or to be dissolved and to fall to ruin? What is the difference 
between asking whether it is expedient to remove the foundation from 
a building, the shepherd from his flock, the general from his army, the 
sun from the stars, the head from the body; and asking whether it is 
expedient that the building should fall, the flock be scattered, the army 
routed, the stars darkened, the body prostrate? — " On the Chief Pontiff" 
Bellarmine (R. C), preface, par. 2. 

Infallibility Defined. — Infallibility, (in general) exemption or 
immunity from liability to error or failure; (in particular) in theo- 
logical usage, the supernatural prerogative by which the church of 
Christ is, by a special divine assistance, preserved from liability to error 
in her definitive dogmatic teaching regarding matters of faith and mor- 
als.— Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. VII, art. " Infallibility" p. 790. 

Infallibility, What It Is Not— 1. The infallibility of the popes 
does not signify that they are inspired. . . . 

2. Infallibility does not mean that the Pope is impeccable, or spe- 
cially exempt from liability to sin. . . . 

3. Bear in mind, also, that this divine assistance is guaranteed to 
the Pope, not in his capacity as a private teacher, but only in his official 
capacity, when he judges of faith and morals as head of the church. . . . 

4. Finally, the inerrability of the popes, being restricted to questions 
of faith and morals, does not extend to the natural sciences, such as 
astronomy or geology, unless where error is presented under the false 



240 



INFALLIBILITY, NEWMAN ON. 



name of science, and arrays itself against revealed truth. — " The Faith 
of Our Fathers" James Cardinal Gibbons (R. C), pp. 145-148. Balti- 
more, Md.: John Murphy & Co., 1893. 

Infallibility, Decree of the Vatican Council on. — Therefore faith- 
fully adhering to the tradition received from the beginning of the 
Christian faith, for the glory of God our Saviour, the exaltation of the 
Catholic religion, and the salvation of Christian people, the Sacred Coun- 
cil approving, we teach and define that it is a dogma divinely revealed: 
that the Roman Pontiff, when he speaks ex cathedr&i that is, when in 
discharge of the office of pastor and doctor of all Christians, by virtue 
of his supreme apostolic authority he defines a doctrine regarding faith 
or morals to be held by the universal church, by the divine assistance 
promised to him in blessed Peter, is possessed of that infallibility with 
which the divine Redeemer willed that his church should be endowed 
for defining doctrine regarding faith or morals: and that therefore such 
definitions of the Roman Pontiff are irreformable of themselves, and not 
from the consent of the church. — From " First Dogmatic Constitution on 
the Church of Christ," chap. 4, published in the fourth session of the 
Vatican Council, July 18, 1870; " Petri Privilegium" (The Vatican Coun- 
cil and Its Definitions), Archbishop Manning (R. C), p. 218. London: 
Longmans, Green & Co., 1871. 

Infallibility, Newman's Celebrated Letter on. — As to myself per- 
sonally, please God, I do not expect any trial at all; but I cannot help 
suffering with the many souls who are suffering, and I look with anxiety 
at the prospect of having to defend decisions which may not be difficult 
to my own private judgment, but may be most difficult to maintain 
logically in the face of historical facts. 

What have we done to be treated as the faithful never were treated 
before? When has a definition de fide been a luxury of devotion and 
not a stern, painful necessity? Why should an aggressive, insolent fac- 
tion [evidently meaning the Jesuits] be allowed to " make the heart 
of the just sad, whom the Lord hath not made sorrowful "? Why 
cannot we be let alone when we have pursued peace and thought 
no evil? . . . 

Then, again, think of the store of pontifical scandals in the history 
of eighteen centuries, which have partly been poured forth and partly 
are still to come. What Murphy inflicted upon us in one way, M. Veuillot 
is indirectly bringing on us in another. And then again, the blight which 
is falling upon the multitude of Anglican ritualists, etc., who themselves, 
perhaps — at least their leaders — may never become Catholics, but who 
are leavening the various English denominations and parties (far be- 
yond their own range) with principles and sentiments tending towards 
their ultimate absorption into the Catholic Church. 

With these thoughts ever before me, I am continually asking myself 
whether I ought not to make my feelings public; but all I do is to pray 
those early doctors of the church, whose intercession would decide the 
matter (Augustine, Ambrose, and Jerome, Athanasius, Chrysostom, and 
Basil), to avert this great calamity. 

If it is God's will that the Pope's infallibility be defined, then is it 
God's will to throw back "the times and moments" of that triumph 
which he has destined for his kingdom, and I shall feel I have but to 
bow my head to his adorable, inscrutable providence. — Extract from a 

1 The words ex cathedra exclude all acts of the Pontiff as a private person 
or as a private doctor, and confine the character of infallibility to those acts 
which are promulgated from the chair of supreme authority as universal doctor 
of the church in faith and morals.—" Petri Privilegium," Archbishop Manning, 
part 2, pp. 60j 61. 



INFALLIBILITY, DOLLINGER ON. 



241 



Letter from John Henry Newman to Bishop Ullathorne; "Letters from 
Rome" Quirinus (Lord Acton) (R. C.J, pp. 356-358. London: Rivingtons, 
1870. 

Note. — Among the most noted converts from the Church of England to the 
Roman Catholic Church was John Henry Newman, who was made cardinal by 
Pope Leo XIII in 1879. This letter was written by him when it appeared likely 
that the Vatican Council would adopt the decree of infallibility. — Eds. 

Infallibility, Excerpt from Archbishop Kenrick's Famous Speech 
Against. — I say that the infallibility of the Pope is not a doctrine of 
faith. 

1. It is not contained in the symbols of the faith; it is not presented 
as an article of faith in the catechisms; and it is not found as such in 
any document of public worship. Therefore the church has not hitherto 
taught it as a thing to be believed of faith; as, if it were a doctrine of 
faith, it ought to have delivered and taught it. 

2. Not only has not the church taught it in any public instrument, 
but it has suffered it to be impugned, not everywhere, but, with the pos- 
sible exception of Italy, almost everywhere in the world, and that for 
a long time. — "An Inside View of the Vatican Council" Archbishop 
Kenrick, p. 139. 

Note. — Among " the most illustrious and learned prelates and scholars of 
the Roman communion " who strenuously opposed the doctrine of the dogTia of 
infallibility, were the Archbishop of Paris, the Bishop of Orleans, the Bishop 
of Rottenburg (Charles Joseph Hefele, the author of the celebrated "History of 
Church Councils"), the Archbishop of St. Louis, and J. J. Ign. von Dollinger, the 
well-known historian and theologian. Peter Richard Kenrick, Archbishop of St. 
Louis, prepared a speech to be delivered in the Vatican Council, but as he was 
prevented from delivering this speech by the sudden and unexpected closing of 
the debate, it was printed and circulated among the bishops at the council. The 
original of this famous speech is found in " Doviimenta ad Illustrandum Concilium 
Yaticanum," part 1, pp. 189-226. A translation of it is found in " The Vatican 
Council,'' issued by the American Tract Society, New York, pp, 95-166. — Eds. 

Infallibility, Dr. Dollinger on. — The root of the whole ultramon- 
tane habit of mind is the personal infallibility of the Pope, and accord- 
ingly the Jesuits declare it to be the wish of true Catholics that this 
dogma should be denned at the forthcoming council. If this desire is 
accomplished, a new principle of immeasurable importance, both retro- 
spective and prospective, will be established — a principle which, when 
once irrevocably fixed, will extend its dominion over men's minds more 
and more, till it has coerced them into subjection to every papal pro- 
nouncement in matters of religion, morals, politics, and social science. 
For it will be idle to talk any more of the Pope's encroaching on a 
foreign domain; he, and he alone, as being infallible, will have the 
right of determining the limits of his teaching and action at his own 
good pleasure, and every such determination will bear the stamp of 
infallibility. . . . 

Papal infallibility, once defined as a dogma, will give the impulse 
to a theological, ecclesiastical, and even political revolution, the nature 
of which very few — and least of all those who are urging it on — have 
clearly realized, and no hand of man will be able to stay its course. In 
Rome itself the saying will be verified, " Thou wilt shudder thyself at 
thy likeness to God." 

In the next place, the newly coined article of faith will inevitably 
take root as the foundation and corner-stone of the whole Roman Cath- 
olic edifice. The whole activity of theologians will be concentrated on 
the one point of ascertaining whether or not a papal decision can be 
quoted for any given doctrine, and in laboring to discover and amass 
proof for it from history and literature. Every other authority will 



16 



242 



INFALLIBILITY, CATECHISMS ON. 



pale beside the living oracle on the Tiber, which speaks with plenary 
inspiration, and can always be appealed to. 

What use in tedious investigations of Scripture, what use in wasting 
time on the difficult study of tradition, which requires so many kinds 
of preliminary knowledge, when a single utterance of the infallible Pope 
may shatter at a breath the labors of half a lifetime, and a telegraphic 
message to Rome will get an answer in a few hours or a few days, which 
becomes an axiom and article of faith? . . . 

To prove the dogma of papal infallibility from church history noth- 
ing less is required than a complete falsification of it. The declarations 
of popes which contradict the doctrines of the church, or contradict each 
other (as the same pope sometimes contradicts himself), will have to 
be twisted into agreement, so as to show that their heterodox or mu- 
tually destructive enunciations are at bottom sound doctrine, or, when 
a little has been subtracted from one dictum and added to the other, are 
not really contradictory, and mean the same thing. — " The Pope and the 
Council," Janus (Bollinger ) (R. C), pp. 45-50. London: Rivingtons, 1869. 

Even the boldest champions of papal absolutism, men like Agostino 
Trionfo [Augustinus de Ancona] and Alvaro Pelayo, assumed that the 
popes could err, and that their decisions were no certain criterion. . . . 
So, too, Cardinal Jacob Fournier, afterwards pope, thought that papal 
decisions were by no means final, but might be overruled by another 
pope, and that John XXII had done well in annulling the offensive and 
doctrinally erroneous decision of Nicolas III on the poverty of Christ, 
and the distinction of use and possession. . . . And Innocent IV allowed 
that a papal command containing anything heretical, or threatening de- 
struction to the whole church system, was not to be obeyed, and that a 
pope might err in matters of faith. — Id., pp. 272, 278. 

Note. — The standing of J. J. Ign. von Dbllinger as a historian and a theo- 
logian will not be disputed by any one who is fairly well versed in the history of 
the Roman Church. It is well known that he persistently refused to subscribe to 
the dogma of infallibility, and that he was on this account excommunicated 
(April 18, 1871) by the church to which he had rendered such signal service. 
Using the pseudonym " Janus," Dr. Dbllinger wrote a book, " Der Pabst und der 
Goncil" (The Pope and the Council), in which he discussed the question of 
papal infallibility from the standpoint of both a theologian and a historian, and 
presented the most telling arguments against it. This book created a great stir 
in the council, and of course was speedily placed upon the papal Index. — Eds. 

Infallibility, and the Catechism Before 1870. — Question. — Must 
not Catholics believe the Pope in himself to be infallible? 

Answer. — This is a Protestant invention: it is no article of the 
Catholic faith: no decision of his can oblige, under pain of heresy, unless 
it be received and enforced by the teaching body; that is, by the bishops 
of the church. — " Doctrinal Catechism" Rev. Stephen Keenan (previous 
to 1870). 

Do we believe that, as a consequence of this primacy, the Pope is 
infallible and may decide as Christ himself, as the non-Catholics allege? 

No. The Pope possesses in controversies of faith only a judicial 
decision, which can only become an article of faith when the church 

gives its concurrence. — " Catechism of the Catholic Religion" Kraut- 
heimer, p. 87. 

Note. — As remarked by Dr. Dbllinger ("The Pope and the Council," p. 76), 
" Up to the time of the Isidorian Decretals [about 850 a. d.] no serious attempt 
was made anywhere to introduce the Neo-Roman theory of infallibility." Even 
thereafter, and until the Vatican Council (1870), papal infallibility was not 
generally taught in Catholic catechisms, as is witnessed by the two questions and 
answers given under this heading. — Eds. 



INFALLIBILITY, HISTORY ON. 



243 



Infallibility, The Testimony of History Concerning. — As to con- 
crete examples of the fallibility of the Pope, even when speaking ex 
cathedra, scholars, Roman Catholic as well as Protestant, have supplied 
us with enough to convince any one whose mind is not closed against 
conviction. 

Two popes of the third century, Zephyrinus and Callistus, were 
guilty of heresy in relation to the person of our Lord, according to the 
testimony of Hippolytus, saint and martyr. 

Pope Liberius (a. d. 358) subscribed an Arian creed and condemned 
Athanasius, the great champion of the divinity of Christ. 

Pope Zosimus gave the stamp of orthodoxy to the Pelagian heresy, 
but afterwards, under pressure from St. Augustine, reversed his decision. 

Pope Vigilius (538-555), having been repudiated by the fifth ecu- 
menical council, made his submission to the council and confessed that 
he had been the tool of Satan. 

Pope Honorius I (625-638) taught ex cathedra the Monothelite her- 
esy, and was excommunicated as a heretic by an ecumenical council — 
universally acknowledged both in the East and in the West — which 
assembled in Constantinople in 680. Their anathema was repeated by 
the seventh and eighth ecumenical councils. And finally the succeeding 
popes for three hundred years pronounced " an eternal anathema " on 
Pope Honorius, thus recognizing both the justice of his condemnation 
and also the principle that a general council may condemn a pope for 
heresy. 

All attempts to escape the iron grasp of the facts of history in this 
crucial instance of the breakdown of the theory of papal infallibility 
have failed conspicuously. — " Romanism in the Light of History" Ran- 
dolph E. McKim, D. D., pp. 133, 134. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 
1914. 

Alvaro Pelayo, who, next to Augustine of Ancona [Augustinus Tri- 
umphus], furthered the aggrandizement of the papal power, with the 
greatest zeal, beyond all previous bounds, and almost beyond all limits 
whatever, in his great work on the condition of the church, makes men- 
tion of the judgment which came upon Anastasius, in order to prove his 
dictum that a heretical pope must receive a far heavier sentence than 
any other. Occam, also, makes use of the " heretical " Anastasius as an 
instance to prove, what was his main point, that the church erred by 
his recognition. The Council of Basle in like manner, with a view to 
establishing the necessary supremacy of an ecumenical council over the 
Pope, did not fail to appeal to the fact that popes who did not obey 
the church were treated by her as heathens and publicans, as one reads 
of Liberius and Anastasius. 

" The Pope," says Domenicus Dei Domenici, Bishop of Torcello, 
somewhat later, in a letter addressed to Pope Calixtus III (1455-58), 
" the Pope by himself alone is not an infallible rule of faith, for some 
popes have erred in faith, as, for example, Liberius and Anastasius II, 
and the latter was in consequence punished by God." After him the 
Belgian John le Maire, also, says (about 1515) Liberius and Anastasius 
are the two popes of ancient times, who, subsequent to the Donation of 
Constantine, obtained an infamous reputation in the church as heretics. 
— "Fables Respecting the Popes of the Middle Ages," John J. Ign. von 
Bollinger (R. G.J, pp. 219, 220. London: Rivingtons, 1871. 

Infallibility, The Principle Extended. — Not only are the Scrip- 
tures and apostolic traditions infallible sources of doctrine which is 
unerringly transmitted, but the general sense and belief of the faithful 
is also infallible. — The Catholic World, August, 1871, p. 582. 



244 



INFALLIBILITY AND THE BIBLE. 



Infallibility and Omnipotence. — The infallible possession of truth 
in the head of a mortal appears so nearly related to omniscience and so 
exclusive an attribute of the Godhead, that a man might - almost as 
readily be declared omnipotent as infallible. — " Handbook to the Contro- 
versy with Rome," Karl von Hase, Vol. I, p. 252. London: The Reli- 
gious Tract Society, 1909. 

Infallibility, Its Remabkable Effect. — External force may 
frighten a man into altering his outward profession, but has no effect on 
his inward belief. But if he comes to persuade himself of the existence 
of a guide incapable of leading him wrong, he is ready to surrender his 
previous beliefs in deference to that authority, to accept as true what he 
had before proved to be false, and to renounce as false what he had 
before proved to be true: even though he can point out no flaw in his 
previous demonstrations, and though he might find it hard to explain 
why he was not as liable to error in the process by which he persuaded 
himself of the infallibility of his guide as in his earlier reasonings. — 
" The Infallibility of the Church," George Salmon, D. D., p. 23, note. 
New York: E. P. Button & Co., 1914. 

Infallibility and the Infallible Book. — In one of the popular con- 
troversial works upon which Roman Catholics greatly rely ("The Faith 
of Our Fathers," by Cardinal Gibbons), the following argument is em- 
ployed, and the poor Protestant is shown that his " infallible Bible " is 
of no use whatever without an infallible interpreter. I will place in 
parallel columns the cardinal's argument turned against his own 
doctrine: 



The Cardinal to the Protestant 

"Let us see, sir, whether an in- 
fallible Bible is sufficient for you. 
Either you are infallibly certain 
that your interpretation of that 
Bible is correct, or you are not. 



" If you are infallibly certain, 
then you assert for yourself, and, 
of course, for every reader of the 
Scripture, a personal infallibility 
which you deny to the Pope, and 
which we claim only for him. You 
make every man his own pope. 

"If you are not infallibly cer- 
tain that you understand the true 
meaning of the whole Bible, — and 
this is a privilege you do not claim, 
— then, I ask, of what use to you 
is the objective infallibility of the 
Bible, without an infallible inter- 
preter? " — Page 155. 



The Protestant to the Roman Catholic 

" Let us see, my friend, whether 
an infallible pope is sufficient for 
you. Either you are infallibly cer- 
tain that your interpretation of 
the meaning and extent of the 
dogma of infallibility is correct, or 
you are not. 

" If you are infallibly certain, 
then you assert for yourself, and, 
of course, for every Roman Cath- 
olic, a personal infallibility. You 
make every Roman Catholic his 
own pope. 

" If you are not infallibly cer- 
tain that you understand the scope 
and meaning of the dogma of in- 
fallibility, — and how can you 
make such a claim, when the great 
scholars and princes of the church 
differ about it so widely? — then, I 
ask, of what use to you is the 
dogma of infallibility without an 
infallible interpreter of its scope 
and intent? " 



The logical dilemma is a dangerous bull, for he will sometimes 
turn and gore his own master! — "Romanism in the Light of History," 
Randolph H. McKim, D. D., pp. 139, 140. New York: G. P. Putnam's 
Sons, 1914. 



INFALLIBILITY, EFFECT OF. 



245 



Infallibility, Unquestioning Submission to. — We have no right 
to ask reasons of the church, any more than of Almighty God, as a pre- 
liminary to our submission. We are to take with unquestioning docility 
whatever instruction the church gives us. — The Catholic World, Au- 
gust, 1871, p. 589. 

Infallibility, A Declaration Against. — The bishops on both sides 
of the ocean all submitted to the new dogma. It was the scrupulousness 
of some German professors which rose up against it. At the end of 
August eleven of them united in making this declaration in Nurem- 
berg: " The resolutions of the majority of the assemblage of bishops at 
the Vatican published by means of the bull of July 18, we are unable to 
recognize as the pronouncements of a truly ecumenical council. We 
reject them as new doctrines, never recognized by the church." — " Hand- 
book to the Controversy with Rome," Karl von Hase, Vol. I, p. 820. 
London: The Religious Tract Society, 1909. 

Infallibility, Blasphemous in Character. — If the claims which 
are put forth by the bishops of Rome to infallibility and universal su- 
premacy are not just, — we are compelled very reluctantly to say it, — 
then there is no alternative, they are nothing short of blasphemy. For 
they are claims to participation in the attributes of God himself. And 
if he does not authorize these claims, they are usurpations of his divine 
prerogatives. They therefore who abet those claims are fighting against 
him. They are defying him, who " is a jealous God, and will not give 
his honor to another," and who is " a consuming fire." May they there- 
fore take heed in time, lest they incur his malediction! — " St. Hippo- 
lytus and the Church of Rome,'" Chr. Wordsworth, D. D., p. 300. Lon- 
don: Rivingtons, 1880. 

Infallibility and Inspiration. — According to this theory [of infal- 
libility], then, all the prerogatives of Scripture are annulled: the dicta 
of Pius IX and Leo XIII are as truly inspired by God's Spirit, and are 
to be received with as much reverence, as the utterances of Peter and 
Paul. ... It is a very short way from the doctrine that Pius IX and 
Leo XIII were as much inspired as Peter and Paul, to the doctrine that 
Peter and Faul were no more inspired than Pius or Leo. — " The Infal- 
libility of the Church" George Salmon, D. D., pp. 43, 45. New York: 
E. P. Button & Co., 1914. 

Infallibility, Effect of. — One can scarcely open any book that 
attempts to deal with controversy by such a Roman Catholic as, for 
in tance, Cardinal Manning, without being forced to observe how his 
faith in the infallibility of the present church makes him impenetrable 
to all arguments. Suppose, for example, the question in dispute is the 
Pope's personal infallibility, and that you object to him the case of 
Honorius: he replies, At most you could make out that it is doubtful 
whether Honorius was orthodox; but it is certain that a pope could not 
be a heretic. Well, you reply, at least the case of Honorius shows that 
the church of the time supposed that a pope could be a heretic. Not so, 
he answers, for the church now holds that a pope speaking ex cathedra 
cannot err, and the church could not have taught differently at any 
other time. 

Thus, as long as any one really believes in the infallibility of his 
church, he is proof against any argument you can ply him with. Con- 
versely, when faith in this principle is shaken, belief in some other 
Roman Catholic doctrine is sure also to be disturbed; for there are some 
of these doctrines in respect of which nothing but a very strong belief 



INFALLIBILITY, VIEWS OF. 



that the Roman Church cannot decide wrongly will prevent a candid 
inquirer from coming to the conclusion that she has decided wrongly. 
This simplification, then, of the controversy realizes for us the wish of 
the Roman tyrant that all his enemies had but one neck. If we can but 
strike one blow, the whole battle is won. — Id., p. 18. 

Infallibility and Private Judgment. — It is common with Roman 
Catholics to speak as if the use of private judgment and the infallibility 
of the church were things opposed to each other. They are fond of 
contrasting the peace, and certainty, and assurance of him whose faith 
rests on the rock of an infallible church, with the uncertainty of him 
whose belief rests only on the shifting sands of his own fallible judg- 
ment. But it must be remembered that our belief must, in the end, 
rest on an act of our own judgment, and can never attain any higher 
certainty than whatever that may be able to give us. We may talk 
about the right of private judgment, or the duty of private judgment, 
but a more important thing to insist on is the necessity of private 
judgment. We have the choice whether we shall exercise our private 
judgment in one act or in a great many; but exercise it in one way or 
another we must. We may either apply our private judgment separately 
to the different questions in controversy — purgatory, transubstantia- 
tion, invocation of saints, and so forth — and come to our own conclu- 
sion on each; or we may apply our private judgment to the question 
whether the Church of Rome is infallible, and, if we decide that it is, 
take all our religious opinions thenceforward on trust from her. But 
it is clear that our certainty that any of the things she teaches us is 
right cannot be greater than whatever certainty we have that our private 
judgment has decided the question rightly whether we ought to submit 
unreservedly to her teaching. — Id., pp. 47, 48. 

Infallibility, View of, Before 1870. — Thus, the visible church, from 
the point of view here taken, is the Son of God himself, everlastingly 
manifesting himself among men in a human form, perpetually reno- 
vated, and eternally young — the permanent incarnation of the same, 
as in Holy Writ, even the faithful are called " the body of Christ." 
Hence it is evident that the church, though composed of men, is yet not 
purely human. Nay, as in Christ the divinity and the humanity are to 
be clearly distinguished, though both are bound in unity; so is he in 
undivided entireness perpetuated in the church. The church, his per- 
manent manifestation, is at once divine and human — she is the union 
of both. He it is who, concealed under earthly and human forms, works 
in the church; and this is wherefore she has a divine and a human part 
in an undivided mode, so that the divine cannot be separated from the 
human, nor the human from the divine. Hence these two parts change 
their predicates. If the divine — the living Christ and his spirit — 
constitute undoubtedly that which is infallible, and eternally inerrable 
in the church; so also the human is infallible and inerrable in the 
same way, because the divine without the human has no existence 
for us; yet the human is not inerrable in itself, but only as the organ 
and as the manifestation of the divine. Hence we are enabled to 
conceive how so great, important, and mysterious a charge could have 
been intrusted to men. — "Symbolism," John Adam Moehler, D. D. 
(R. C), p. 259. London: Thomas Baker, 1906. [This book was first 
printed in 1832 — Eds.] 

Infallibility, Roman Catholic Doctrine of, Before 1870. — It is no 
matter of faith to believe that the Pope is in himself infallible, sepa- 
rated from the church, even in expounding the faith: by consequence 
papal definitions or decrees, in whatever form pronounced, taken ex- 



INFAIiLIBILITY, BASIS OF. 



cluslvely from [apart from] a general council, or universal acceptance 
of the church, oblige none, under pain of heresy, to an interior assent. — 
" Roman Catholic Principles in Reference to God and the King,'" Kirk's 
edition; cited in " Documenta ad Illustrandum Concilium Vaticanum," 
Dr. JoJiann Friedrich, p. 213. Nordlingen : C. H. Beck'sche Buchhand- 
lung, 1871. 

The doctrine of Scripture is one and the same with the doctrine 
of the church, since the church hath to interpret the Scripture, and in 
this interpretation cannot err. — Id., p. 288. 

Infallibility, Dollinger's Rejection or. — As Christian, as theolo- 
gian, as historian, as citizen, I cannot accept this doctrine. I cannot do 
so as a Christian, because it is incompatible with the spirit of the gos- 
pel, and with the lucid sayings of Christ and the apostles; it simply 
wishes to establish the kingdom of this world, which Christ declined 
to do, and to possess the sovereignty over the congregations, which 
Peter refused for every one else, as well as for himself. I cannot do so 
as a theologian, because the whole genuine tradition of the church 
stands irreconcilably opposed to it. I cannot do so as a historian, 
because, as such, I know that the persistent endeavors to realize this 
theory of a universal sovereignty has cost Europe streams of blood, dis- 
tracted and ruined whole countries, shaken to its foundations the beau- 
tiful organic edifice of the constitution of the older church, and begotten, 
nursed, and maintained the worst abuses in the church. Finally, I must 
reject it as a citizen, because, with its claims on the submission of 
states and monarchs and the whole political order of things to the papal 
power, and by the exceptional position claimed by it for the clergy, it 
lays the foundation for an endless and fatal discord between the state 
and the church, between the clergy and the laity. — "Declarations and 
Letters on the Vatican Decrees" Ignaz von Dollinger (R. C.J, p. 103. 
Edinburgh: T. d T. Clark, 1891. 

Infallibility, Unlimited Power of. — It is the whole fulness of 
power over the collective church, as well as over every individual, 
claimed by the popes since Gregory VII, and expressed in the numerous 
bulls since TJnam Sanctam, which is henceforth to be believed by every 
Catholic, and acknowledged in public life. This power is boundless 
and incalculable; it can interfere everywhere, as Innocent III says, 
where sin is, can punish everybody, brooks no appeal, and is absolute 
arbitrariness; for the Pope, as Boniface VIII expressed it, carries every 
privilege in the shrine of his breast. As he has become infallible, he 
can, at any moment, with the one little word orbi (thereby addressing 
the whole church), make every statute, every doctrine, and every pos- 
tulate, an infallible and irrevocable article of faith. As opposed to him, 
there exists no right, no personal or corporative freedom, or, as the 
canonists say, "the tribunals of God and the Pope are one and the 
same." — Id., p. 102. 

Infallibility, Based upon Fictions and Forgeries. — In a memo- 
rial, which has now been printed, a considerable number of Italian 
bishops demanded that the papal infallibility should be raised to an 
article of faith, because it had been taught by two men, both of whom 
were Italians and the pride of their nation, viz., those two bright shin- 
ing lights of the church, Thomas Aquinas and Alphonse of Liguori. 
Now, it was well known, and had already been noticed by Gratry as 
well as by myself, that Aquinas had been deluded by a long series of 
invented evidences, as he, indeed, in proof of his dqctrine, only appeals 



248 



INFALLIBILITY, DIFFICULTIES OF. 



to such forgeries, and never to the genuine passages of the Fathers or 
councils. And as far as Liguori is concerned, one glance at his writings 
is sufficient to show an experienced theologian that he handled forged 
passages in a much worse way than Aquinas. 

My reference to the fraud of which Thomas had been a victim, had 
caused a great sensation in Rome; the author of a paper that was at 
that time written in Rome, and directed against me, says that round 
about him it was received with cries of disapproval. It would accord- 
ingly have been unavoidably necessary to subject the matter to exami- 
nation. This examination, it is true, had it been comprehensive and 
thorough, would have led very far; it would have produced the result 
that the theory of papal infallibility had been introduced into the church 
only by a long chain of purposeful fictions and forgeries, and had then 
been propagated and confirmed by violence, by suppression of the old 
doctrine, and by the manifold ways and means that are at the disposal 
of a sovereign. — Id., iw. 94-96. 

Infallibility, Not Universally Taught. — In several pastoral let- 
ters and manifestoes of recent date from the bishops, the opinion is 
maintained, or a historical proof is attempted, that the new doctrine of 
papal omnipotence over every individual Christian, and of papal infal- 
libility in decisions of faith as proclaimed at Rome, has always been 
believed and taught universally, or, at all events, almost universally 
in the church from the earliest times and throughout all the centuries. 
This assertion rests, as I am ready to prove, on a complete misunder- 
standing of ecclesiastical tradition in the first thousand years of the 
church, and on a distortion of her history; it contradicts the clearest 
facts and evidences. — Id., p. 84. 

Infallibility, a Usurpation of What Belongs to God. — They had 
perceived and shown that the infallibility of the Pope is contrary to 
Scripture and tradition; that it is the usurpation on the part of a poor 
child of man of what God has reserved to himself; that it is injurious 
to the church, as placing the government now altogether in the hands 
of the Jesuits, and perhaps sometime in the future in the hands of a 
frivolous or even criminal Pope. — " Handbook to the Controversy with 
Rome," Karl von Hase, Vol. I, p. 299. London: The Religious Tract 
Society, 1909. 

Infallibility, a Monstrosity. — The Allgemeine Augsburger Zeitung 
of August 15 [1870] delivered this judgment: "The monstrosity has 
taken place. The paramount party in the church has committed the 
crime of declaring to be a heresy the oldest principle of the Catholic 
faith, that revealed truth is made known only by the continuous consent 
of all churches, and, on the other hand, has declared as a dogma by the 
mouth of the unhappy Pius IX the crazy opinion of mere human origin 
that the Pope by himself is infallible." — Id., pp. 311, 312. 

Infallibility, Difficulties of. — At this moment Roman theologians 
are at hopeless variance on three questions raised by this decree: 

1. When does the Pope speak ex cathedra? 

2. How is the fact to be known publicly? 

3. What is " that infallibility," in kind or degree, mentioned? 
And some of the difficulties which encompass the subject may be 

gathered from the subjoined extract from a pastoral of the hyper- 
ultramontane Cardinal Dechamps of Mechlin, dated Dec. 8, 1879, and 
intended to minimize the force of Leo XIII's disapproval of his policy: 



INFALLIBILITY, SIGNIFICANCE OF. 



249 



" Infallibility is not what is alleged by the editors of certain papers, 
the members of certain parliaments, the professors of certain universi- 
ties, and sometimes also by lawyers and soldiers. No; for the Pope 
is not infallible when he expresses only his own ideas, but he is infal- 
lible when, as head of the church, he defines truths contained in the 
depository of revelation, the Scriptures and tradition. The Pope is not 
infallible when he judges purely personal questions; but he is so when 
he judges doctrinal questions affecting faith or morals; that is to say, 
reA aled truth or revealed law, the f ope being infallible only when he 
rests on the testimony of God or revelation. The Pope is not infallible 
when he treats as a private doctor questions even of doctrine, but when 
he jridges hv virtue of his apostolic authority that a doctrine affecting 
revealed truth and revealed law ought to be held by the universal 
church." — " hlain Reasons Against Joining the Church of Rome'' Rich- 
ard Frederick Littledale, LL. D., D. C. L., pp. 186, 187. London: Society 
for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1905. 

Infallibility, Events Coxxected with Proclamation of. — It is also 
a remarkable coincidence, that the promulgation of the dogma of the 
personal infallibility of the Papacy by the present Pope, in the council 
which commenced its sessions on the festival of the Immaculate Con- 
ception, was followed on the next day after that promulgation (July 19, 
1870) by the declaration of war on the part of France against Prussia; 
which has led to the sudden humiliation of France, the protectress of 
Rome, and to the withdrawal of the French troops from Rome, and to 
the opening of the gates of Rome to the forces of Victor Emmanuel. 

It is also worthy of notice that in the same year, 1870, on the very 
next day after the anniversary of the festival of the Immaculate Con- 
ception on which (in 1854) the novel dogma of the Immaculate Con- 
ception was promulgated, and on which (in 1869) the Vatican Council 
met, which has decreed the Pope's infallibility, — a public document 
and manife:to was laid before the Italian Parliament, in which the 
government of the king of Italy announced a royal decree, accepting the 
city and provinces of Rome, transferred to the king by a plebiscito of 
the Roman people themselves, and in which it is declared that the 
Pope's temporal power is extinct, and that Rome is no longer to be the 
metropolis of the Roman Papacy, but is henceforth to become, in lieu 
of Florence, the capital of the kingdom of Italy. 

The e coincidences were undesigned; the principal actors in them 
thought nothing of the Apocalypse. 

But they who have that divine book in their hands, and who re- 
member Christ's command to " discern the signs of the times," and who 
consider the blessing which is promised to those who read and meditate 
upon the Apocalypse, will mark these facts, and will observe these 
coincidences, and will inquire with reverence, whether the prophecies 
of the book of Revelation are not now receiving their accomplishment 
in Italy and at Rome. — " Union with Rome," Chr. Wordsworth, D. D., 
pp. 98, 99. London: Longmans, Green d Co., 1909. 

Infallibility, Significance of. — The sinlessness of the Virgin 
Mary and the personal infallibility of the Pope are the characteristic 
dogmas of modern Romanism, the two test dogmas which must decide 
the ultimate fate of this system. Both were enacted under the same 
Pope, and both faithfully reflect his character. Both have the advantage 
of logical consistency from certain premises, and seem to be the very 
perfection of the Romish form of piety and the Romish principle of 
authority. Both rest on pious fiction and fraud; both present a re- 
fined idolatry by clothing a pure, humble woman and a mortal, sinful 



250 



INQUISITION. 



man with divine attributes. The dogma of the Immaculate Conception, 
which exempts the Virgin Mary from sin and guilt, perverts Chris- 
tianism into Marianism; the dogma of Infallibility, which exempts the 
Bishop of Rome from error, resolves Catholicism into papalism, or the 
church into the pope. The worship of a woman is virtually substituted 
for the worship of Christ, and a man-god in Rome for the God-man in 
heaven. This is a severe judgment, but a closer examination will sus- 
tain it. 

The dogma of the Immaculate Conception, being confined to the 
sphere of devotion, passed into the modern Roman creed without serious 
difficulty, but the dogma of Papal Infallibility, which involves a question 
of absolute power, forms an epoch in the history of Romanism, and 
created the greatest commotion and a new secession. It is in its very 
nature the most fundamental and most comprehensive of all dogmas. 
It contains the whole system in a nutshell. It constitutes a new rule 
of faith. It is the article of the standing or falling church. It is the 
direct antipode of the Protestant principle of the absolute supremacy 
and infallibility of the Holy Scriptures. It establishes a perpetual 
divine oracle in the Vatican. Every Catholic may hereafter say, I 
believe — not because Christ, or the Bible, or the church, but — because 
the infallible Pope has so declared and commanded. 

Admitting this dogma, we admit not only the whole body of 
doctrines contained in the Tridentine standards, but all the official 
papal bulls, including the medieval monstrosities of the Syllabus (1864), 
the condemnation of Jansenism, the bull J] nam Sanctam of Boniface 
VIII (1302), which, under pain of damnation, claims for the Pope the 
double sword, the secular as well as the spiritual, over the whole 
Christian world, and the power to depose princes and to absolve subjects 
from their oath of allegiance. The past is irreversibly settled, and in 
all future controversies on faith and morals we must look to the same 
unerring tribunal in the Vatican. Even ecumenical councils are super 
seded hereafter, and would be a mere waste of time and strength. 

On the other hand, if the dogma is false, it involves a blasphemous 
assumption, and makes the nearest approach to the fulfilment of St. 
Paul's prophecy of the man of sin, who " as God sitteth in the temple 
of God, showing himself off that he is God" (2 Thess. 2: 4). — "Rome 
and the Newest Fashions in Religion,'" Hon. W. E. Gladstone, pp. 83, 84. 
New York: Harper & Brothers, 1875. 

Infallibility.— See Councils, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124; Gallicanism, 
181; Papacy, 341; Papal Supremacy, 369. 

Infidelity. — See French Revolution. 

Innocent III. — See Inquisition, 252; Magna Charta, 292; Papacy, 
Builders of, 351-353. 

Inquisition, Defined. — By this term is usually meant a special 
ecclesiastical institution for combating or suppressing heresy. Its char- 
acteristic mark seems to be the bestowal on special judges of judicial 
powers in matters of faith, and this by supreme ecclesiastical authority, 
not temporal or for individual cases, but as a universal and permanent 
office. — The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. VIII, art. "Inquisition" p. 26. 
New York: Robert Appleton Company. 

Inquisition, Character of Inquisitors. — History shows us how far 
the inquisitors answered to this ideal. Far from being inhuman, they 
were, as a rule, men of spotless character and sometimes of truly ad- 



INQUISITION. 



251 



mirable sanctity, and not a few of them have been canonized by the 
church. There is absolutely no reason to look on the medieval eccle- 
siastical judge as intellectually and morally inferior to the modern 
judge. No one would deny that the judges of today, despite occasional 
harsh decisions and the errors of a few, pursue a highly honorable 
profession. Similarly, the medieval inquisitors should be judged as a 
whole, and not by individual examples. — The Catholic Encyclopedia, 
Vol. VIII, art. "Inquisition" p. 31. 

Inquisition, Origin of. — The power of the church, according to 
Pleury, is " purely spiritual," and he held with Marsilius that the Pope 
could employ no coactive punishment of any kind unless the emperor 

— i. e., the civil power — gave him leave. From such a view it logically 
follows that St. Paul ought to have asked the permission of Sergius 
Paulus before striking Elymas the sorcerer with blindness. The over- 
whelming majority of the canonists take the opposite view, namely, 
that the church can and ought to visit with fitting punishment the 
heretic and the revolter; and since the publication of the numerous 
encyclical letters and allocutions of the late Pope treating of the rela- 
tions between church and state, and the inherent rights of the former, 
the view of Fleury can no longer be held by any Catholic. 

For many ages after the conversion of Constantine it was easier 
for the church to repress heresy by invoking the secular arm than by 
organizing tribunals of her own for the purpose. Reference to eccle- 
siastical history and the codes of Justinian and Theodosius shows that 
the emperors generally held as decided views on the pestilent nature 
of heresy, and the necessity of extirpating it in the germ before it 
reached maturity, as the popes themselves. They were willing to re- 
press it; they took from the church the definition of what it was; and 
they had old-established tribunals armed with all the terrors of the 
law. The bishops, as a rule, had but to notify the appearance of here- 
tics to the lay power, and the latter hastened to make inquiry, and, if 
necessary, to repress and punish. 

But in the thirteenth century a new race of temporal rulers rose 
to power. The emperor Frederic II perhaps had no Christian faith at 
all; John of England meditated, sooner than yield to the Pope, openly 
to apostatize to Islam; and Philip Augustus was refractory towards the 
church in various ways. The church was as clear as ever upon the 
necessity of repressing heretics, but the weapon — secular sovereignty 

— which she had hitherto employed for the purpose seemed to be break- 
ing in her hands. The time was come when she was to forge a weapon 
of her own; to establish a tribunal the incorruptness and fidelity of 
which she could trust; which in the task of detecting and punishing 
those who misled their brethren should employ all the minor forms of 
penal repression, while still remitting to the secular arm the case of 
obstinate and incorrigible offenders. Thus arose the Inquisition. — A 
Catholic Dictionary, William E. Addis and Thomas Arnold (R. C), art. 
"Inquisition" p. 488. "New York: Benziger Brothers, 1893. 

Inquisition, Its Development. — Historically, the Inquisition may 
be traced back as far as the thirteenth century, but it was not until 
1542 that Pope Paul III, by the bull Licit ab Initio, gave it the form 
and extent which made it a supreme tribunal for the whole church; it 
can reach cardinals and bishops as well as plain laymen. Paul III placed 
at its head Cardinal Caraffa, who proved pitiless. He began by renting 
a house in which he installed surgeons and provided chains and instru- 
ments of torture. He then proclaimed these four fundamental princi- 
ples: There must be no delay in matters of faith; no consideration for 



252 



INQUISITION. 



princes or prelates; no clemency for any one who seeks protection from 
the secular power; indefatigable activity in seeking out traces of Cal- 
vinism everywhere. When he became Pope Paul III, Caraffa pursued 
his course with extreme severity, and did not spare such cardinals as 
Morone and Pole, who had spent their lives in defense of the church. 
Pius IV, Pius V, Sixtus V, were to complete the Work begun by Paul 
III, and to make the Congregation of the Inquisition, or the Holy Office, 
the highest authority of the Roman Curia. — " The Catholic Church; 
the Renaissance and Protestantism,'" Alfred Baudrillart (R. C), pp. 156, 
157. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., 1908. 

Inquisition, Wokk of. — In 1208 Innocent III established the Inqui- 
sition. In 1209 De Montfort began the massacre of the Albigenses. In 
1215 the Fourth Council of the Lateran enjoined all rulers, "as they 
desired to be esteemed faithful, to swear a public oath that they would 
labor earnestly, and to the full extent of their power, to exterminate 
from their dominions all those who were branded as heretics by the 
church." — "History of the Rise and Influence of the Spirit of Ration- 
alism in Europe," William Edward. Hartpole Lecky, Vol. II, p. 80. Lon- 
don: Longmans, Green & Co., 1904. 

Inquisition in Spain. — In 147 8 a bull was obtained from Pope 
Sixtus IV establishing the Inquisition in Spain, it being provided that 
the inquisitors were to be appointed by the sovereign. The Holy Office 
in this way became an instrument for establishing a civil despoti-m, 
as well as a means for repressing heresy. It did its work with a ruth- 
less severity hitherto unexampled. Sixtus himself and some of his 
successors, moved by repeated complaints, endeavored to restrain its 
savage energy; but the Inquisition was too useful an instrument in the 
hands of a despotic sovereign, and the popes were forced to allow its 
proceedings, and to refuse all appeals to Rome against its sentences. 
It was put in use against the Moorish subjects of the Catholic kings, 
notwithstanding the terms of the capitulation of Granada, which pro- 
vided for the exercise of civil and religious liberty. The result was 
that, in spite of fierce rebellions, all the Moors, save small groups of 
families under the special protection of the Crown, had become nominal 
Christians by 1502, although almost a century had to pa-s before the 
Inquisition had rooted out the last traces of the Moslem faith in the 
Spanish peninsula. 

The death of Isabella, in 1504, roughly dates a formidable rising 
against this process of repression and consolidation. The severities of 
the Inquisition, the insistence of Ferdinand to govern personally the 
lands of his deceased wife, and many local causes led to widespread 
conspiracies and revolts against his rule. The years between 1504 and 
1522 were a period of revolutions and of lawlessness which was ended 
when Charles V, the grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella, overcame all 
resistance and inaugurated a reign of personal despotism which long 
distinguished the kingdom of Spain. — u A History of the Reformation," 
Thomas M. Lindsay, M. A., D. D., pp. 29, 30. New York: Charles Scrib- 
ner's Sons, 1906. 

Inquisition, Victims of. — Entire volumes would be requisite to 
give an adequate idea of the way in which the Papacy has worn out 
and overcome the saints of the Most High by her cruel persecutions. . . . 

The Inquisition — a name at which humanity has learned to shud- 
der — is a long and supremely cruel and wicked history compressed 
into one word! Instituted for the avowed purpose of suppressing her- 
esy, it was established in every country which submitted to papal au- 
thority. In Spain alone it has been proved by the careful statistical 



INQUISITION. 



253 



investigations of Llorente, that between the years 1481 and 1808 over 
three hundred and forty-one thousand persons were condemned by this 
" Holy Office," of whom 31,912 were burned alive, 17,000 burned in effigy, 
and nearly three hundred thousand tortured and condemned to severe 
penances. Every Catholic country in Europe, Asia, and America had 
its Inquisition, and its consequent unexplained arrests, indefinitely long 
imprisonments of innocent persons, its secret investigations, its horrible 
torture chambers and dreadful dungeons, its auto da fcs, or burnings 
of obstinate heretics, and its thousand nameless cruelties and injus- 
tices. — " The Approaching End of the Age," H. Grattan Guinness, p. 204. 
London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1880. 

It has been calculated that the popes of Rome have, directly or 
indirectly, slain on account of their faith, fifty millions of martyrs; 
fifty millions of men and women who refused to be parties to Romish 
idolatries, who held to the Bible as the word of God. — Id., p. 212. 

Inquisition, The Medium or, Lost. — The duties and powers of 
inquisitors are minutely laid down in the canon law, it being always 
assumed that the civil power will favor, or can be compelled to favor, 
their proceedings. ... No such state of things as that here assumed 
now exists in any part of Europe; nowhere does the state assist the 
church in putting down heresy; it is therefore superfluous to describe 
regulations controlling jurisdiction which has lost the medium in which 
it could work and live. — " Half-Hours with the Servants of God" Cath- 
olic Church History, chap. 9, p. 60. New York: Murphy and McCarthy 
(R. C), 1888. 

Inquisition, Decline of. — Prom the year 1700 the vigor of the 
Inquisition began to decline. I iterature aimed its sharpest blows at the 
institutions of Dominic. The free press, which it had striven to destroy, 
covered the secret tribunal with ignominy, and denounced its most glo- 
rious triumphs as more savage than the wild orgies of the Carib. Even 
Spain and Italy felt the abhorrence of mankind; the acts of faith no 
longer drew applauding crowds at Valladolid and Seville; the bullfight 
and the blood-stained matador supplied the excitement that had once 
followed the inquisitor and his victim; and liberal priests began to 
lament the fanatical rage that had covered their church and their native 
land with infamy. Yet the Holy Office still defied the indignation of 
the Reformers, and as late as 17G3 heretics were burned in the midst of 
Spanish civilization; the Inquisition still ruled with a mysterious 
terror over the minds of men; literature, science, and invention still 
withered beneath its frown.- The French Revolution and Napoleon 
swept away the inquisitors and the holy houses; they were restored by 
the arms of Wellington and the return of the old dynasty. In 1823, 
a Tribunal of Faith punished heretics; and in 1856, English and Amer- 
ican missionaries were imprisoned or banished by the Spanish priests. 
— '-Historical Studies," Eugene Lawrence, pp. 400, 401. New York: 
Harper cC- Brothers, 1876. 

Inquisition and Spanish Civilization. — In Spain the savage gen- 
ius of Dominic gained its highest triumph. The Spanish Inquisition 
for more than six centuries has awakened the wonder and the horror 
of mankind. From Provence it was early transferred to Aragon and 
Castile; but its beginnings were modest, its influence comparatively 
slight, and it was not until the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella that its 
fatal tyranny began to sap the energy and destroy the foundations of 
Spanish civilization. — Id., p. 367. 



254 



INTERDICT. 



Inquisition. — See Councils, 121; Persecution. 

Interdict. — An interdict is a censure, or prohibition, excluding the 
faithful from participation in certain holy things (D'Annibale, " Sum- 
mula" I, n. 369). These holy things are all those pertaining to Chris- 
tian worship, and are divided into three classes: (1) The divine offices, 
in other words, the liturgy, and in general all acts performed by clerics 
as such, and having reference to worship: (2) the sacraments, excepting 
private administrations of those that are of necessity; (3) ecclesiastical 
burial, including all funeral services. This prohibition varies in degree, 
according to the different kinds of interdicts to be enumerated: 

First, interdicts are either local or personal; the former affect ter- 
ritories or sacred buildings directly, and persons indirectly; the latter 
directly affect persons. Canonical authors add a third kind, the 
mixed interdict, which affects directly and immediately both persons 
and places; if, for instance, the interdict is issued against a town and 
its inhabitants, the latter are subject to it, even when they are outside 
of the town (arg. cap. xvi, "Be sent, excomm." in VI°). Local interdicts, 
like personal interdicts, may be general or particular. A general local 
interdict is one affecting a whole territory, district, town, etc., and this 
was the ordinary interdict of the Middle Ages ; a particular local inter- 
dict is one affecting, for example, a particular church. A general per- 
sonal interdict is one falling on a given body or group of people as a 
class, e. g., on a chapter, the clergy or people of a town, of a community ; 
a particular personal interdict is one affecting certain individuals as 
such, for instance, a given bishop, a given cleric. Finally, the interdict 
is total if the prohibition extends to all the sacred things mentioned 
above; otherwise it is called partial. — " The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. 
VIII, art. "Interdict," p. 73. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 

Interdict, Effect of. — The Pope by a stroke of the pen could pre- 
vent a whole nation, so it was believed, from approaching God, because 
he could prohibit priests from performing the usual sacramental acts 
which alone brought him near. An interdict meant spiritual death to 
the district on which it fell, and on the medieval theory it was more 
deadly to the spiritual life than the worst of plagues, the black death 
itself, was to the body. An interdict made the plainest intellect see, 
understand, and shudder at the awful and mysterious powers which a 
mediatorial priesthood was said to possess. — "A History of the Refor- 
mation," Thomas M. Lindsay, M. A., D. D., p. 440. New York: Charles 
Scribner's Sons, 1906. 

The interdict was directed against a city, province, or kingdom. 
Throughout the region under this ban the churches were closed; no 
bell could be rung, no marriage celebrated, no burial ceremony per- 
formed. The sacraments of baptism and extreme unction alone could 
be administered. — "Medieval and Modern History; Philip van Ness 
Myers, p. 117. Boston: Ginn and Company. 

Inventions. — See Increase of Knowledge, 231-233. 

Irenaeus. — See Easter, 147; Fathers, 169., 

Isidorian Decretals. — False Decretals, or the Decretals of the 
Pseudo- Isidore, is a name given to certain apocryphal papal letters 
contained in a collection of canon laws composed about the middle of 
the ninth century by an author who uses the pseudonym of Isidore 
Mereator, in the opening preface to the collection, , , , 



ISIDORIAN DECRETALS. 



255 



Nowadays every one agrees that these so-called papal letters are 
forgeries. These documents, to the number of about one hundred, 
appeared suddenly in the ninth century and are nowhere mentioned 
before that time. The most ancient MSS. of them that we have are 
from the ninth century, and their method of composition, of which we 
shall treat later, shows that they were made up of passages and quota- 
tions of which we know the sources; and we are thus in a position to 
prove that the pseudo-Isidore makes use of documents written long 
after the times of the popes to whom he attributes them. Thus it 
happens that popes of the first three centuries are made to quote docu- 
ments that did not appear until the fourth or fifth century; and later 
popes up to Gregory I (590-604) are found employing documents dating 
from the sixth, seventh, and eighth centuries, and the early part of the 
ninth. Then again there are endless anachronisms. The Middle Ages 
were deceived by this huge forgery, but during the Renaissance men of 
learning and the canonists generally began to recognize the fraud. — 
The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. V, art. " False Decretals," p. 773. 

Isidorian Decretals, Time of. — The era of the false decretals has 
not been precisely fixed; they have seldom been supposed, however, to 
have appeared much before 800. But there is a genuine collection of 
canons published by Adrian I in 785, which contains nearly the same 
principles, and many of which are copied by Isidore, as well as Charle- 
magne in his Capitularies. . . . Fleury, Hist. Eccles., t. ix. p. 500, seems 
to consider the decretals as older than this collection of Adrian; but I 
have not observed the same opinion in any other writer. — "History of 
Europe During the Middle Ages," Henry Hallam, Vol. II, p. 98, note. 
New York and London: The Colonial Press, 1900. 

Isidorian Decretals, Object of. — In the middle of that century- — 
about 845 — arose the huge fabrication of the Isidorian Decretals, which 
had results far beyond what its author contemplated, and gradually, 
but surely, changed the whole constitution and government of the 
church. It would be difficult to find in all history a second instance 
of so successful, and yet so clumsy a forgery. For three centuries past 
it has been exposed, yet the principles it introduced and brought into 
practice have taken such deep root in the soil of the church, and have 
so grown into her life, that the exposure of the fraud has produced no 
result in shaking the dominant system. 

About a hundred pretended decrees of the earliest popes, together 
with certain spurious writings of other church dignitaries and acts of 
synods, were then fabricated in the west of Gaul, and eagerly seized 
upon by Pope Nicolas I at Rome, to be used as genuine documents in 
support of the new claims put forward by himself and his successors. 
The immediate object of the compiler of this forgery was to protect 
bishops against their metropolitans and other authorities, so as to 
secure absolute impunity, and the exclusion of all influence of the 
secular power. This end was to be gained through such an immense 
extension of the papal power, that, as these principles gradually pene- 
trated the church, and were followed out into their consequences, she 
necessarily assumed the form of an absolute monarchy subjected to the 
arbitrary power of a single individual, and the foundation of the 
edifice of papal infallibility was already laid — first, by the principle 
that the decrees of every council require papal confirmation; secondly, 
by the assertion that the fulness of power, even in matters of faith, 
resides in the Pope alone, who is bishop of the universal church, while 
the other bishops are his servants. — " The Pope and the Council," Janus 
(Dr. J. J. Dollinger {R. C.]), pp. 94-96. London: Rivingtons, 1869. 



256 



ISIDORIAN DECRETALS. 



Isidorian Decretals, Use of, by Nicolas L — When, in the mid- 
dle of the ninth century, the Pseudo-Isiaorian Decretals were first 
brought from beyond the Alps to Rome, they were almost immediately 
cited by Nicholas I in reply to an appeal of Hincmar of Rheims, in order 
to justify and extend the then advancing claims of the Roman chair. 
We must then either suppose that this Pope was really incapable of 
detecting a forgery, which no Roman Catholic writer would now think 
of defending, or else we must imagine that, in order to advance an 
immediate ecclesiastical object, he could condescend to quote a document 
which he knew to have been recently forged, as if it had been of 
ancient and undoubted authority. The former supposition is undoubt- 
edly most welcome to the common sense of Christian charity; but it is 
of course fatal to any belief in the personal infallibility of Pope Nicho- 
las 1. — " The Divinity of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ," H. P. 
Liddon, M. A., " Bampton Lectures," 1866, pp. 470, 471. London: Riv^ 
ingtons, 1869. 

Isidorian Decretals, One of the Pillars. — The Vatican and 
Lateran were an arsenal and manufacture, which, according to the 
occasion, have produced or concealed a various collection of false or 
genuine, of corrupt or suspicious, acts, as they tended to promote the 
interest of the Roman Church. Before the end of the eighth century, 
some apostolic scribe, perhaps the notorious Isidore, composed the de- 
cretals, and the Donation of Constantine, the two magic pillars of the 
spiritual and temporal monarchy of the popes. — " The Decline and Fall 
of the Roman Empire," Edward Gibbon, chap. 49, par. 16. New York: 
Harper & Brothers. 

Isidorian Decretals, Contents of. — The compilation contains in 
Part I, besides a few other pieces, the fifty so-called Apostolic Canons 
received by the church (vid. I. 234, Hi 11) and fifty-nine alleged, but all 
spurious, letters of the Roman bishops, from Clemens down to Melchia- 
des (d. 314), in chronological order; in Part II there follow, after a 
few other pieces (of which the Donatio Gonstantini ad Sylvestrum is 
the most important) the canons of many councils, beginning with that 
of Nicaea, essentially following the Hispana (falsification is only per- 
ceptible in one passage) ; Part III gives the decretal letters of the 
Roman bishops from Sylvester to Gregory II (d. 731), of which thirty- 
five are spurious. The author has therefore admitted a number of 
already existing anonymous pieces, and the Epistle of Clement to James 
(from the Clementine Homilies), the Donatio Gonstantini and the 
Gonstitutio Sylvestri, but has invented the most of the spurious papal 
letters, for doing which Rufinus, Cassiodorus, and the Liber Pontifi- 
calis must have supplied him with the historical substratum, and older 
ecclesiastical authors, acts of councils, etc., with the material. — "His- 
tory of the Christian Ghurch in the Middle Ages," Dr. Wilhehn Moeller, 
p. 161. New York: The Macmillan Company. 

Isidorian Decretals, Purpose of. — To bring men to listen to, and 
receive, this new system of ecclesiastical law, which was so very dif- 
ferent from the ancient system, there was need of ancient documents 
and records, with which it might be enforced and defended against the 
assaults of opposers. Hence the Roman pontiffs procured the forgery, 
by their trusty friends, of conventions, acts of councils, epistles, and 
other documents; by which they might make it appear that from the 
earliest ages of the church, the Roman pontiffs possessed the same 
authority and power which they now claimed. Among these fraudu- 
lent supports of the Romish power, the so-called Decretal Epistles of 



JERUSALEM, FAI/L OF. 



257 



the pontiffs of the first centuries, hold perhaps the first rank, They 
were produced by the ingenuity of an obscure man, who falsely assumed 
the name of Isidore, a Spanish bishop. Some vestiges of these fabri- 
cated epistles appeared in the preceding century; but they were first 
published and appealed to in support of the claims of the Roman 
pontiffs, in this [ninth] century. — "Ecclesiastical History,'" Mosheim. 
look 3, cent. 9, part 2, chap. 2, sec. 8. 

Isidorian Decretals, Importance of. — The theory of the papal mon- 
archy over the church was not the result merely of grasping ambition 
and intrigue on the part of individual popes; it corresponded rather to 
the deep-seated belief of Western Christendom. This desire to unite 
Christendom under the Pope gave meaning and significance to the 
forged decretals bearing the name of Isidore, which formed the legal 
basis of the papal monarchy. This forgery did not come from Rome, but 
from the land of the Western Franks. It set forth a collection of pre- 
tended decrees of early councils and letters of eariy popes, which exalted 
the power of the bishops, and at the same time subjected them to the 
supervision of the Pope. The Pope was set forth as universal bishop of 
the church, whose confirmation was needed for the decrees of any coun- 
cil. The importance of the forgery lay in the fact that it represented 
the ideal of the future as a fact of the past, and displayed the papal 
primacy as an original institution of the church of Christ. 

The Papacy did not originate this forgery; but it made haste to 
use it. Pope Nicholas I claimed and exercised the powers of supreme 
ecclesiastical authority, and was happy in being able to exercise them 
in the cause of moral right. — " A History of the Papacy," N. Creighton, 
D. D., Vol. I, pp. 13. 14. London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1899. 

Isidorian Decretals, Influence of. — No document has ever had a 
more remarkable history, or a more lasting influence on the relations 
of society, than that in which this feeling found expression, and which 
is known in modern times by the name of the False or Pseudo-Isidorian 
Decretals. A collection of decretal letters made by Isidore of Seville 
had long been in great repute in the West, based on the earlier collec- 
tion made by Dionysius Exiguus in the sixth century, containing the 
apostolic canons, the canons of the most important councils of the 
fourth and fifth centuries, and the decretal letters of the popes from 
the time of Siricius to that of Anastasius II. 

Suddenly there appeared at Mainz, in the time of Archbishop Aut- 
car, a collection purporting to be that of Isidore, brought, it was said, 
from Spain by Archbishop Riculf, but containing a series of documents 
hitherto unknown — fifty-nine letters and decrees of the twenty oldest 
bishops of Rome from Clement to Melchiades, the Donation of Constan- 
tine, thirty-nine new decrees of popes and councils between the time of 
Sylvester and Gregory II, and the acts of several unauthentic councils. 
The chief points to which the spurious decrees were directed were, the 
exaltation of the episcopal dignity, the security of the clergy against the 
attacks of laymen, the limitation of the power of metropolitans, reducing 
them to be mere instruments of the Pope, and a consequent enlarge- 
ment of the privileges of the See of Rome. — " The See of Rome in the 
Middle Ages," Rev. Oswald J. Reichel, B. C. L., M. A., pp. 89, 90. Lon- 
don: Longmans, Green & Co., 1870. 

Isidorian Decretals. — See Forgeries; Papacy, 332. 

Jerusalem, Fall of, Conditions in Nation Preceding. — Never was 
a people so turbulent, so excited with expectation of a deliverer who 
17 



258 



./JERUSALEM, FAlli OF. 



should restore the ancient kingdom, so fired with bigotry and fanati- 
cism, as were the wretched Jews of this period. One Christ came after 
another. Revolt was succeeded by revolt, instigated by some pseudo- 
prophet or pretended king. — "History of the World," John Clark Rid- 
path, LL. D., Part III, chap. 62 (9 vol. ed., Vol. Ill, p. 291). Cincinnati: 
The Jones Brothers Pub. Co., 1910. 

Jerusalem, Fall of, Unrest, Wars, and Tumults in Decades Pre- 
ceding. — Now as for the affairs of the Jews [in time of Nero], they 
grew worse and worse continually, for the country was again filled with 
robbers and impostors, who deluded the multitude. — "Antiquities of the 
Jews," Josephus, book 20, chap. 8, par. 5. 

Now the people of Csesarea [Syrians] had slain the Jews that were 
among them on the very same day and hour [when the soldiers were 
slain], which one would think must have come to pass by the direction 
of Providence; insomuch that in one hour's time above twenty thousand 
Jews were killed, and all Csesarea was emptied of its Jewish inhabit- 
ants; for Florus caught such as ran away, and sent them in bonds to the 
galleys. Upon which stroke that the Jews received at Csesarea, the 
whole nation was greatly enraged; so they divided themselves into sev- 
eral parties, and laid waste the villages of the Syrians. — " Wars of the 
Jews," Josephus, book 2, chap. 18, par. 1. 

7. But for Alexandria [Africa], the sedition of the people of the 
place against the Jews was perpetual. . . . 

8. Now when he [the governor] perceived that those who were for 
innovations would not be pacined till some great calamity should over- 
take them, he sent out upon them those two Roman legions that were 
in the city, and together with them five thousand other soldiers, who, 
by chance, were come together out of Libya, to the ruin of the Jews. 
. . . No mercy was shown to the infants, and no regard had to the 
aged; but they went on in the slaughter of persons of every age, till all 
the place was overflowed with blood, and fifty thousand of them lay 
dead upon heaps. — Id., book 2, chap. 18, pars. 7, 8. 

Jerusalem, Fall of, False Christs Preceding. — Very soon after 
our Saviour's decease appeared Simon Magus (Acts 8: 9, 10), "and be- 
witched the people of Samaria, giving out that himself was some great 
one: to whom they all gave heed, from the least to the greatest, saying, 
This man is the great power of God." He boasted himself likewise 
among the Jews, as the Son of God. Of the same stamp and character 
was also Dositheus the Samaritan, who pretended that he was the Christ 
foretold by Moses.i — " Dissertations on the Prophecies," Bishop Thomas 
Neioton, D. D., London, 1840, p. 375. London: William Tegg & Co., 
1849. 

1. Now [a. d. 46] it came to pass, while Fadus was procurator of 
Judea, that a certain magician, whose name was Theudas, persuaded a 
great part of the people to take their effects with them, and follow him 
to the river Jordan; for he told them he was a prophet, and that he 
would, by his own command, divide the river, and afford thein an easy 
passage over it; and many were deluded by his words. However, Fadus 
did not permit him to make any advantage of his wild attempt, but sent 



1 And after the time of Jesus. Dositheus, of Samaria, wished to persuade the 
Samaritans that he was the Christ predicted by Moses ; and he appeared to have 
gained some by his doctrine. — Origen contra Celsum, lib. 1, p. S72. 



.ronrsALEM, faltj of. 



259 



a troop of horsemen out against them; who, falling upon them unex- 
pectedly, slew many of them, and took many of them alive. They also 
took Theudas alive, and cut off his head, and carried it to Jerusalem. 
— "Antiquities of the Jews," Josephus, book 20, chap. 5, par. i. 

4. There was also another body of wicked men gotten together [in 
the reign of Nero, a. d. 54-68], not so impure in their actions, but more 
wicked in their intentions; which laid waste the happy state of the city 
no less than did these murderers [the Sicarii]. These were such men 
as deceived and deluded the people under pretense of divine inspiration, 
but were for procuring innovations and changes of the government; and 
these prevailed with the multitude to act liite madmen, and went before 
them into the wilderness, as pretending that God would there show them 
the signals of liberty [from the Roman yoke]. But Felix [the procu- 
rator] thought this procedure was the beginning of a revolt; so he sent 
some horsemen and footmen, both armed, who destroyed a great number 
of them. 

5. But there was an Egyptian false prophet that did the Jews more 
mischief than the former; for he was a cheat, and pretended to be a 
prophet also; and got together thirty thousand men that were deluded 
by him; these he led round about from the wilderness to the mount 
which was called the Mount of Olives, and was ready to break into 
Jerusalem by force from that place; and if he could but once conquer 
the Roman garrison and the people, he intended to domineer over them 
by the assistance of those guards of his that were to break into the city 
with him. — "Wars of the Jews" Josephus, book 2, chap. 13, pars. 4, 5. 
(All bracketed matter is supplied by the editors.) 

Jerusalem, Fall of, Famine in Italy Peeceding. — A failure in 
the crops [reign of Claudius], and a famine consequent thereupon, 
was regarded as a prodigy. Nor were the complaints of the populace 
confined to murmurs; they even gathered round the prince with tumul- 
tuous clamors while administering justice, and driving him to the ex- 
tremity of the forum, pressed upon him in a violent manner; till 
at length, by means of a compact body of soldiers, he forced his way 
through the incensed multitude. It is certain, there was then in Rome 
provision only for fifteen days; and it was by the signal bounty of the 
gods and the mildness of the winter, that the public was relieved in 
its urgent distress. And yet in former days, distant provinces were 
furnished with supplies from the districts of Italy. — " The Works of 
Tacitus," Vol. I, " The Annals," book 12, chap. 44, par. 43, pp. 296, 297. 
New York: Harper & Brothers, 1863. 

Jerusalem, Fall of, Famine in Sykia Preceding. — In his [Clau- 
dius's] reign there was a famine that prevailed over the whole world; 
an event, indeed, which has been handed down by historians very far 
from our doctrine; and by which the prediction of the prophet Agabus, 
recorded in the Acts of the Apostles, respecting the impending famine 
over the whole world, received its fulfilment. — " Ecclesiastical His- 
tory," Eusebhis, book 2, chap. 8 (p. 46). London: George Bell & Sons, 
1889. 

Jerusalem, Fall of, Pestilences Preceding. — Now when they 
[zealots] were slaying him [Niger], he made this imprecation upon 
them, that they might undergo both famine and pestilence in this war, 
and besides all that, they might come to the mutual slaughter of one 
another; all of which imprecations God confirmed against these im- 
pious men. — "Wars of the Jews," Josephus, book 4, chap. 6, par. 1, 



260 



JERUSALEM, FALL OF. 



Jerusalem, Fall of, Earthquakes in Decades Preceding. — " 1 And 
earthquakes in divers places,' as particularly that in Crete in the reign 
of Claudius, mentioned by Philostratus in the life of Apollonius, and 
those also mentioned by Philostratus at Smyrna, Miletus, Chios, Samos." 
[Grotius.] In all which places some Jews inhabited; and those at Rome 
mentioned by Tacitus; and that at Laodicea, in the reign of Nero, 
mentioned by Tacitus, which city was overthrown, as were likewise 
Hierapolis and Colosse; and that in Campania, mentioned by Seneca; 
and that at Rome in the reign of Galba, mentioned by Suetonius; and 
that in Judea, mentioned by Josephus. — " Dissertations on the Prophe- 
cies," Bishop Thomas Newton, D. D., pp. 378, 379. London: William 
Tegg & Co., 1849. 

In Asia city after city had been shattered to the dust by earth- 
quakes. " The world itself is being shaken to pieces," says Seneca, 
" and there is universal consternation." — " The Early Bays of Chris- 
tianity," Canon Farrar, chap. 27, sec. 2 (pp. 488, 489). 

Jerusalem, Fall of, Forewarnings of Impending Doom. — More- 
over, at that feast which we call Pentecost, as the priests were going 
by night into the inner [couiL of the] temple, as their custom was, 
to perform their sacred ministrations, they said that, in the first place, 
they felt a quaking, and heard a great noise, and after that they heard 
a sound as of the multitude, saying, "Let us remove hence." 

But, what is still more terrible, there was one Jesus, the son of 
Ananus, a plebeian and a husbandman, who, four years before the war 
began, and at a time when the city was in very great peace and pros- 
perity, came to that feast whereon it is our custom for every one 
to make tabernacles to God in the temple, began on a sudden to cry 
aloud, " A voice from the east, a voice from the west, a voice from the 
four winds, a voice against Jerusalem and the holy house, a voice 
against the bridegrooms and the brides, and a voice against this whole 
people! " This was his cry, as he went about by day and by night, 
in all the lanes of the city. However, certain of the most eminent 
among the populace had great indignation at this dire cry of his, and 
took up the man, and gave him a great number of severe stripes. Yet 
did not he either say anything for himself, or anything peculiar to 
those that chastised him, but still went on with the same words which 
he cried before. Hereupon our rulers, supposing, as the case proved 
to be, that this was a sort of divine fury in the man, brought him 
to the Roman procurator, where he was whipped till his bones were 
laid bare; yet he did not make any supplication for himself, nor shed 
any tears, but turning his voice to the most lamentable tone possible, 
at every stroke of the whip his answer was, "Woe, woe to Jerusalem! " 
And when Albinus (for he was then our procurator) asked him, who 
he was? whence he came? and why he uttered such words? he made 
no manner of reply to what he said, but still did not leave off his 
melancholy ditty, till Albinus took him to be a madman, and dis- 
missed him. 

Now, during all the time that passed before the war began, this 
man did not go near any of the citizens, nor was seen by them while 
he said so; but he every day uttered these lamentable words, as if it 
were his premeditated vow: "Woe, woe to Jerusalem!" Nor did 
he give ill words to any of those that beat him every day, nor good 
words to those that gave him food; but this was his reply to all men, 
and indeed no other than a melancholy presage of what was to come. 
This cry of his was the loudest at the festivals; and he continued 
this ditty for seven years and five months, without growing hoarse, or 



.JERUSALEM, FALL OF. 



261 



being tired therewith, until the very time that he saw his presage 
in earnest fulfilled in our siege, when it ceased; for as he was going 
round upon the wall, he cried out with his utmost force, " Woe, woe 
to the city' again, and to the people, and to the holy house! " And 
just as he added at the last, "Woe, woe to myself also! " there came 
a stone out of one of the engines, and smote him, and killed him 
immediately; and as he was uttering the very same presages, he gave 
up the ghost. — " Wars of the Jews," Josephus, book 6, chap. 5. par. 3. 

Jerusalem, Fall of, Josephus on Jews' Refusal to Repent. — 
For that it was a seditious temper of our own that destroyed it, and 
that they were the tyrants among the Jews who brought the Roman 
power upon us, who unwillingly attacked us, and occasioned the burn- 
ing of our holy temple, Titus Caesar, who destroyed it, is himself a 
witness, who, during the entire war, pitied the people who were kept 
under by the seditious, and did often voluntarily delay the taking 
of the city, and allowed time to the siege, in order to let the authors 
have opportunity for repentance. — Id., Preface, par. 4. 

Jerusalem, Fall of, Sudden Withdrawal of Romans Giving Op- 
portunity for Flight of Christians. — So the soldiers [of Vespasian, 
on first siege. — Eds.] undermined the wall, without being themselves 
hurt, and got ail things ready for setting fire to the gate of the temple. 

6. And how it was that a horrible fear seized upon the seditious, 
insomuch that many of them ran out of the city, as though it were 
to be taken immediately; but the people upon this took courage, and 
where the wicked part of the city gave ground, thither did they come, 
in order to set open the gates, and to admit Cestius as their bene- 
factor who, had he but continued the siege a little longer, had cer- 
tainly taken the city; but it was, I suppose, owing to the aversion 
God had already at the city and the sanctuary, that he was hindered 
from putting an end to the war that very day. 1 

7. It then happened that Cestius was not conscious either how the 
besieged despaired of success, nor how courageous the people were for 
him; and so he recalled his soldiers from the place, and by despair- 
ing of any expectation of taking it, without having received any dis- 
grace, he retired from the city, without any reason in the world. 
But when the robbers perceived this unexpected retreat of his, they 
resumed their courage, and ran after the hinder parts of his army, 
and destroyed a considerable number of both their horsemen and foot- 
men. — Id., book 2, chap. 19, pars. 5-7. 

Jerusalem, Fall of, Flight of Christians from City. — The whole 
body, however, of the church at Jerusalem, having been commanded by 



1 There may another very important, and very providential, reason be here 
assigned for this strange and foolish retreat of Cestius ; which, if Josephus had 
been now a Christian, he might probably have taken notice of also ; and that is. 
the affording the Jewish Christians in the city an opportunity of calling to 
mind the prediction and caution given them by Christ about thirty-three years 
and a half before, that " when they should see the abomination of desola- 
tion " [the idolatrous Eoman armies? with the images of their idols in their 
ensigns ready to lay Jerusalem desolate] " stand where it ought not ; " or, " in 
the holy place ; " or, " when they should see Jerusalem compassed with armies ; " 
they should then " flee to the mountains." By complying with which those 
Jewish Christians fled to the mountains of Perea, and escaped this destruction. 
See " Lit. Accompl. of Proph.," pp. 69, 70. Nor was there, perhaps, any one in- 
stance of a more unpolitic, but more providential, conduct than this retreat of 
Cestius visible during this whole siege of Jerusalem : which yet was providen- 
tially such a " great tribulation, as had not been from the beginning of the 
world to that time; no, nor ever should be." — Xote by the translator, William 
Whiston. 



262 



JERUSALEM, FAJLL OF. 



a divine revelation, given to men of approved piety there before the 
war, removed from the city, and dwelt at a certain town beyond the 
Jordan, called Pella.— " Ecclesiastical History" Eusebius, book 3, chap. 
5. London: George Bell & Sons, 1889. 

Jerusalem, Fall of, Flight of Many When Roman Army With- 
drew Temporarily. — After this calamity had befallen Cestius, .many of 
the most eminent of the Jews swam away from the city, as from a ship 
when it was going to sink. — "Wars of the Jeivs," Josephus, chap. BO, 
par. 1. 

Jerusalem, Fall of, Grandeur of Temple of. — 6. Now the out- 
ward face of the temple in its front wanted nothing that was likely 
to surprise either men's minds or their eyes; for it was covered all 
over with plates of gold of great weight, and, at the first rising of the 
sun, reflected back a very fiery splendor, and made those who forced 
themselves to look upon it to turn their eyes away, just as they would 
have done at the sun's own rays. But this temple appeared to strangers, 
when they were coming to it at a distance, like a mountain covered with 
snow; for as to those parts of it that were not gilt, they were ex- 
ceeding white. On its top it had spikes with sharp points, to prevent 
any pollution of it by birds sitting upon it. Of its stones, some of 
them were forty-five cubits in lengtn, five in height, and six in breadth. 

— Id., book 5, chap. 5, par. 6. 

Jerusalem, Fall of, Efforts of Titus to Save the Temple. — Why 
do you trample upon dead bodies in this temple? and why do you pol- 
lute this holy house with the blood of both foreigners and Jews them- 
selves? I appeal to the gods of my own country, and to every god 
that ever had any regard to this place; (for i do not suppose it to be 
now regarded by any of them;) I also appeal to my own army, and 
to those Jews that are now with me, and even to yourselves, that I 
do not force you to defile this your sanctuary; and if you will but 
change the place whereon you will fight, no Roman shall either come 
near your sanctuary, or offer any affront to it; nay, I will endeavor 
to preserve you your holy house, whether you will or not. — Appeal of 
Titus to Jews, in " Wars of the Jews," Josephus, book 6, chap. 2, par. 4. 

Jerusalem, Fall of, The Blind Infatuation of the Nation. — 
More sorrowful scenes than those which marked the downfall of the 
Holy City and the suppression of the Jewish people never transpired 
in the history of man; and never were any horrors more truly self- 
inflicted than these. Through every page the line seems to glow: "His 
blood be upon us and upon our children! " Everywhere reappears the 
same insensate fury; the same needless provoking of foes clearly too 
powerful to resist; the same foolhardy obstinacy, too near a sublime 
courage to be despised, too hopeless and too costly to be applauded. — 
"From Exile to Overthrow: A History of the Jews," Rev. John W. 
Mears, D. D., p. £46. Philadelphia: Presbyterian Board of Publication. 

Jerusalem, Fall of, Times Compared with French Revolution. 

— The zealots created and maintained a " reign of terror " akin to that 
of the French Revolution, only more dreadful, and, considering the 
available scope and compass, more bloody. — " Comments on Matthew," 
James Morrison, p. 471. 

Jerusalem, Fall of, Considered by the Romans as a Judgment. 
— -1. Now when Titus was come into this [upper] city, he admired not 



JERUSALEM, FAliJL OF. 



263 



only some other places of strength in it, but particularly those strong 
towers which the tyrants in their mad conduct had relinquished; for 
when he saw their solid altitude, and the largeness of their several 
stones, and the exactness of their joints, as also how great was their 
breadth, and how extensive their length, he expressed himself after 
the manner following: "We have certainly had God for our assistant 
in this war, and it was no other than God who ejected the Jews out of 
these fortifications; for wnat could the hands of men or any machines 
do towards overthrowing these towers?" — "Wars of the Jews," Jo- 
sephus, book 6, chap. 9, par. 1. 

Jerusalem, Fall of, Survivors Carried Away Captive. — So this 
Fronto slew all those that had been seditious and robbers, who were 
impeached one by another; but of the young men he chose out the tall- 
est and most beautiful, and reserved them for the triumph; and as for 
the rest of the multitude that were above seventeen years old, he put 
them into bonds, and sent them to the Egyptian mines. i Titus also sent 
a great number into the provinces, as a present to them, that they might 
be destroyed upon their theaters, by the sword and by the wild beasts; 
but those that were under seventeen years of age were sold for slaves. 
— Id., book 6, chap. 9, par. 2. 

Jerusalem, Fall of, The Multitude of Victims. — 3. Now the num- 
ber of those that were carried captive during this whole war was col- 
lected to be ninety-seven thousand; as was the number of those that 
perished during the whole siege eleven hundred thousand, the greater 
part of whom were indeed of the same nation [with the citizens of Jeru- 
salem], but not belonging to the city itself; for they were come up 
from all the country to the feast of unleavened bread, and were on a 
sudden shut up by an army, which, at the very first, occasioned so great 
a straitness among them, that there came a pestilential destruction 
upon them, and soon afterward such a famine, as destroyed them more 
suddenly.- — Id., book 6, chap. 9, par. 3. 

Jerusalem, Fall of, Its Ruins Dug Up. — Yet was there no small 
quantity of the riches that had been in that city still found among its 
ruins, a great deal of which the Romans dug up; but the greatest part 
was discovered by those who were captives, and so they carried it away; 
I mean the gold and the silver, and the rest of that most precious fur- 
niture which the Jews had, and which the owners had treasured up 
under ground, against the uncertain fortunes of war. — Id., book 7, chap. 
5, par. 2. 

Jerusalem, Fall of, Plowed as a Field. — Afterwards, as we read 
in the Jewish Talmud and in Maimonides, Turnus Rufus, or rather 
" Terentius Rufus, who was left to command the army at Jerusalem," 
did with a plowshare tear up the foundation of the temple; and thereby 
signally fulfilled those words of Micah 3: 12: "Therefore shall Zion for 
your sake be plowed as a field." Eusebius, too, affirms, " that it was 
plowed up by the Romans, and he saw it lying in ruins." The city also 
shared the same fate, and was burned and destroyed as well as the tem- 
ple. — " Dissertations on the Prophecies, ," Bishop Thomas Newton, D. D., 
p. 372. London: William Tegg & Co., 1849. 

Jerusalem, Fall of, Desolation Following. — 1. Now as soon as 
the army had no more people to slay or to plunder, because there re- 

1 See the several predictions that the Jews, if they became obstinate in their 
Idolatry and wickedness, should be sent again or sold into Egypt for their pun- 
ishment. Deut. 28:68; Jer. 44:7; Hosea 8:13; 9:3; 11:4, 5. 



264 



JESUITS, ORIGIN OP. 



mained none to be the objects of their fury (for they would not have 
spared any, had there remained any other work to be done), Caesar gave 
orders that they should now demolish the entire city and temple, but 
should leave as many of the towers standing as were of the greatest 
eminency; that is, Phasaelus, Hippicus, and Mariamne, and so much of 
the wall as inclosed the city on the west side. This wall was spared, 
in order to afford a camp for such as were to lie in garrison, as were 
the towers also spared, in order to denominate to posterity what kind 
of city it was, and how well fortified, which the Roman valor had sub- 
dued; but for all the rest of the wall, it was so thoroughly laid even 
with the ground, by those that dug it up to the foundation, that there 
was left nothing to make those that came thither believe it had ever 
been inhabited. — "Wars of the Jews," Josephus, book 7, chap. 1, par. 1. 

Jerusalem, Fall of, Marked the End of Jewish Nation.— The 
annihilation of Jewish nationality was complete. Jerusalem was re- 
duced to a ruin, and the survivors of her people were to be found ex- 
posed in the slave markets of Rome or groaning out their lives in the 
rock quarries of Egypt. — "History of the World," John Clark Ridpath, 
LL. D., Part III, chap. 62 (9 vol. ed., Vol. Ill, p. 292). Cincinnati: The 
Jones Brothers Pub. Co., 1910. 

Jesuits. — Jesuits, the name generally given to the member^ of the 
Society of Jesus, a religious order in the Roman Catholic Church, 
founded in 1539. This society may be denned, in its original concep- 
tion and well-avowed object, as a body of highly trained religious men 
of various degrees, bound by the three personal vows of poverty, chas- 
tity, and obedience, together with, in some cases, a special vow to the 
Pope's service, with the object of laboring for the spiritual good of 
themselves and their neighbors. They are declared to be mendicants 
and enjoy all the privileges of the other mendicant orders. They are 
governed and live by constitutions and rules, mostly drawn up by their 
founder, St. Ignatius of Loyola, and approved by the popes. Their 
proper title is " Clerks Regulars of the Society of Jesus," the word 
Societas being taken as synonymous with the original Spanish term. 
Compania; perhaps the military term Cohors might more fully have 
expressed the original idea of a band of spiritual soldiers living under 
martial law and discipline. The ordinary term " Jesuit " was given to 
the society by its avowed opponents; it is first found in the writings 
of Calvin and in the registers of the Parlement of Paris as early as 1552. 

Constitution and Character. — The formation of the society was a 
masterpiece of genius on the part of a man [Loyola] who was quick 
to realize the necessity of the moment. Just before Ignatius was expe- 
riencing the call .to conversion, Luther had begun his revolt against 
the Roman Church by burning the papal bull of excommunication on 
the 10th of December, 1520. But while Luther's most formidable oppo- 
nent was thus being prepared in Spain, the actual formation of the so- 
ciety was not to take place for eighteen years. Its conception seems to 
have developed very slowly in the mind of Ignatius. It introduced a new 
idea into the church. Hitherto all regulars made a point of the choral 
office in choir. But as Ignatius conceived the church to be in a state 
of war, what was desirable in days of peace ceased when the life of the 
cloister had to be exchanged for the discipline of the camp; so in the 
sketch of the new society which he laid before Paul III, Ignatius laid 
down the principle that the obligation of the breviary should be ful- 
filled privately and separately and not in choir. The other orders, too, 
were bound by the idea of a constitutional monarchy based on the demo- 
cratic spirit. Not so with the society. The founder placed the general 



JESUITS, OATH OF SECRECY. 



265 



for life in an almost uncontrolled position of authority, giving him the 
faculty of dispensing individuals from the decrees of the highest legis 
lative body, the general congregations. Thus the principle of military 
obedience was exalted to a degree higher than that existing in the older 
orders, which preserved to their members certain constitutional rights. 
— The E?icyclopedia Britannica, Vol. XV, art. "Jesuits," p. 337, 11th 
edition, 1911. 

Jesuits, Society of, Defined. — Society of Jesus (Company of Jesus. 
Jesuits), a religious order founded by St. Ignatius Loyola. Designated 
by him " The Company of Jesus " to indicate its true leader and its 
soldier spirit, the title was Latinized into Societas Jesu in the bull of 
Paul III approving its formation and the first formula of its institute 
(" Regimini Militantis Ecclesiw," 27 Sept., 1540). The term "Jesuits" 
(of fifteenth-century origin, meaning one who used too freely or appro- 
priated the name of Jesus), was first applied to the society in reproach 
(1544-52), and was never employed by its founder, though members 
and friends of the society in time accepted the name in its good sense. 
The society ranks among religious institutes as a mendicant order of 
clerks regular, that is, a body of priests organized for apostolic work, 
following a religious rule, and relying on alms for their support. — The 
Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. XIV, art. " Society of Jesus," p. 81. 

Jesuits, Government of. — The opinion is very generally current 
that the government of the Jesuit order is an absolute monarchy, and 
that the general is constitutionally an autocrat. But this is not the 
case. Undoubtedly an immense deal of power is concentrated in the 
head of the order, the general, and as a rule the whole of the executive 
power is in his hands. For all that, he is anything but an absolute 
ruler, and it would be hard to find a community in which the various 
powers are more delicately interbalanced than the Jesuit order. — " Four- 
teen Years a Jesuit," Count Paul von Hoensbroech, Vol. I, pp. 418, 419. 
London: Cassell and Company, 1911. 

Jesuits, Oath of Secrecy of. — " I, A. B., now in the presence of 
Almighty God, the blessed Virgin Mary, the blessed Michael the arch- 
angel, the blessed St. John Baptist, the holy apostles St. Peter and 
St. Paul, and the saints and sacred host of heaven, and to you my 
ghostly father, do declare from my heart, without mental reservation, 
that His Holiness Pope Urban is Christ's vicar-general, and is the true 
and only head of the Catholic or Universal Church throughout the 
earth; and that by the virtue of the keys of binding and loosing given 
to His Holiness by my Saviour Jesus Christ, he hath power to depose 
heretical kings, princes, states, commonwealths, and governments, all 
being illegal, without his sacred confirmation, and that they may safely 
be destroyed: therefore to the utmost of my power I shall and will 
defend this doctrine, and His Holiness' rights and customs against all 
usurpers of the heretical or Protestant authority whatsoever: especially 
against the now pretended authority and Church of England, and all 
adherents, in regard that they and she be usurpal and heretical, oppos- 
ing the sacred mother church of Rome. I do renounce and disown any 
allegiance as due to any heretical king, prince, or state, named Prot- 
estants, or obedience to any of their inferior magistrates or officers. 
I do further declare that the doctrine of the Church of England, of the 
Calvinists, Huguenots, and of others of the name of Protestants, to be 
damnable, and they themselves are damned, and to be damned, that 
will not forsake the same. I do further declare, that I will help, assist, 
and advise all, or any of His Holiness' agents in any place, wherever 



266 



JESUITS, SERVICES OP. 



I shall be, in England, Scotland, and Ireland, or in any other territory 
or kingdom I shall come to, and do my utmost to extirpate the heretical 
Protestants' doctrine, and to destroy all their pretended powers, regal 
or otherwise. I do further promise and declare, that notwithstanding 
I am dispensed with to assume any religion heretical for the propaga- 
tion of the mother church's interest, to keep secret and private all her 
agent's counsels from time to time, as they intrust me, and not to 
divulge directly or indirectly, by word, writing, or circumstance, what- 
soever; but to execute all what shall be proposed, given in charge, or 
discovered unto me by you my ghostly father, or by any of this sacred 
convent. All which I, A. B., do swear by the blessed Trinity, and 
blessed sacrament, which I now am to receive, to perform, and on my 
part to keep inviolably. And do call all the heavenly and glorious host 
of heaven to witness these my real intentions, and to keep this my oath. 
In testimony hereof, I take this most holy and blessed sacrament of the 
eucharist; and witness the same further with my hand and seal in the 
face of this holy convent." — " Foxes and Firebrands," Usher. 

The antiquated form, which is of similar import, can be found in 
Baronius, who thus concludes his account of it: " Hactenus duramen- 
turn, etc. That is the oath which to that period all the prelates used 
to take." — An. 723, and 1079. Lab. Concil., Tom. X, p. 1504; and Tom. 
XI, p. 1565 (Labbe and CossarVs "History of the Councils," Vol. X, 
p. 1504; and Vol. XI, p. 1565); cited in "The Roman Catholic Church 
and Its Relation to the Federal Government," Francis T. Morton, pp. 40, 
41. Boston: Richard G. Badger, 1909. 

Jesuits, Their Services to the Papacy. — When the Jesuit order 
came into being, a fatal hour had struck for the Papacy. The move- 
ment originated by Luther, in connection with other causes, had caused 
the ship of St. Peter to rock dangerously. A world with a new philos- 
ophy of life was coming into view, which no longer recognized the 
Pope-God of the Middle Ages, the sovereign lord of the whole world in 
that capacity. Ultramontanism which, since Gregory VII, had been 
firmly established in its seat, and was ruling the world, in particular 
the political world, from Rome, under religious forms, felt the onset 
of the new age, whence the cry, " Free from Rome," was already 
resounding. 

Then the threatened Papacy found in the Jesuit order an ultra- 
montane auxiliary regiment of extraordinary power and pertinacity. 
The papal dominion was to be reestablished. The ultramontane system, 
with its secular and political kernel disguised under a garb of religion, 
was concentrated, as it were, in the constitutions of the Jesuit order, 
and even more in its well-calculated labors directed from central points. 
Words and deeds, teaching and example, of the new order, were a single 
great propaganda for the ultramontane Papacy. The doctrine of the 
" direct " — that is, the immediate dominion of the vicar of Christ over 
the whole world — had become untenable; the Jesuit order (e. g., 
Bellarmin and Suarez) replaced it completely by the doctrine of the 
" indirect " power. 

There is not the least fraction of religion in this doctrine. Every- 
thing in it is irreligious and anti-Christian, but it is quite specially 
calculated for religious display, for it makes a pretense of God's king- 
dom, which embraces this world and the next, which tolerates only one 
supreme ruler — God and his vicar — and thus makes this comprehen- 
sive political universal dominion an acceptable, even desirable, religious 
demand in the eyes of Catholics. The love of dominiin implanted in 
the Jesuit order finds the greatest possibility of development in this 
doctrine, hence its never-resting zeal in trying to raise the indirect. 



JESUITS AS POLITICIANS. 



267 



power of the Papacy to a fundamental dogma of church policy. The 
order, as such, cannot openly aspire to universal dominion; however 
powerful its equipment may be, it must always appear as a mere aux- 
iliary member, a subordinate part of the Catholic whole, the Papal 
Church; the more it furthers the temporal political power of Rome and 
extends the religious belief in its justification among men, the more 
political power will it attain itself; the Papacy and its indirect power 
serve but as a screen behind which are concealed the Jesuit order and 
its aspirations for power. By its zeal and skill it becomes an indis- 
pensable servant of the Papacy, and thus acquires direct dominion over 
the wearers of the papal crown, and through tnem indirect dominion 
over the whole world. 

Hence the continuous and detailed occupation with politics, for- 
bidden by the constitutions as unreligious, but which became its most 
comprehensive sphere of activity by the religious road of confession. 

It was this very political activity of the order which let loose the 
storm against it. And, as I have already shown, it was in the first 
instance the Catholic courts, at which the Jesuit confessor had carried 
on his religious activity for centuries, which demanded more and more 
eagerly the suppression of the order, and finally attained it from Clem- 
ent XIV. — ''Fourteen Years a Jesuit,'" Count Paul von Hoensbroech, 
Vol. II, pp. 427-429. London: Cassell and Company, 1911. 

Jesuits, Work of, Explained from the Roman Catholic Stand- 
point. — The society was not founded with the avowed intention of 
opposing Protestantism. Neither the papal letters of approbation nor 
the constitutions of the order mention this as the object of the new 
foundation. When Ignatius began to devote himself to the service of 
the church, he had probably not heard even tne names of the Protestant 
Reformers. His early plan was rather the conversion of Mohammedans, 
an idea which, a few decades after the final triumph of the Christians 
over the Moors in Spain, must have strongly appealed to the chivalrous 
Spaniard. 

The name " Societas Jesu " had been borne by a military order 
approved and recommended by Pius II in 1459, the purpose of which 
was to fight against the Turks and aid in spreading the Christian faith. 
The early Jesuits were sent by Ignatius first to pagan lands or to Cath- 
olic countries; to Protestant countries only at the special request of 
the Pope; and to Germany, the cradleland of the Reformation, at the 
urgent solicitation of the imperial ambassador. From the very begin- 
ning the missionary labors of Jesuits among the pagans of India, Japan, 
China, Canada, Central and South America were as important as their 
activity in Christian countries. 

As the object of the society was the propagation and strengthening 
of the Catholic faith everywhere, the Jesuits naturally endeavored to 
counteract the spread of Protestantism. They became the main instru- 
ments of the counter-Reformation; the reconquest of southern and 
western Germany and Austria for the church, and the preservation of 
the Catholic faith in France and other countries were due chiefly to 
their exertions. — The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. XIV, art. " Society 
of Jesus," p. 81. 

Jesuits as Politicians. — It was chiefly as politicians that the Jes- 
uits have won, and probably deserved, an infamous renown in history. 
The order was aggressive and ardent — full of grand schemes for the 
extirpation of heretics and the subjugation of England and the hardy 
North. Every member of the mighty league had sworn to give his life, 
if necessary, for the advancement of the faith; was ready to fly at a 



268 



JESUITS, PROBABILISM. 



sudden notice to the farthest lands at the bidding of his superior or 
the Pope; and perhaps might merit some frightful punishment at home 
did he not obey his commander to the uttermost. The irrevocable vow 
and the long practice in abject submission made the Jesuits the most 
admirable instruments of crime. In the hands of wicked popes like 
Gregory XIII, or cruel tyrants like Philip II, they were never suffered 
to rest. Their exploits are among the most wonderful and daring in 
history. They are more romantic than the boldest pictures of the 
novelist; more varied and interesting than the best-laid plots of the 
most inventive masters. No Arabian narrator nor Scottish wizard 
could have imagined tbem; no Shakespeare could have foreseen the 
strange mental and political conditions that led the enthusiasts on in 
their deeds of heroism and crime. Jesuits penetrated, disguised, into 
England when death was their punishment if discovered; hovered in 
strange forms around the person of Elizabeth, whose assassination was 
the favorite aim of Philip II and the Pope; reeled through the streets 
of London as pretended drunkards; hid in dark closets and were fed 
through quills; and often, when discovered, died in horrible tortures 
with silent joy. The very name of the new and active society was a 
terror to all the Protestant courts. A single Jesuit was believed to be 
more dangerous than a whole monastery of Black Friars. A Campion, 
Parsons, or Garnet filled all England with alarm. And in all that long 
struggle which followed between the North and the South, in which the 
fierce Spaniards and Italians made a desperate assault upon the re- 
bellious region, strove to dethrone or destroy its kings, to crush the 
rising intellect of its people, or to extirpate the hated elements of re- 
form, the historians uniformly point to the Jesuits as the active agents 
in every rebellion, and the tried and unflinching instruments of un- 
sparing Rome. 

A Jesuit penetrated in strange attire to Mary Queen of Scots, and 
lured her to her ruin. Another sought to convert or dethrone a king 
of Sweden. One conveyed the intelligence to Catherine and Charles 
IX that produced a horrible massacre of the reformers. One traveled 
into distant Muscovy to sow the seeds of endless war. Mariana, 
an eminent Jesuit, published a work defending regicide which was 
faintly condemned by the order, and soon Henry III fell by the assas- 
sin's blow; William of Orange, pursued by the endless attempts of 
assassins, at last received the fatal wound; Elizabeth was hunted down, 
but escaped; Henry IV, after many a dangerous assault, died, it was 
said, by the arts of the Jesuits; James I and his family escaped by a 
miracle from the plot of Fawkes and Garnet; while many inferior char- 
acters of this troubled age disappeared suddenly from human sight, or 
were found stabbed and bleeding in their homes. All these frightful 
acts the men of that period attributed to the fatal vow of obedience. 

The Jesuit was the terror of his times. Catholics abhorred and 
shrunk from him with almost as much real aversion as Protestants. 
The universities and the clergy feared and hated the unscrupulous order. 
The Jesuit was renowned for his pitiless cruelty. The mild Franciscans 
and Benedictines, and even the Spanish Dominicans, could not be relied 
upon by the popes and kings, and were cast contemptuously aside; 
while their swift and ready rivals sprung forward at the slightest inti- 
mation of their superior, and, with a devotion to their chief at Rome 
not surpassed by that of the assassins of the Old Man of the Mountains, 
flung themselves in the face of death. — " Historical Studies," Eugene 
Lawrence, pp. 128, 129. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1876. 

Jesuits, Probabilism. — The doctrine of Probabilism was not orig- 
inated by the Jesuits, but was wrought out by their writers during the 
seventeenth century with more minuteness than by earlier Roman 



JESUITS, THEOLOGY OF. 



269 



Catholic writers. According to this teaching one is at liberty to follow 
a probable opinion, i. e., one that has two or three reputable Catholic 
writers in its favor, against a more probable of a highly probable opin- 
ion in whose favor a multitude of the highest authorities concur. To 
justify any practice, however immoral it might be commonly esteemed, 
a few sentences from Catholic writers sufficed, and these were often 
garbled. Some Jesuits and some popes repudiated this doctrine. In 
1680 Gonzales, an opponent of the doctrine, was made general of the 
society through papal pressure; but he failed to purge the society of 
Probabilism, and came near being deposed by reason of his opposition. 
Another antiethical device widely approved and employed by members 
of the society is mental reservation or restriction, in accordance with 
which, when important interests are at stake, a negative or a modifying 
clause may remain unuttered which would completely reverse the state- 
ment actually made. This principle justified unlimited lying when 
one's interests or convenience seemed to require. Where the same word 
or phrase has more than one sense, it may be employed in an unusual 
sense with the expectation that it will be understood in the usual 
( amphibology ). Such evasions may be used under oath in a civil 
court. 

Equally destructive of good morals was the teaching of many 
Jesuit casuists that moral obligation may be evaded by directing the 
intention when committing an immoral act to an end worthy in itself; 
as in murder, to the vindication of one's honor; in theft, to the sup- 
plying of one's needs or those of the poor; in fornication or adultery, 
to the maintenance of one's health or comfort. Nothing did more to 
bring upon the society the fear and distrust of the nations and of indi- 
viduals than the justification and recommendation by several of their 
writers of the assassination of tyrants, the term " tyrant " being made 
to include all persons in authority who oppose the work of the papal 
church or the order. The question has been much discussed, Jesuits 
always taking the negative side, whether the Jesuits have taught that 
" the end sanctifies the means." It may not be possible to find this 
maxim in these precise words in Jesuit writings; but that they have 
always taught that for the " greater glory of God," identified by them 
with the extension of Roman Catholic (Jesuit) influence, the principles 
of ordinary morality may be set aside, seems certain. The doctrine of 
philosophical sin, in accordance with which actual attention to the sin- 
fulness of an act when it is being committed is requisite to its sinful- 
ness for the person committing it, was widely advocated by members 
of the society. The repudiation of some of the most scandalous maxims 
of Jesuit writers by later writers, or the placing of books containing 
scandalous maxims on the Index, does not relieve the society or the 
Roman Catholic Church from responsibility, as such books must have 
received authoritative approval before publication, and the censuring 
of them does not necessarily involve an adverse attitude toward the 
teaching itself, but may be a mere measure of expediency. — The New 
Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, Vol. VI, art. "Jes- 
uits" pp. 146, 147. 

Jesuits, Selections from Moral Theology of. — One who is asked 
concerning something which it is expedient to conceal, can say, " I say 
not," that is, " I say the word ' not; ' since the word " I say " has a 
double sense; for it signifies "to pronounce" and "to affirm: " now in 
our sense " I say " is the same as " I pronounce." 

A confessor can affirm, even with an oath, that he knows nothing 
of a sin heard in confession, by secretly understanding " as a man," 
but not as a minister of Christ. The reason for this is, because he who 
asks has no right to any information except such as may properly be 



270 



JESUITS, XHEOliOGi OF, 



imparted, which is not the kind in the possession of the confessor. 
And this, even though the other may ask whether he has heard as 
the minister of Christ; because a confessor must always be held to 
reply as a man, when he is not able to speak as a minister of Christ. 
And if any one rashly demands of a confessor whether he has heard 
of such a sin in confession, the confessor can reply, " I have not heard 
it," that is to say, as a man, or for the purpose of making it public. 
Likewise as often as one is bound to conceal the disgrace of another, 
he may lawfully say, " I do not know," that is to say, " I do not have 
any knowledge of the matter which it is profitable to impart in reply," 
or, " I do not know anything suitable to disclose." 

A penitent, when asked by a confessor concerning a sin already 
confessed, can swear that he has not committed it, understanding " that 
which has not been confessed." This, however, must be understood 
unless the confessor rightly asks for the purpose of becoming acquainted 
with the state of the penitent. 

A poor man who has hidden some goods in order to maintain him- 
self can reply to the judge that he has nothing. In the same manner 
an heir who without an inventory has concealed some property, if he 
is not bound to satisfy creditors with this property, can reply to the 
judge that he has concealed nothing, understanding " of the property 
with which he is bound to satisfy [the creditors]." . . . 

A creditor can assert with an oath that nothing has been paid to 
him on an account, even though in fact a part has been paid, if he 
himself has a loan from another person [or source] which he is not 
able to prove; provided, however, that he does not swear that this sum 
is due him on that account, and that he does not inflict injury upon the 
other former creditors. . . . 

It is permissible to swear to anything which is false by adding in 
an undertone a true condition, if that low utterance can in any way 
be perceived by the other party, though its sense is not understood; not 
so, if it wholly escapes the attention of the other. — " Theologia Moralis" 
Ligorio (R. C.J, 3d ed., Vol. I, pp. 128-130. 

Jesuits, Their Moral Theology Dominant. — There is no other 
domain in which Jesuitism has succeeded so completely in forcing its 
domination on Catholicism as that of moral theology. The development 
which the practice of the confessional, i. e., the domination of the pri- 
vate and public life of Catholics by means of the confessional, has 
attained since the end of the sixteenth century within the Church of 
Rome — and it is the practice of the confessional which is concealed 
under the term " moral theology "— has been mainly brought about by 
the moral theologians of the Jesuit order. The present-day Catholic 
morality is penetrated throughout with Jesuit morality. 

This important fact is most strikingly expressed by the circum- 
stance that the greatest authority on moral theology in the Romish 
Church, Alfonso Maria di Liguori (died 1787), whom Gregory XVI 
canonized in 1839, and Pius IX, in 1871, honored with the rank and dig- 
nity of a doctor of the church, was merely the commentator of the 
moral theologians of the Jesuit order, especially the two most influen- 
tial, Busenbaum and Lacroix. — "-Fourteen Years a Jesuit," Count Paul 
von Hoensbroech, Vol. II, pp. 286, 287. London: Cassell and Company, 
1911. 

Jesuits, Teaching of, Concerning the Power of the Church. — 
The Jesuits, though not the authors, are the most energetic cham- 
pions and propagators of the doctrine of the indirect supremacy of the 
church (Papacy) over the state. 



JESUITS, FAMOUS MAXIM OF. 



271 



Since the two greatest theologians of the Jesuit order, Bellarmin 
and Suarez, reduced this doctrine, inclusive of the right of the Pope 
to depose princes, to a properly articulated system, it has been a rochei 
de bronze of ultramontane Catholic dogmatics and canon law, until at 
length the Syllabus of Dec. 8, 1864, and the encyclicals of Leo XIII 
and Pius X raised it from the sphere of theological opinions to the 
height of a dogmatically established doctrine. And this promotion is 
the work of the Jesuit order. 

No matter what dogmatic, canonical, or moral-theological books by 
Jesuits we open, we encounter in all the indirect power of the church 
over the state. The subject is so important that I will cite numerous 
proofs. I will begin with the present general of the Jesuit order, 
Francis Xavier Wernz, a German from Wiirtemberg: 

" The state is subject to the jurisdiction of the church, in virtue of 
which the civil authority is really subordinate to the ecclesiastical and 
bound to obedience. This subordination is indirect, but not merely 
negative, since the civil power cannot do anything even within its own 
sphere which, according to the opinion of the church, would damage 
the latter, but rather positive, so that, at the command of the church, 
the state must contribute towards the advantage and benefit of the 
church." — " Jus Decretalium " (Romce), 1898-1901, 15 et seq. 

" Boniface VIII pointed out for all time the correct relation between 
church and state in his constitution Unarn Sanctam, of Nov. 18, 1302, 
the last sentence of which [that every person must be subject to the 
Roman Pope] contains a dogmatic definition [a dogma]." "The legisla- 
tive power of the church extends to everything that is necessary for the 
suitable attainment of the church's aims. A dispute which may arise 
as to the extent of the ecclesiastical legislative authority is not settled 
only by a mutual agreement between church and state, but by the in- 
fallible declaration or command of the highest ecclesiastical authority." 
— Ib., 29, 105. 

" From what has been said [namely, that the Pope may only make 
temporal laws in the Papal States], it by no means follows that the 
Roman Pope cannot declare civil laws, which are contrary to divine 
and canonical right, to be null and void." " The theory, which calls the 
Concordats papal privileges, whilst denying the co-ordination of state and 
church, assumes the certain and undoubted doctrine that the state is 
indirectly subject to the church. This opinion is based on the Cath- 
olic doctrine of the Pope's irrevocable omnipotence, in virtue of divine 
right, the valid application of which cannot be confined or restricted 
by any kind of compact." — lb., 147. 216. 

" As it not infrequently occurs that, in spite of attempted friendly 
settlement, the dispute [between church and state] continues, it is the 
duty of the church authentically to explain the point of dispute. The 
state must submit to this judgment." — lb., 223. Quoted in "Fourteen 
Years a Jesuit,'" Count Paul von Hoensbroech, Vol. II, pp. 338, 339. 
London: Cassell and Company, 1911. 

Jesuits, A Famous Maxim of. — The oft-quoted maxim, " The end 
sanctifies the means," does not occur in this abrupt form in the moral 
and theological manuals of the order. But its signification, i. e., that 
means in themselves bad and blameable are " sanctified," i. e., are per- 
missible on account of the good ends which it is hoped to attain through 
them, is one of the fundamental doctrines of Jesuit morals and ethics. 

It is well known that many violent disputes have raged about this 
maxim. The Jesuit Roh offered a reward of 1,000 florins to any one 
who could point it out in the moral and theological writings of the 



2 72 



JESUITS, CRITICISM OF. 



order. The matter was not decided. In April, 1903, the Centre deputy, 
Chaplain Dasbach, repeated Roh's challenge at a public meeting at 
Rixdorf, increasing the sum to 2,000 florins. I took Herr Dasbach at 
his word, published the proofs from Jesuit writings, which appeared to 
me convincing, in the magazine Deutschland, edited by myself, and 
called on the challenger, Herr Dasbach, to pay the 2,000 florins. He 
refused. I sued him for payment at the county court at Treves (Das- 
bach's place of residence). The court pronounced that the matter was 
a betting transaction, and that the money could not be recovered at 
law. On appealing against this to the high court of appeal at Cologne, 
my case was dismissed on March 30, 1905, on the ground that the pas- 
sages brought forward from Jesuit authors did not contain the sentence, 
" The end sanctifies the means," either formally or materially. My 
counsel advised against applying for a revision at the supreme court of 
the empire, as the facts of the case would not be discussed there, only 
technical errors in the previous judgments. — " Fourteen Years a Jesuit," 
Count Paul von Hoensbroech, Vol. II, p. 820. London: Vassell and Com- 
pany, 1911. 

Jesuits, Martyrs Compared with. — Yet, if we compare all the 
heroic sufferings of the Jesuits in the cause of obedience with those of 
the countless martyrs who have died for religious liberty in the dun- 
geons of the Holy Office, on the battlefields of Holland, or in the end- 
less cruelties of Romish intolerance, they seem faint and insignificant; 
and where obedience has produced one martyr, a thousand have fallen 
to attest their belief in Christianity. — "Historical Studies," Eugene 
Lawrence, p. 105. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1876. 

Jesuits, Roman Catholic Criticism or. — As we have already had 
occasion to see, the Society of Jesus had done great service in the cause 
of the church. In the course of time, however, when nearly all the 
schools of the world had come under its control, and when its members 
were everywhere in demand as confessors and confidential advisers to 
the princes, it attained a position not devoid of danger. The society 
soon acquired a strong spirit of independence, which it did not hesitate 
to display even toward the Holy See. In effect, the determination with 
which the Jesuits adhered to their rites and usages in Malabar and 
China, in spite of their condemnation by Rome, can only with difficulty 
be reconciled with their vow of obedience, even though all allowances 
be made for their being convinced of the necessity of their methods. 
Their conduct was repeatedly made a subject of complaint by Bene- 
dict XIV. In his bull Immensa Pastorum (Dec. 20, 1741), he was com- 
pelled to recall to the Jesuits and to other orders the precepts of Chris- 
tian charity, and to forbid them to hinder the progress of the gospel 
among the Indians by trading in slaves, and other inhuman practices. 
In this matter he was indeed obeyed, but in other directions the pro- 
ceedings of the society remained open to criticism. — " Manual of Church 
History," Dr. F. X. Funk, Roman Catholic Professor of Theology in the 
University of Tubingen, p. 173.* 

Note. — This work was published in London in 1910, having the imprimatur 
of Archbishop Bourne's vicar-general, dated May 16, 1910. — Eds. 

Jesuits, Later History and Suppression of. — The growing secu- 
larization of the society and its need of vast resources for the mainte- 
nance and extension of its world-wide work and the diminution of free- 
will offerings that had sufficed in the times when religious enthusiasm 
was at its height, led the society to engage in great speculative business 



JESUITS, SUPPRESSION OF. 



273 



enterprises, those conducted in Paraguay and Martinique resulting in 
disaster to many innocent investors (1753 onward), and brought upon 
the society much reproach in Portugal and France. In Portugal the 
Marquis of Pombal, one of the foremost statesmen of his time, became 
convinced that the liberation of the country from ecclesiastical rule, in 
which Jesuits had long been predominant, required the exclusion of 
the latter. An insurrection in Portuguese Paraguay by the natives fur- 
nished an occasion to Pombal for denouncing the Jesuits to the king 
and for demanding papal prohibition of their commercial undertakings. 
The papal prohibition was issued in 1758 and priestly privileges were 
withdrawn from Jesuits in Portugal. An attempt upon the life of the 
king (Sept. 3, 1758) was attributed to Jesuit influence, and led to a 
decree for the expulsion of the society and the confiscation of its prop- 
erty (Sept. 3, 1759). The Pope tried in vain to protect them, and his 
nuncio was driven from the country. Malgrida, a Jesuit, was burned 
at the stake in 1761. Speculations by Jesuits in Martinique, in which 
vast sums of money were lost by French citizens, led to a public inves- 
tigation of the methods of the society, and on April 16, 1761, the Par- 
liament- of Paris decreed a suppression of Jesuit establishments in 
France, and on May 8 declared the entire order responsible for the 
debts of the principal promoter of the collapsed enterprise. Other par- 
liaments followed that of Paris. King, Pope, and many bishops pro- 
tested in vain. Eighty of their colleges were closed in April, 1762. 
Their constitution was denounced as godless, sacrilegious, and treason- 
able, and the vows taken by Jesuits were declared to be null and void. 
On Nov. 26, 1764, the king agreed to a decree of expulsion. In Spain 
6,000 Jesuits were suddenly arrested at night and conveyed to papal 
territory (Sept. 2-3, 1768). Refused admission by the Pope, they took 
refuge in Corsica. A similar seizure and transportation of 3,000 had 
occurred at Naples (Nov. 3-4, 1767). Parma dealt with them similarly 
(Feb. 7, 1768), and soon afterward they were expelled from Malta by 
the Knights of St. John. 

The Bourbon princes urged Clement XIII to abolish the society. 
He refused, and when he died (Feb. 2, 1769) there was much intriguing 
among friends and enemies of the Jesuits in seeking to secure the elec- 
tion of a pope that would protect or abolish the society. Cardinal Gan- 
ganelli was elected, and it is highly probable that he had bargained 
with the Bourbons for the destruction of the Jesuits. From the begin- 
ning of his pontificate powerful pressure was brought to bear upon 
him by Spain, France, and Portugal for the abolition of the order. He 
gave promises of early action, but long hesitated to strike the fatal 
blow. He began by subjecting the Jesuit colleges in and around Rome 
to investigation. These were promptly suppressed and their inmates 
banished. Maria Theresa of Austria, who had been greatly devoted to 
the Jesuits, now regretfully abandoned them and joined with the Bour- 
bons in demanding the abolition of the society by the Pope. This com- 
bined pressure of the chief Catholic powers was more than the Pope 
could withstand (" Coactus feci," he is reported to have afterward said). 
On July 21, 1773, he signed the brief Dominus ac Redemptor noster, 
which abolished the society, and on August 16 the general and his chief 
assistants were imprisoned and all their property in Rome and the 
states of the church confiscated (Eng. transl. of this brief is most easily 
accessible in Nicolini, " History of the Jesuits," pp. 387-406, London, 
1893). The brief recites at length the charges of immoral teaching 
and intolerable meddlesomeness in matters of church and state, of the 
abuse of the unlimited privileges that the society has enjoyed, and 
virtually admits that it has become totally depraved and a universal 
nuisance. To restore peace to Christendom its abolition is declared to 



18 



274 



JESUITS, SUPPRESSION OP. 



be necessary. A papal coin was struck the same year in commemora 
tion of the event, with Christ sitting in judgment and saying to the 
Jesuit fathers arraigned on his left, " Depart from me, all of you, 1 
never knew you." — The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious 
Knowledge, Vol. VI, art. "Jesuits," pp. 147, 148. 

Jesuits, Decree of Feench Parliament of 1762 Concerning. — The 
court has ordered that the passages extracted from the books of 147 
Jesuit authors having been verified, a collated copy shall be presented 
to the king, to enable him to know the perversity of the doctrine main- 
tained by the so-called Jesuits from the foundation of the society up 
to the present moment, with the approbation of the theologians, the 
permission of the superiors and generals, and the applause of other 
members of the aforesaid society: a doctrine authorizing theft, lying, 
perjury, impurity, all passions and all crimes, teaching homicide, parri- 
cide, and regicide, overthrowing religion in order to substitute super- 
stitions for it, while favoring magic, blasphemy, irreligion, and idol- 
atry; and the said sovereign lord shall be most humbly entreated to 
consider the results of such .pernicious teaching combined with the 
choice and uniformity of the opinions of the aforesaid society. Done 
in Parliament, the 5th March, 1762. — " Our Brief Against Rome," Rev. 
Charles Stuteville Isaacson, M. A., Appendix C, p. £69. London: The 
Religious Tract Society, 1905. 

Jesuits, Extracts from the Brief of Clement XIV Suppressing 
the. — We have seen, in the grief of our heart, that neither these reme- 
dies [applied by former popes], nor an infinity of others, since em- 
ployed, have produced their due effect, or silenced the accusations and 
complaints against the said society [e. g., Jesuit]. Our other prede- 
cessors, Urban VII, Clement IX, X, XI, and XII, and Alexander VII 
and VIII, Innocent X, XII, and XIII, and Benedict XIV, employed, 
without effect, all their efforts to the same purpose. In vain did they 
endeavor, by salutary constitutions, to restore peace to the church; as 
well with respect to secular affairs, with which the company ought not 
to have interfered, as with regard to the missions. . . . After a 
mature deliberation, we do, out of our certain knowledge, and the 
fulness of our apostolical power, suppress and abolish the said company: 
we deprive it of all activity whatever, of its houses, schools, colleges, 
hospitals, lands, and, in short, every other place whatsoever, in what- 
ever kingdom or province they may be situated; we abrogate and annul 
its statutes, rules, customs, decrees, and constitutions, even though con- 
firmed by oath, and approved by the Holy See or otherwise; in like 
manner we annul all and every its privileges, indults, general or par- 
ticular, the tenor whereof is, and is taken to be, as fully and as amply 
expressed in the present brief as if the same were inserted word for 
word, in whatever clauses, form, or decree, or under whatever sanction 
their privileges may have been conceived. We declare all, and all kind 
of authority, the general, the provincials, the visitors, and other supe- 
riors of the said society, to be forever annulled and extinguished, of 
what nature soever the said authority may be, as well in things spirit- 
ual as temporal. — "History of the Jesuits" Q. B. Nicolini, pp. S94-398. 
London: George Bell & Sons, 1884. 

Jesuits, Roman Catholic View of Their Suppression. — In the 
Brief of Suppression the most striking feature is the long list of alle- 
gations against the society, with no mention of what is favorable; the 
tone of the brief is very adverse. On the other hand, the charges are 



JEWISH LEAGUE. 



275 



recited categorically; they are not definitely stated to have been proved. 
The object is to represent the order as having occasioned perpetual 
strife, contradiction, and trouble. For the sake of peace the society 
must be suppressed. — The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. XIV, p. 99. 

Jesuits, Restoration of. — The execution of the Brief of Suppres- 
sion having been largely left to the local bishops, there was room for 
a good deal of variety in the treatment which the Jesuits might receive 
in different places. In Austria and Germany they were generally al- 
lowed to teach (but with secular clergy as superiors); . . . but in 
Russia, and until 1780 in Prussia, the Empress Catherine and King 
Frederick II desired to maintain the society as a teaching body. They 
forbade the local bishops to promulgate the brief until their placet was 
obtained. Bishop Massalski in White Russia, 19 September, 1773, there- 
fore ordered the Jesuit superiors to continue to exercise jurisdiction till 
further notice. . . . 

The Restored Society. — Pius VII had resolved to restore the so- 
ciety during his captivity in France; and after his return to Rome did 
so with little delay, 7 August, 1814, by the bull Sollicitudo omnium 
ecclesiarum, and therewith the general in Russia, Thaddaeus Brzozow- 
ski, acquired universal jurisdiction. — The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. 
XIV, pp. 99, 100. 

Jesuits, Present Activity of. — A striking parallel is found in the 
secret society of the Jesuits — that indefatigable order which undoubt- 
edly saved the Romish Church from destruction at the period of the 
Reformation, and has ever since proved the chief stay and strength of 
the system of disguised paganism which we have been endeavoring to 
expose. But energetic as its members showed themselves to be in times 
that are past, it is probable that they were never more so than in the 
last few years. To their exertions we may refer the fact that the tide 
of popery is again setting in upon the Protestant countries of England. 
America, and Germany. — "Rome: Pagan and Papal," Mourant Brock, 
M. A., p. 266. London: Plodder and Stoughton, 1883. 

Jesuits, Work of, Against Protestantism. — The movement which 
began at Trent and was consummated in our own day, and which made 
unity of organization and absolute submission to the Pope the supreme 
tests, was chiefly the work of the Jesuits, who emerged on the scene as 
the great dominating force before the second assembling of the council 
in 1551, and whose influence was supreme throughout its later doings. 
Their policy was not merely to put an end to the idea of reunion through 
reform, but to silence the cry for compromise. " Cease your discussions 
and crush Protestantism," was their motto; and for a time their success 
was extraordinary. They secured the removal of the grosser abuses 
which weakened Rome; they carried Romish doctrines among the 
heathen in an era when there were no corresponding Protestant mis- 
sions; and they drove back the Reformation movement to the limits 
which are sflll its practical boundaries. — "The Arrested Reformation," 
Rev. William Muir, M. A. t B. D., B. L., p. 155. London: Morgan and 
Scott, 1912. 

Jesuits. — See Councils, Vatican, 124. 

Jewish League, Its Meaning and Date. — For the purpose of restor- 
ing him [Alcimus] a Syrian army once more invaded Judea under Ni- 
canor (u. c. 160) [the Britannica; 11th edition, art. " Israel," says 
b. c. 161], but first at Kapharsalama and afterwards at Bethhoron was 



276 



JUSTIFICATION. 



defeated by Judas [Maccabeus] and almost annihilated in the subsequent 
flight, Nicanor himself being among the slain (13th Adar — Nicanor's 
day). Judas was now at the acme of his prosperity; about this time he 
concluded his (profitless) treaty [or league] with the Romans. — Ency- 
clopedia Britannica, 20th Century edition, Vol. XIII, art. " Israel" p. 422. 

Jewish League, The Decree. — Hearing of the power of the Ro- 
mans, and that they had conquered in war Galatia, and Iberia, and 
Carthage, and Libya; and that, besides these, they had subdued Greece, 
and their kings, Perseus, and Philip, and Antiochus the Great also; he 
[Judas Maccabeus] resolved to enter into a league of friendship with 
them. He therefore sent to Rome some of his friends, Eupolemus the 
son* of John, and Jason the son of Eleazer, and by them desired the Ro- 
mans that they would assist them, and be their friends, and would write 
to Demetrius that he would not fight against the Jews. So the senate 
received the ambassadors that came from Judas to Rome, and discoursed 
with them about the errand on which they came, and then granted them 
a league of assistance [b. c. 161]. They also made a decree concerning 
it, and sent a copy of it into Judea. It was also laid up in the capitol, 
and engraven in brass. The decree itself was this: "The decree of the 
senate concerning a league of assistance and friendship with the nation 
of the Jews. It shall not be lawful for any that are subject to the Ro- 
mans to make war with the nation of the Jews, nor to assist those that 
do so, either by sending them corn, or ships, or money; ana if any attack 
be made upon the Jews, the Romans shall assist them, as far as they are 
able; and again, if any attack be made upon the Romans, the Jews shall 
assist them. And if the Jews have a mind to add to, or to take away 
anything from, this league of assistance, that shall be done with the 
common consent of the Romans. And whatsoever addition shall thus be 
made, it shall be of force." — "Antiquities of the Jews," Josephus, book 
12, chap. 10, sec. 6. 

Jews, — See Advent, First, 5, 6, Second, 17; Apostasy, 36; Azazel, 
44; Babylon, 61; Calendar, 95, 96, 97; Canon, 98, 99; Daniel, 30; Easter, 
147; Genealogy, 183; Jerusalem; Law, Ceremonial; Priesthood, 392; 
Religious Liberty, 419; Rome, 446; Sabbath, 466. 

John XXIII — See Papacy, 342. 

Justification, Contrasting Views of. — The most striking differ- 
ences between the Reformation and the medieval conception of justifi- 
cation are: 

1. The Reformation thought always looks at the comparative im- 
perfection of the works of believers, while admitting that they are good 
works; the medieval theologian, even when bidding men disregard the 
intrinsic value of their good works, always looks at the relative perfec- 
tion of these works. 

2. The Reformer had a much more concrete idea of God's grace — 
it was something special, particular, unique — because he invariably 
regarded the really good works which men can do from their relative 
imperfection; the medieval theologian looked at the relative perfection 
of good works, and so could represent them as something congruous to 
the grace of God which was not sharply distinguished from them. 

3. These views led Luther and the Reformers to represent faith as 
not merely the receptive organ for the reception and appropriation of 
justification through Christ, but, and in addition, as the active instru- 



JUSTIFICATION. 



277 



ment in all Christian life and work — faith is our life; while the medi- 
eval theologians never attained this view of faith. 

4. The Reformer believes that the act of faith in his justification 
through Christ is the basis of the believer's assurance of his pardon 
and salvation in spite of the painful and abiding sense of sin; while 
the medieval theologian held that the divine sentence of acquittal which 
restored a sinner to a state of grace resulted from the joint action of 
the priest and the penitent in the sacrament of penance, and had to be 
repeated intermittently. — "A History of the Reformation," Thomas M. 
Lindsay, M. A., D. D., p. 452. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1906. 

Justification, Roman Canons on. — Canon IX. If any one saith that 
by faith alone the impious is justified; in such wise as to mean that 
nothing else is required to co-operate in order to the obtaining the grace 
of justification, and that it is not in any way necessary that he be 
prepared and disposed by the movement of his own will; let him be 
anathema. 

Canon X. If any one saith that men are just without the justice of 
Christ, whereby he merited for us to be justified; or that it is by that 
justice itself that they are formally just; let him be anathema. 

Canon XI. If any one saith that men are justified, either by the 
sole imputation of the justice of Christ or by the sole remission of sins, 
to the exclusion of the grace and the charity which is poured forth in 
their hearts by the Holy Ghost and is inherent in them; or even that 
the grace, whereby we are justified, is only the favor of God; let him 
be anathema. 

Canon XII. If any one saith that justifying faith is nothing else but 
confidence in the divine mercy which remits sin for Christ's sake; or 
that this confidence alone is that whereby we are justified; let him be 
anathema. 

Canon XIII. If any one saith that it is necessary for every one, for 
the obtaining the remission of sins, that he believe for certain, and 
without any wavering arising from his own infirmity and indisposition, 
that his sins are forgiven him; let him be anathema. 

Canon XIV. If any one saith that man is truly absolved from his 
sins and justified, because that he assuredly believed himself absolved 
and justified; or that no one is truly justified but he who believes him- 
self justified; and that, by this faith alone, absolution and justification 
are effected; let him be anathema. — " Dogmatic Canons and Decrees." 
pp. 51, 52. New York: Devin-Adair Company, 1912. 

Justification, Roman Catholic View of Protestant Teaching Con- 
cerning. — As in revolutions the leaders try to gain the people over by 
the bait of promised independence, so at the time of the so-called Refor- 
mation — which was a revolution against church authority and order 
in religion — it seems that it was the aim of the Reformers to decoy 
the people under the pretext of making them independent of the priests, 
in whose hands our Saviour has placed the administering of the seven 
sacraments of pardon and of grace. 

They began, therefore, by discarding five of these sacraments, in- 
cluding the sacrament of order, in which priests are ordained, and the 
sacrament of penance, in which the forgiveness of sins is granted to 
the penitent, by virtue of those words of Christ: " Whose sins you shall 
forgive, they are forgiven them; and whose sins you shall retain, they 
are retained." St. John 20: 23. 

They then reduced, as it appears, to a mere matter of form, the two 
sacraments they professed to retain, namely, holy baptism and the holy 
eucharist. To make up for this rejection, and enable each individual 



278 



JUSTIFICATION. 



to prescribe for himself, and procure by himself the pardon of sins and 
divine grace, independently of the priests and of the sacraments, they 
invented an exclusive means, never known in the church of God, and 
still rejected by all the Eastern churches and by the Roman Catholics 
throughout the world, by which the followers of Luther ventured to 
declare that each individual can secure pardon and justification for 
himself independently of priests and sacraments. 

They have framed a new dogma, not to be found in any of the 
creeds, or in the canons of any general council; I mean, the new dogma 
of Justification by Faith alone, or by Faith only. . . . 

By adding the word " alone," Protestants profess to exclude all 
exterior, ceremonial, pious, or charitable works, works of obedience or 
of penance, and good moral acts whatever, as means of apprehending 
justification, or as conditions to obtain it. Protestants by that word 
" alone " mean also to exclude the sacraments of baptism and penance 
as means of apprehending or possessing themselves of justification, 
which they maintain is only apprehended by faith. . . . 

Indeed, some of them go so far as to consider these interior good 
acts as well as other exterior good deeds, rather hindrances than dis- 
positions to justification. 

To do these acts with the view of being justified, is, they say, like 
giving a penny to the queen to obtain from her a royal gift. Come as 
you are, they add; you cannot be too bad for Jesus. Through faith 
alone in his promise, they assert, you can and should accept Christ's 
merits, seize Christ's redemption and his justice; appropriate Christ to 
yourself, believe that Jesus is with you, is yours, that he pardons your 
sins, arid all this without any preparation and without any doing on 
your part; in fact, that however deficient you may be in all other dis- 
positions which Catholics require, and however loaded with sins, if you 
only trust in Jesus that he will forgive your sins and save you, you are 
by that trust alone forgiven, personally redeemed, justified, and placed 
in a state of salvation. — " Catholic Belief," Rev. Joseph Fad di Bruno, 
D. D. (R. C), pp. 365-367. New York: Benziger Brothers. 

Justification. — Conferred in Baptism, According to the Roman 
View. — The adult is called to justification by a preventing grace, which 
is for him, as it were, the principle of salvation. This grace, which may 
be resisted and absolutely rejected, draws the will on to prepare for 
reconciliation in a fitting manner, and always with freedom. The acts 
which predispose him for reconciliation, and which grace assists him to 
make, are, first, acts of faith: he hears the preaching of the gospel, he 
believes the truth of the revelation, and God's faithfulness to his prom- 
ises; he believes, especially, that God justifies the wicked by his grace, 
the fruit of redemption. But in hearing the sacred law promulgated 
he perceives that he is a sinner; and therefore fears the justice of God 
provoked by his iniquities; after he has been cast down by this salu- 
tary shock, a feeling of confidence in the infinite mercy of his Creator 
presents itself and raises him up. He hopes that God, in consideration 
of the merits of Jesus Christ, will pardon him; and animated by such 
hope, he begins to love this God, the unfailing source of all justice; 
this love leads him to detest his sin, to repent of it, to repair it as 
far as may be, and makes him resolve to receive baptism, and to ob- 
serve the divine commandments. When the soul has these dispositions, 
it receives from the Holy Spirit in baptism, together with the remis- 
sion of all its sins, the grace which makes it just; and at the same 
time it is incorporated into Jesus Christ, and united to that divine 
Head by the sacred ties of faith, hope, and charity. — " Catholic Doctrine 
as Defined by the Council of Trent," Rev. A. Nampon, 8. J. (R. C.J, p. 
876, Philadelphia; Peter F, Cunningham, 1869. 



KEYS, POWER OF. 



279 



Justification, the Confirmation of Freedom. — Justification by 
faith alone is not the denial, it is rather the confirmation, of the highest 
freedom, for it involves this, that the man in matters relating to his 
eternal salvation is independent of any sort of priestly mediation, of 
any sort of human pronouncement, of any sort of legal tradition, that 
he stands alone before the face of God, and that it is only in his own 
heart that the decision is made with regard to him how far he belongs 
to the truly catholic, the ideal church. — " Handbook, to the Controversy 
with Rome," Earl von Hase, Vol. II, p. 87. London: The Religious 
Tract Society, 1909. 

Justification, The Council of Trent on.-— The Council of Trent 
says: "If any man shall declare that men are justified without the 
righteousness of Christ, through which he has obtained merit for us, 
or that through that righteousness itself they are formally justified; 
let him be accursed." " If any man shall say that justifying faith is 
nothing else but confidence in the divine mercy, forgiving sins for 
Christ's sake; or that this confidence is the only thing by which we 
are justified; let him be accursed." 

The Council of Trent boastfully declared that it was " lawfully 
assembled in the Holy Spirit," at the beginning of every important 
decree; meaning that its decisions were all prompted by Him who 
moved holy men of old to write the Scriptures. Examine these two 
canons in the light of the Spirit's revelations. The first curses those 
who say that men are formally justified through Christ's righteousness; 
the second curses those who say that confidence in the divine mercy 
forgiving sins for Christ's sake is the only thing by which we are justi- 
fied. Paul comes under this curse, for he says (Catholic version, Rom. 
3: 28): "For we account a man to be justified by faith without the 
works of the law." And if inspired Paul arrived at such a conclusion, 
we may safely sit down beside him and let the Council of Trent, law- 
fully assembled in the Holy Spirit, curse him and us. . . . 

The decree on justification has sixteen chapters and thirty-three 
canons; it is very elaborate, and contains some truth and much per- 
nicious error. Take it altogether, it is one of the most self-contradic- 
tory, gospel-denying, and detestable efforts which one could well imagine. 
— " The Papal System,'" William Cathcart, D. D., pp. 261, 262. Phila- 
delphia: American Baptist Publication Society. 

Justinian. — See Councils, 119; Heretics, 209; Inquisition, 251; 
Papal Supremacy, 356-359; Rome, Its Barbarian Invaders, 445, 446. 

Keys, Power of. — Pastors, therefore, must first teach that the in- 
stitution of confession has been to us extremely useful, and even neces- 
sary; for granting that sins are canceled by contrition, who is ignorant 
that [to effect this] it must be so vehement, so intense, so ardent, 
as that the bitterness of our sorrow may be compared with, and bear 
a proportion to, the magnitude of our crimes. But as this is a degree 
of contrition which very few could reach, the consequence also was that 
very few could have hoped to obtain in this way the pardon of their 
sins. 

It was therefore necessary that the Lord, in his infinite mercy, 
should provide by some easier means for the common salvation of men; 
and this he did, in his admirable wisdom, when he gave to the church 
the keys of the kingdom of heaven. For, according to the doctrine of 
the Catholic faith, it is to be believed and firmly professed by all, that 
if any one is sincerely sorry for his past sins, and firmly resolves to 
avoid sin for the future, although his sorrow be not such as may be 
sufficient of itself to obtam pardon, yet all his crimes, if duly confessed 



280 



LAW, CEREMONIAL. 



to the priest, are remitted and pardoned by the power of the keys; so 
that justly was it proclaimed by those most holy men, our Fathers, 
that by the keys of the church is thrown open the gate of heaven. Of 
this no one is at liberty to doubt, the Council of Florence having denned 
that the effect of penance is absolution from sins. — " Catechism of the 
Council of Trent," Rev. J. Donovan, D. D. (R. C), pp. 245, 246. Dublin: 
James Duffy, Sons & Co. 

Kingdoms. — See Ten Kingdoms. 

Laodicea, Council of. — See Sabbath, Change of, 471. 

Law, Ceremonial, Lesson of Levitical System. — It represented 
strikingly the infinite holiness of God, and the necessity of purity in 
all who would come into his presence or enjoy his favor. It pointed 
to the Great Provision, which God intended to reveal in its proper time, 
for the taking away of sin, and directed the eye of faith and hope to 
the perfect salvation that was to come. By signs it foretold the suffer- 
ings and death of Christ, and the whole work of redemption which he 
was to accomplish. — "Biblical Antiquities," John W. Nevin, Vol. II, pp. 
16, 17. Utica, N. Y.: Western Sunday School Union, 1828. 

Law, Ceremonial, Witness That a Higher Law was Broken. — - 
The ceermonial law taught of the holiness of God and of a coming 
Saviour, and was designed to provide for restored obedience to the 
moral law. — " The Ten Commandments and the Lord's Prayer," Ferdi- 
nand S. SchencTc, p. 11. New York: Funk & Wagnalis, 1902. 

Law, Ceremonial, Abrogated at the Cross. — God gave to Adam 
a law, as a covenant of works, by which he bound him and all his pos- 
terity to personal, entire, exact, and perpetual obedience; promised life 
upon the fulfilling, and threatened death upon the breach of it; and 
endued him with power and ability to keep it. 

This law, after his fall, continued to be a perfect rule of righteous- 
ness; and, as such, was delivered by God upon Mt. Sinai in ten com- 
mandments, and written in two tables; the four first commandments 
containing our duty towards God; and the other six, our duty to man. 

Beside this law, commonly called moral, God was pleased to give to 
the people of Israel, as a church under age, ceremonial laws, containing 
several typical ordinances, partly of worship, prefiguring Christ, his 
graces, actions, sufferings, and benefits; and partly holding forth divers 
instructions of moral duties. All which ceremonial laws are now abro- 
gated under the New Testament. — " The Constitution of the Presbyterian 
Church in the United States of America, as ratified by the General 
Assemblies of 1836 and 1833," chap. 19, pars. 1-3, pp. 88-90. Philadel- 
phia: Presbyterian Publication Committee. 

Law, Ceremonial, Ended with the Death of Christ. — The moral 
law revealed the disease for which he [Christ] brought the remedy. Its 
precepts were designed to convince of sin. On the other hand, the cere- 
monial law was suited to typify the remedy for sin. It contained a 
shadow of the " good things " of the gospel. It pictured the way of 
salvation. 

What the ceremonial law obscurely typified, the prophets more 
plainly predicted. Both pointed to the coming Messiah. The daily sac- 
rifices of the one, and the successive utterances of the other, pointed to 
" the Lamb of God who taketh away the sin of the world," 



LAW OF GOD, PERFECTION OF. 



281 



The fulfilment of the moral law, the ceremonial law, and the proph 
ets, in the character and work of Christ, is a threefold cord of evidence 
which cannot be broken. He, and he alone, perfectly fulfilled the pre- 
cepts of the moral law. He, and he alone, fulfilled the types of the 
ceremonial law. He, and he alone, fulfilled the predictions of the proph- 
ets. By his fulfilment of the moral law he became a law. He translated 
its written precepts into living deeds. With his death the ceremonial 
system came to an end. — " Creation Centred in Christ,'" H. Grattan 
Guinness, D. D., pp. 31, 32, London: Rodder and Stoughton, 1896. 

Law of God, One Perfect Code. — In the Epistle of James is found 
a word of deep significance. " Whosoever shall keep the whole law, and 
yet stumble in one point, he is become guilty of all" (2: 10). . . . 
Herein lies the explanation of the apparent severity of James's utter- 
ance. Men are apt to think that if there be ten commandments, of which 
they obey nine, such obedience will be put to their credit, even though 
they break the tenth. — " The Ten Commandments ," Rev. G. Campbell 
Morgan, p. 11. New York: Fleming H. Revell Company, 1901. 

These ten commandments are not ten different laws; they are one 
law. If I am being held up in the air by a chain with ten links, and I 
break one of them, down I come, just as surely as if I break the whole 
ten. If I am forbidden to go out of an inclosure, it makes no difference 
at what point I break through the fence. " Whosoever shall keep the 
whole law, and yet offend in one point, he is guilty of all." " The golden 
chain of obedience is broken if one link is missing." — " Weighed and 
Wanting," Divight L. Moody, p. 119. New York: Fleming H. Revell 
Company, 1898. 

Law of God, The End of All Perfection. — Now men may cavil 
as much as they like about other parts of the Bible, but I have never 
met an honest man that found fault with the ten commandments. 
Infidels may mock the Lawgiver and reject Him who has delivered us 
from the curse of the law, but they can't help admitting that the com- 
mandments are right. Renan said that they are for all nations, and 
will remain the commandments of God during all the centuries. 

If God created this world, he must make some laws to govern it. In 
order to make life safe, we must have good laws; there is not a country 
the sun shines upon that does not possess laws. Now this is God's law. 
It has come from on high, and infidels and skeptics have to admit that 
it is pure. — Id., p. 11. 

Law of God, Reveals the Glory of God. — A great philosopher has 
said that the mind must be filled with awe when one contemplates either 
the universe or the moral law. The psalmist saw the glory of God 
alike in the heavens and in the law. Given in the early dawn of civili- 
zation, this law of the ten commandments has not been left behind in 
the advance of the race, but still stands far ahead, beckoning on the 
centuries. Its perfection is a sufficient evidence of its divine origin. 
Each commandment is an authoritative statement of a fundamental 
principle of human nature. — " The Ten Commandments and the Lord's 
Prayer," Ferdinand S. Schenck, Preface to neio edition, par. 1. New 
York: Funk and Wagnalls Company. 1902. 

Law of God, The Rule of Love. — If you love God with all your 
heart, you must keep the first table; and if you love your neighbor as 
yourself, you must keep the second table. — " The Perpetuity of the 
Law," C. H. Spurgeon, p. 5* 



282 



LAW OF GOD OPINIONS ON. 



Law of God, " By the Law is the Knowledge of Sin."— Thus it 
appears that man cannot have a true notion of sin, but by means of the 
law of God. . . . And let it be observed that the law did not answer this 
end merely among the Jews, in the days of the apostle; it is just as 
necesary to the Gentiles, to the present hour. Nor do we find that true 
repentance takes place where the moral law is not preached and en- 
forced. Those who preach only the gospel to sinners, at best, only heal 
the hurt of the daughter of my people slightly. The law, therefore, is 
the grand instrument in the hands of a faithful minister, to alarm and 
awaken sinners: and he may safely show that every sinner is under 
the law, and consequently under the curse, who has not fled for refuge 
to the hope held out by the gospel: for in this sense also Jesus Christ 
is the end of the law for justification to them that believe. — Adam 
Clarke's Commentary, on Rom. 7:13, Vol. IV, p. 82. New York: Waugh 
and Mason, 1833. 

Law of God, Only the Obedient by Faith Free. — There is a sense 
in which Christians are not " free from the law." It is only when grace 
enables men to keep the law, that they are free from it; just as a moral 
man who lives according to the laws of the country is free from arrest. 
God has not set aside law, but he has found a way by which man can 
fulfil law, and so be free from it. — " The Ten Commandments," Rev. O. 
Campbell Morgan, p. 23. New York: Fleming H. Revell Company, 1901. 

Law of God, Bishop Simpson's Word to Preachers. — The law of 
God, in its great and solemn injunctions, should be distinctly set forth. 
Our congregations should be gathered as around the base of Mt. Sinai, 
while from its summit is heard the voice of God in those command- 
ments which are unalterable and eternal in their character. . . . 

Some will object to the sternness of the law, and say, " Prophesy 
smooth things; " but still the law must be preached. It brings the sin- 
ner to a recognition of his sins; in having transgressed God's holy law, 
and shown him the fearfulness of the doom which is impending over 
him. The law must be followed by the gospel; the awakened sinner 
must be pointed to the Saviour, that he may see that, deep as are the 
stains of his transgressions, the blood of Christ can wash them all 
away. — "Lectures on Preaching," Matthew Simpson (Bishop M. E. 
Church), Lecture 4, p. 128. New York: Eaton and Mains, 1906. 

Law of God, Moody on the Minister's Duty. — The people must be 
made to understand that the ten commandments are still binding, and 
that there is a penalty attached to their violation. — " Weighed and Want- 
ing," Dwiaht L. Moody, p. 16. Chicago: Fleming H. Revell Company, 
1898. 

Law of God, When the Pulpit Ignores It. — There are many 
preachers who love to dwell on the gospel alone. They talk sweetly and 
beautifully of the fatherhood of God. This is well. It is more than well, 
it is essential. But sometimes they go beyond this, and declaim against 
the preaching of the law, — intimate that it belongs to a past age, a 
less civilized society. . . . 

Such a gospel may rear a beautiful structure; but its foundation is 
on the sand. No true edifice can be raised without its foundations being 
dug deep by repentance toward God, and then shall the rock be reached, 
and the building shall be through faith in Jesus Christ. The law with- 
out the gospel is dark and hopeless; the gospel without the law is in- 
efficient and powerless. — " Lectures on Preaching," Rev. Matthew Simp- 
son, Lecture 4, p. 129. New York: Eaton & Mains, 1906. 



LAW OP GOD, OPINIONS ON. 



283 



Law of God, Exalted by Chkist's Death. — Through the atonement 
of Christ more honor is done to the law, and consequently the law is 
more established, than if the law had been literally executed, and all 
mankind had been condemned. Whatever tends most to the honor of 
the law, tends most to establish its authority. — " The Works of Jona- 
than Edioards," (2 vols.) Vol. II, p. 369. Andover: Allen, Morrill, and 
Wardwell, 1842. 

Law of God, Universal, Magnified by Christ — The command- 
ments of God given to Moses in the mount at Horeb are as binding to- 
day as ever they have been since the time when they were proclaimed 
in the hearing of the people. The Jews said the law was not given in 
Palestine (which belonged to Israel), but in the wilderness, because 
the law was for all nations. 

Jesus never condemned the law and the prophets, but he did con- 
demn those who did not obey them. Because he gave new command- 
ments, it does not follow that he abolished the old. Christ's explana- 
tion of them made them all the more searching. In his Sermon on the 
Mount he carried the principles of the commandments beyond the mere 
letter. He unfolded them and showed that they embraced more, that 
they are positive as well as prohibitive. — " Weighed and Wanting," 
Ihvight L. Moody, p. 15. Chicago: Fleming H. Revell Company, 1898. 

Law of God, Enforced in the Sermon on the Mount. — We learn 
hence: 1. That all the law of God is binding on Christians. Compare 
James 2: 10. 2. That all the commands of God should be preached, in 
their proper place, by Christian ministers. 3. That they who pretend 
that there are any laws of God so small that they need not obey them, 
are unworthy of his kingdom. And 4. That true piety has respect to 
all the commandments of God. Compare Ps. 119: 6. — "Notes, Explana- 
tory and Practical, on the Gospels," Albert Barnes (revised edition), 
note on Matt. 5:19. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1868. 

Law of God, John Wesley on Christ's " Sermon on the Mount." — 
In the highest rank of the enemies of the gospel of Christ, are they who, 
openly and explicitly, " judge the law," itself, and " speak evil of the 
law;" who teach men to break (lusai, to dissolve, to loose, to untie the 
obligation of) not one only, whether of the least or of the greatest, but 
ail the commandments at a stroke; who teach, without any cover, in 
so many words, "What did our Lord do with the law? He abolished 
it. There is but one duty, which is that of believing. . . ." This is in- 
deed carrying matters with a high hand; this is withstanding our Lord 
to the face, and telling him that he understood not how to deliver the 
message on which he was sent. O Lord, lay not this sin to their charge. 
Father, forgive them; for they know not what they do! [p. 226] 

The most surprising of all the circumstances that attend this strong 
delusion is, that they who are given up to it really believe that they 
honor Christ by overthrowing his law, and that they are magnifying 
his office while they are destroying his doctrine! Yea, they honor him 
just as Judas did, when he said, " Hail, Master, and kissed him." 
And he may as justly say to every one of them, " Betrayest thou the Son 
of man with a kiss? " It is no other than betraying him with a kiss to 
talk of his blood and take away his crown; to set light by any part of 
his law, under pretense of advancing his gospel. Nor indeed can any 
one escape this charge who preaches faith in any such a manner as 
either directly or indirectly tends to set aside any branch of obedience; 
who preaches Christ so as to disannul, or weaken in any wise, the least 



284 



LAW OF GOD, MORAL AND CEREMONIAL. 



of the commandments of God. — " Works of Wesley,'" Sermon XXV, 
(7 vol. ed.) Vol. I, pp. 225, 226. New York: Waugh and Mason, 1833. 

Law of God, Cannot be Abrogated. — While God remains God, his 
moral law will be binding upon all who would have any part in his life. 
God's moral law is eternal; it is an expression of his very being. As 
such it can no more be abrogated than can God himself. — Editorial in 

Sunday School Times, Jan. 3, 1914* 

Law of God, John Calvin on Its Perpetuity. — We must not imag- 
ine that the coming of Christ has freed us from the authority of the 
law; for it is the eternal rule of a devout and holy life, and must, there- 
fore, be as unchangeable as the justice of God, which it embraced, is 
constant and uniform. — Calvin's Comment on Matt. 5:17 and Luke 
16:17, in " Commentary on a Harmony of the Gospels," Vol. I, p. 277. 
Printed in Edinburgh, 1845, for the Calvin Translation Society. 

Law of God, Doctrine of Methodist " Discipline." — Although the 
law given from God by Moses as touching ceremonies and rites, 
doth not bind Christians, nor ought the civil precepts thereof of neces- 
sity [to] be received in any commonwealth; yet, notwithstanding, no 
Christian whatsoever is free from the obedience of the commandments 
which are called moral. — " Methodist Episcopal Church Doctrines and 
Discipline," edited by Bishop Andrews, p. 23. New York: Eaton & 
Mams, 1904. 

Law of God, The Moral and the Ceremonial Code. — Ceremonial 
law is that which prescribes the rites of worship used under the Old 
Testament. These rites were typical of Christ, and were obligatory only 
till Christ had finished his work, and began to erect his gospel church. 
Heb. 7: 9, 11; 10: 1; Eph. 2: 16; Col. 2: 14; Gal. 5: 2, 3. . . . 

Moral law is that declaration of God's will which directs and binds 
all men, in every age and place, to their whole duty to him. It was most 
solemnly proclaimed by God himself at Sinai. ... It is denominated 
perfect (Ps. 19: 7), perpetual (Matt. 5: 17, 18), holy (Rom. 7: 12), good 
(Rom. 7: 12), spiritual (Rom. 7: 14), exceeding broad (Ps. 119: 96). — 
A Theological Dictionary, Rev. Charles Buck, art. u Law" p. 230, cor- 
rected edition. Philadelphia: Crissy and Markley, 1851. 

Law of God, How the Moral Code Differed from the Ceremonial 
in Nature. — One was founded on obligations growing out of the nature 
of men, and their relations to God and one another; obligations binding 
before they were written, and which will continue to be binding upon 
all who shall know them, to the end of time. Such are the laws which 
were written by the finger of God on the tables of stone, and are called 
moral laws. 

The other kind, called ceremonial laws, related to various outward 
observances, which were not obligatory till they were commanded, and 
then were binding only on the Jews till the death of Christ. — " The 

Sabbath Manual," Justin Edwards, p. 133. New York: American Tract 
Society. 

Law of God, Not Part of Ritual System. — The commandments 
did not originate with Moses, nor were they done away with when the 
Mosaic law was fulfilled in Christ, and many of its ceremonies and 
regulations abolished. — " Weighed and Wanting," Dwight L. Moody, p. 
14. Chicago: Fleming H. Revell Company, 1898. 



LITTLE HORN — PAPACY. 



285 



Law of God, Wesley on Difference Between Moral and Ceremo- 
nial Laws. — The ritual or ceremonial law, delivered by Moses to the 
children of Israel, containing all the injunctions and ordinances which 
related to the old sacrifices and service of the temple, our Lord indeed 
did come to destroy, to dissolve, and utterly abolish. To this bear 
all the apostles witness. . . . This " handwriting of ordinances " our 
Lord did blot out, take away, and nail to his cross. LCol. 2: 14.] 

But the moral law contained in the ten commandments, and en- 
forced by the prophets, he did not take away. It was not the design of 
his coming to revoke any part of this. This is a law which never can 
be broken, which " stands fast as the faithful witness in heaven." The 
moral stands on an entirely different foundation from the ceremonial or 
ritual law. . . . Every part of this law must remain in force upon all 
mankind and in all ages; as not depending either on time, or place, 
or any other circumstance liable to change; but on the nature of God 
and the nature of man, and their unchangeable relation to each other. 
— "Sermons on Several Occasions," John Wesley, Sermon XXV, "On the 
Sermon on the Mount," (2 vol. ed.) Vol. I, pp. 221, 222. New York: 
Waugh & Mason, 1836. 

Leo I. — See Papacy, Builders of, 344-347. 

Leo XHL— See Pope, 377. 

Libraries, Semitic, at Babylon. — See Babylon, 49. 

Lisbon Earthquake. — See Earthquakes, 145, 146. 

Little Horn, Geographical Location of. — Antichrist, then (as the 
Fathers delight to call him), or the little horn, is to be sought among 
the ten kingdoms of the western Roman Empire. I say of the western 
Roman Empire, because that was properly the body of the fourth beast; 
Greece, and the countries which lay eastward of Italy, belonged to the 
third beast; for the former beasts were still subsisting, though their 
dominion was taken away. "As concerning the rest of the beasts," 
saith Daniel, "they had their dominion taken away; yet their lives 
were prolonged for a season and a time." Dan. 7 : 12. " And therefore," 
as Sir Isaac Newton rightly infers, " all the four beasts are still alive, 
though the dominion of the three first be taken away. The nations of 
Chaldea and Assyria are still the first beast. Those of Media and Persia 
are still the second beast. Those of Macedon, Greece, and Thrace, Asia 
Minor, Syria, and Egypt, are still the third. And those of Europe, on 
this side Greece, are still the fourth. Seeing therefore the body of the 
third beast is confined to the nations on this side the river Euphrates, 
and the body of the fourth beast is confined to the nations on this side 
Greece; we are to look for all the four heads of the third beast among 
the nations on this side the river Euphrates; and for all .the eleven 
horns of the fourth beast, among the nations on this side of Greece. — 
" Dissertations on the Prophecies," Thomas Newton, D. D., pp. 239, 240. 
London: B. Blake, 1840. 

Little Horn, Identification of, with the Papacy. — The main 
points in the nature, character, and actings of this " little horn," which 
we must note in order to discover the power intended, are these: 

1. Its place: within the body of the fourth empire. 

2. The period of its origin: soon after the division of the Roman 
territory into ten kingdoms. 



286 



LITTLE HORN, MARKS OP. 



3. Its nature: different from the other kingdoms, though In some 
respects like them. It was a horn, but with eyes and mouth. It would 
be a kingdom like the rest, a monarchy; but its kings would be over- 
seers or bishops and prophets. 

4. Its moral character: boastful and blasphemous; great words 
spoken against the Most High. 

5. Its lawlessness: it would claim authority over times and laws. 

6. Its opposition to the saints: it would be a persecuting power, 
and that for so long a period that it would wear out the saints of the 
Most High, who would be given into its hand for a time. 

7. Its duration: "time, times, and a half," or 1,260 years. 

8. Its doom: it would suffer the loss of its dominion before it was 
itself destroyed. " They shall take away its dominion, to consume and 
destroy it to the end." 

Here are eight distinct and perfectly tangible features. If they all 
meet in one great reality, if we find them all characterizing one and 
the same power, can we question that that is the power intended? They 
do all meet in the Roman Papacy, . . . and we are therefore bold to say 
it is the great and evil reality predicted. — " Romanism and the Refor- 
mation" H. Grattan Guinness, D. D., F. R. A. S., p. 26. London: J. 
Nisbet & Co., 1891. 

Let me inquire, can any one suggest any other power in which all 
these marks, or the majority of them, meet? They are eight in number, 
and definite in character. The prophecy lays its finger on the place 
where we are to find the great enemy — Rome; on the point of time in 
the course of history at which we may expect to see him arise — the 
division of the Roman territory into a commonwealth of kingdoms; it 
specifies the nature of the power — politico-ecclesiastical; its character 
— blasphemously self-exalting, lawless, and persecuting; it measures its 
duration — 1,260 years; and specifies its doom — to have its dominion 
gradually consumed and taken away, and then to be suddenly destroyed 
forever, because of its blasphemous assumptions, by the epiphany in 
glory of the Son of man, introducing the kingdom of God on earth. 

The proof that the Papacy is the power intended is strictly cumula- 
tive. If it answered to one of these indications, there would be a slight 
presumption against it; if to several, a strong one; if to the majority, 
an overwhelming one; while if it answer to all, then the proof that it 
is the power intended becomes to candid minds irresistible. There is 
not a single clause in the prophecy that cannot be proved to fit the 
Roman Papacy exactly, except the last, which is not yet fulfilled. — 
Id., pp. 42, 43. 

Little Horn, Fourteen Marks of. — Popery is here found [in the 
seventh chapter of Daniel] completely described by thirteen or fourteen 
marks. I will try to make you understand how, at each of these marks, 
we are forced to exclaim, not only, " This is indeed the Pope! " but, 
" There is nothing under the sun, nor in the history of all ages, to 
which these divine descriptions can be applied,- unless to the Pope! 
It can be nothing else than the Pope! " 

First Mark. — The nature itself of the power prefigured by the little 
horn. Plainly, according to the prophecy, this must be a priest-king. 
It is a king; for it is written: The little horn came up among the other 
ten; and another king shall arise after the ten. It is a priest-king; 
for it is written that it shall be diverse from the other kings; and all 
that follows is designed to tell us in what it shall be diverse, and to 
show it to us at once in a political and a religious character. . . . "Where 
will you find, in the whole history of the world, unless in popery, a 



L1TTJLK HORN, MARKS OF. 



287 



priest-king who has pretended to change times and laws, who has 
reigned with power, and who has made war upon the saints? 

Second Mark. — You have here, too, the geography of this power. 
Where must we seek for the little horn? Where is its "Holy See"? 
Where its lands, its patrimony, the "domain of the church"? Where 
must we place the theater of its baleful operations? 

No point is clearer in this prophecy. The prophecy is given on 
purpose to point you to the Roman monarchy; to locate this Holy See 
in Rome; these lands of the church in Italy; and this theater of a 
wicked power in the vast empire of the ten Latin kingdoms. . . . 

Third Mark. — The origin of this power, and the nature of its 
growth. How did it come into the world? — Slowly, little by little, by 
constant increase, as the horn grows on the head of a bullock. . . . 
And now inquire of all historians if this is not an exact description of 
the origin of the papal tyranny. . . . 

Fourth Mark. — The chronology of this apostasy; by which I mean 
to say the time of its commencement and of its end. When ought it to 
commence, according to Daniel? This is a striking mark. According 
to the vision it is immediately after the division of the Latin Empire 
into its ten Gothic kingdoms ; that is to say, toward the sixth or seventh 
century; and, according to the same vision, this divided state must 
continue till the coming of Christ. Now I ask if it is possible to find 
anywhere but in the Papacy the least solution to so clear and distinct 
a problem. . . . 

Fifth Mark. — The territorial acquisitions of this power. Here is 
something marvelous. Three of the first horns, says Daniel (verse 8), 
were plucked up before the little horn; and these horns John represents 
to us as each wearing a crown. Take now a map of Italy; look for 
the Pope's domains, and find how many of the ten kingdoms the pon- 
tifical territory now occupies. You will see that it has supplanted 
three. . . . 

Sixth Mark. — The extraordinary sagacity, consummate skill, in- 
comparable policy, constant vigilance of this power. . . . What has 
given Rome her power for twelve hundred years is the superhuman 
sagacity, that perpetual policy, of which the eye is emblematical. . . . 

Seventh Mark. — Its deceivableness, its falsehoods and lying won- 
ders. This is a striking mark, and without a parallel in history. . . . 
To this head we must refer the false legends, false books, false relics, 
the wonder-working medals, false cures, and more especially the false 
decretals. . . . 

Eighth Mark. — Its more than royal pom^p. Daniel tells us (verse 
20) that although this horn was "the least," his "look was more stout 
than his fellows." The pomps of Charlemagne, Charles V, Louis XIV, 
and Bonaparte were very great; but were they comparable to that of 
the Roman Pontiff? The greatest kings were obliged to hold his stir- 
rup, to serve him at table, — what do I say? — to prostrate themselves 
before him, and to kiss his feet; he was even seen to put upon their 
necks his arrogant foot! . . . 

Ninth Mark. — Its language, its great, swelling words. The little 
horn had "a mouth" (says Daniel), and this mouth spake very great 
things. . . . Let the most superficial scholar in history, in one of our 
schools, be asked to search, in the whole course of the nine hundred 
years of the Dark Ages and the four hundred years of modern history, 
for the power which has unceasingly filled the world with the noise of 
his great, swelling words, — words of threatening, words of pride, 
words of command, words of cursing, and also words of fire, sending 
the nations obedient to him on remote expeditions and exterminating 



288 



LITTLE HORN, MARK OF. 



wars. Is there a schoolboy who would not at once reply, It is the Pope; 
it can only be the Pope? In this respect, then, the Pope is without his 
like in history. . . . 

Tenth Mark. — The duration of this language. ■ According to Daniel, 
it must last till the coming of the Son of man in the clouds of heaven; 
and you see, gentlemen, it lasts still! Who could have believed before- 
hand that in Europe, after so much civilization, after the blessed Ref- 
ormation, after twelve hundred years of scandals, a priest-king in Rome 
could continue with impunity such language among the nations? God 
is great! 

Eleventh Mark. — Its blasphemies. Daniel says (verse 25) he shall 
utter blasphemies against the Most High; but where is there anything 
more blasphemous than the pretensions of the Roman Pontiff? To call 
himself "the Holy Father," the name which Jesus gives to his Father; 
"the Most Holy Father;" "the church's Spouse;" "the Head of the 
universal church," the incommunicable name of the only Son of God; 
to call himself "His Holiness;" to declare himself infallible; to dare 
to put his decrees above even the word of his God; to pretend to release 
men from the commands of their Creator; to maintain that he alone 
creates priests, who alone, in their turn, create their God in a bit of 
bread, by four Latin words, that he may be eaten by the people; to 
pardon sins committed against the Lord of lords; to open to men at his 
pleasure the gates of heaven, — are these blasphemies enough on the 
part of a worm of the dust? Was there ever under heaven any power 
which, in this respect, is comparable to the Pope? . . . 

Twelfth Mark. — His homicidal hatred and his persecutions of true 
Christians. Daniel tells us (verse 21): "I beheld, and the same horn 
made war with the saints, and prevailed against them;" and he adds 
(verse 25), He "shall wear out the saints of the Most High." Alas! 
here the voice of history responds loudly to that of prophecy. All its 
pages, even to that of the last century, when it speaks of the popes, 
show them to you as persecuting men who would live according to the 
word of God, and putting them to death like sheep for the slaughter. . . . 

Thirteenth Mark. — His audacious heresies. This perhaps is the 
most striking mark of all; and one in which the Roman Pontiff has never 
had his equal. Daniel says of the little horn, that the king diverse from 
the other ten shall " think to change times and laws." This denotes the 
unparalleled attempt which the Pope has made upon the law of his God. 
He pretended to change it in its sovereignty, in its sanction, in its use, 
in its contents, in its morals, and in its doctrine. . . . 

Fourteenth and Last Mark. — The exact duration of his persecu- 
tions against the people of God. Daniel and John declare several times 
that it shall be until " a time and times and the dividing of time," or 
twelve hundred and sixty prophetic days, which are taken, with strong 
reason, for so many years. Who would have believed beforehand that 
a priest-king so violent, so proud, so cruel, so blasphemous, so contrary 
to the Scriptures and so well described by them, so outrageous against 
nations and kings, would last twelve years? But the Holy Spirit tells 
us that it shall last twelve hundred and sixty! and this was so! ... 

Lastly, gentlemen, the same prophecies have also foretold its judg- 
ment and its overthrow. I do not mean to go into this subject; but I 
love to call it to your minds in conclusion, for your encouragement. 
Read the words of Daniel: " The judgment shall sit, and they shall take 
away his dominion, to consume and to destroy it unto the end. And 
the kingdom and dominion, and the greatness of the kingdom under 
the whole heaven, shall be given to the people of the saints of the Most 
High, whose kingdom is an everlasting kingdom, and all dominions 
shall serve and obey him." 



LITTLE HORN, HISTORICAL. EVIDENCE. 



289 



Gentlemen, this sketch, of the seventh chapter of Daniel will suffice, 
t trust, to let you see with what abundant evidence the Scriptures es- 
tablish the doctrine which I desired to bring before you. — Extracts from 
a lecture by L. Gaussen, D. D., Professor of Theology, delivered in the 
School of Theology at Geneva at the opening of the school year, Oct. 
3, 1843. 

Little Horn, Historical Evidence Concerning. — Let us now, 
finally, review the historical evidence, and compare it with those fea- 
tures of the little horn which the prophecy unfolds: 

And first, the little horn was to arise on the body of the fourth 
beast, in contrast with the first, second, or third. The Papacy has had 
its permanent seat among the western kingdoms of Europe, and within 
that territory which belongs exclusively to the fourth or Roman Empire. 

The little horn appears in the vision, when the separation of the 
fourth empire has begun, and next in order after the mention of those 
ten kingdoms or horns which were to obtain the chief power in the 
broken monarchy. The rise of the Papacy, in like manner, followed 
close upon the fall of the Western Empire and the rise of the barbarian 
kingdoms. 

The dominion of the little horn, in the prophecy, is the one main 
event which marks the history of the fourth empire, after its division. 
By the confession of all the best historians, the rise, the supremacy, 
and the decline of the Papacy, is the one center around which we have 
to arrange, for twelve centuries, the history of the European kingdoms. 

To prepare the way of the little horn, three of the horns before it 
are uprooted. After the fall of the empire, exactly three dynasties, and 
no more, were uprooted to make way for the temporal sovereignty of 
the Bishop of Rome. 

The eleventh horn, though vast in its claims and pretensions, was 
to be small in size. The popedom has in like manner, in its outward 
form, been always one of the least among the European kingdoms; 
while its sovereigns have claimed and exercised a supreme dominion 
over the whole. 

The little horn is diverse from all the rest; for it has eyes like 
those of a man, and an articulate voice. The Papacy by its own laws 
claims " a princedom more perfect than every human princedom," and 
surpassing them as far as the light of the sun exceeds the light of the 
moon. It claims the office of a seer, who has full insight into divine 
mysteries; and of a prophet, an infallible interpreter of the divine will. 
All its decisions "are to be so received, as if they were confirmed by 
the voice of the divine Peter himself." Its decrees are given, " aucto- 
ritate, scientid, ac plenitudiner with the fulness of divine knowledge, 
and the fulness also of apostolic power. 

The mouth of the little horn was to speak great words against the 
Most High. The Pope declares, in his own solemn and authorized de- 
crees, that it is certain that he is styled God, and it is manifest that 
God cannot be judged by man. He further pronounces concerning him- 
self, that he is received into the felloioship of Christ's undivided unity. 

The little horn is further to wear out the saints of the Most High. 
The words will apply either to delusion or oppression. Now Pelagius, 
and his successors ever since, have laid down these three maxims: That it 
is schism to deny the supremacy or disobey the mandates of the Roman 
See; that schism ought to be punished by the secular power; and that 
these powers ought to be urged and compelled to exterminate and root 
out all such schismatics from their dominions. From that time onward 
the only alternative allowed by the Papacy to the saints has been sin 
or suffering; the submission to an impious claim, wearing out the 

19 



290 



MAGNA ("HART A. 



conscience and wasting the spiritual life; or the open penalties of con 
flscation, imprisonment, torture, and death. . . . 

The little horn, further, shall think to change times. The descrip- 
tion applies, in all its force, to the systematic perversion of God's words 
by which all the promises of millennial glory are wrested from their 
true sense, and referred to the dominion and grandeur of the Church 
of Rome. ... 

Finally, the little horn thinks to change laws. . . . 

Thus every feature of the prophecy finds its full counterpart in the 
constitution, decrees, and history of the Roman popedom. And hence 
we may gather, with a firm and assured conviction, that this is the true 
meaning of the vision, designed from the very first by the all-seeing 
Spirit of God. — " The Four Prophetic Empires; the First Two Visions 
of Daniel," Rev. T. R. Birks, M. A., pp. 253-259. London: Seeley, Burn- 
side, and Seeley, 1845. 

Little Horn. — See Antichrist, 29, 32. 

Locusts. — See Seven Trumpets, Fifth, 508-510, 512. 

Lombards. — See Papacy, Builders of, 348; Rome, Its Barbarian In- 
vaders, 452-455; Temporal Power of the Pope; Ten Kingdoms. 

Longobards. — See Lombards. 

Loyola, St. Ignatius. — See Jesuits, 264, 265. 

Maccabees. — See Daniel, 129-131; Jewish League, 276. 

Magna Charta, Conditions Leading to. — In England, Innocent's 
interference assumed a different aspect. He attempted to assert his 
control over the church in spite of the king, and put the nation under 
interdict because John would not permit Stephen Langton to be Arch- 
bishop of Canterbury. It was utterly impossible that affairs could go 
on with such an empire within an empire. For his contumacy, John 
was excommunicated; but, base as he was, he defied his punishment 
for four years. Hereupon his subjects were released from their alle- 
giance, and his kingdom offered to any one who would conquer it. In 
his extremity, the king of England is said to have sent a messenger to 
Spain, offering to become a Mohammedan. The religious sentiment 
was then no higher in him than it was, under a like provocation, in 
the king of France, whose thoughts turned in the same direction. But, 
pressed irresistibly by Innocent, John was compelled to surrender his 
realm, agreeing to pay to the Pope, in addition to Peter's pence, one 
thousand marks a year as a token of vassalage. When the prelates 
whom he had refused or exiled returned, he was compelled to receive 
them on his knees — humiliations which aroused the indignation of the 
stout English barons, and gave strength to those movements which 
ended in extorting Magna Charta. 

Never, however, was Innocent more mistaken than in the character 
of Stephen Langton. John had, a second time, formally surrendered 
his realm to the Pope, and done homage to the legate for it; but Stephen 
Langton was the first — at a meeting of the chiefs of the revolt against 
the king, held in London, Aug. 25, 1213 — to suggest that they should 
demand a renewal of the charter of Henry I. From this suggestion 
Magna Charta originated. Among the miracles of the age, he was the 
greatest miracle of all; his patriotism was stronger than his profession. 
The wrath of the pontiff knew no bounds when he learned that the 



MAGNA CHART A. 



291 



Great Charter had been conceded. In his bull, he denounced it as base 
and ignominious; he anathematized the king if he observed it; he de- 
clared it null and void. It was not the policy of the Roman Court to 
permit so much as the beginnings of such freedom. — "History of the 
Intellectual Development of Europe" John Willwm Draper, M. D.. 
LL. D., Vol. II, pp. 54, 55. Neio York: Harper & Brothers. 

Magna Charta, Principal Provisions of. — The Great Charter, 
called by Hallam the "keystone of English liberty," was granted by 
King John at Runnymede in the year 1215. In addition to the preamble, 
the charter contains sixty-three clauses, and is partly remedial and 
partly, as Coke says, " declaratory of the principal grounds of the fun- 
damental laws of England." Its principal provisions are: (1) A decla- 
ration that the Church of England is free. (2) Feudal obligations are 
defined and limited. (3) Law courts are to be held at fixed places, 
assize courts are established, and earls and barons are to be tried by 
their peers. (4) No extraordinary taxation without consent. (5) No 
banishment or imprisonment save by judgment of peers and the law 
of the land. (6) No denial, sale, or delay of justice. (7) One stand- 
ard of weights and measures. The Magna Charta was confirmed many 
times by different kings, and the form which appears in the Revised 
Statutes is the confirmation by Edward I in 1297. — Nelson's Encyclo- 
pedia, Vol. VII, art. "Magna Charta," p. 521. New York: Thomas Nel- 
son & Sons, 1907. 

Magna Charta, Fundamental Principle of. — Now what was the 
fundamental principle and the great merit of the Magna Charta? It 
was this: that it established the reign of law instead of the arbitrary 
will of the monarch. It meant that henceforth the king should be under 
the law, that he should no longer be an absolute ruler; that the law 
and not the monarch should be supreme in the land. When Arch- 
bishop Langton read the articles to King John, he broke out in a rage 
and swore that he would never enslave himself to his barons. He was 
king and intended to remain king, and his word alone should be law. 
" Why did they not at once demand his throne? " he said. But at 
length he was compelled to submit. The barons and the people of 
England, with the primate at their head, had sworn to bring back the 
ancient laws of Edward the Confessor and Henry I, and so the tyrant 
surrender at discretion to his subjects." And the spectacle of the 
charter. By that charter resistance to the royal power was made law- 
ful, and in the struggle that followed, it was the king who was the 
rebel. " Christendom was amazed at the spectacle of a king obliged to 
surrender at discretion to his subjects." And the spectacle of the 
king's humiliation at Runnymede was to stand out in the minds of 
future generations in strong light. — From a sermon delivered in Epiph- 
any Church, Washington, D. C, on Sunday, June 13, 1915, by the rector, 
the Rev. Randolph H. McKim, D. D., LL. D. 

Magna Charta, Importance of. — The Great Charter did not cre- 
ate new rights and privileges, but in its main points simply reasserted 
and confirmed old usages and laws. It was immediately violated by 
John and afterwards was disregarded by many of his successors; but the 
people always clung to it as the warrant and safeguard of their liber- 
ties, and again and again forced tyrannical kings to renew and con- 
firm its provisions, and swear solemnly to observe all its articles. 

Considering the far-reaching consequences that resulted from the 
granting of Magna Charta, — the securing of constitutional liberty as 
an inheritance for the English-speaking race in all parts of the world, 



292 



MARRIAGE, PROTESTANT VIEW OF. 



— it must always be considered the most important concession that a 
freedom-loving people ever wrung from a tyrannical sovereign. — "Me- 
diaeval and Modern History," Philip Van Ness Myers, p. 203. Boston : 
Ginn and Company. 

Magna Charta, Annulled by Innocent III. — When the English 
barons wrested from the stubborn king the great Magna Charta in 1215, 
Pope Innocent III championed the cause of the king, his vassal, against 
the barons. He called a council, annulled the Magna Charta, issued a 
manifesto against the barons, and ordered the bishops to excommuni- 
cate them. He suspended Archbishop Langton from office for siding 
with the barons against the king and directly appointed the Archbishop 
of York. — " The Rise of the Mediwval Church" Alexander Clarence 
Flick, Ph. D., Litt. D., p. 554, 555. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. 

Failing in his contest with his barons, John complained to Inno- 
cent of the extortion of Magna Charta, and astutely suggested that his 
troubles with his rebellious subjects prevented him from fulfilling the 
vow which he had taken to enter upon a crusade. Innocent hastened 
to his relief; pronounced the charter void, forbade his performing its 
promises, and threatened excommunication against all who should in- 
sist upon its execution. In the same spirit he wrote to the barons 
reproaching them for not having referred to his tribunal their differ- 
ences with their sovereign, revoking the charter, and commanding 
them to abandon it. His mandate being unheeded, he proceeded with- 
out delay to fulminate an excommunication against them all, denounc- 
ing them as worse than Saracens, and offering remission of sins to all 
who should attack them. — " Studies in Church History," Henry C. Lea, 
pp. 381, 882. Philadelphia: Henry C. Lea's Sons & Co., 1883. 

Let us remember that the noble mother of European constitutions, 
the English Magna Charta, was visited with the severest anger of Pope 
Innocent III, who understood its importance well enough. He saw 
therein a contempt for the apostolic see, a curtailing of royal preroga- 
tives, and a disgrace to the English nation; he therefore pronounced it 
null and void, and excommunicated the English barons who obtained it. 
— " The Pope and the Council," Janus (J. J. Ign. Bollinger), (R. C), 
pp. 22, 23. London: Rivingtons, 1869. 

Mahomet. — See Eastern Question; Seven Trumpets, Fifth, 508-510. 

Man of Sin. — See Advent, 24; Antichrist, 29, 32; Little Horn; 
Rome, 440. 

Marcomaimi. — See Rome, Its Barbarian Invaders, 455. 
Mariolatiy.— See Idolatry, 217, 218. 

Marriage. — Marriage . . . may be defined either (a) as the act, 
ceremony, or process by which the legal relationship of husband and 
wife is constituted; or f6J as a physical, legal, and moral union between 
man and woman in complete community of life for the establishment 
of a family. — The Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th edition, Vol. XVII, art. 
" Marriage," p. 753. 

Marriage, Protestant View of.— Christ has restored marriage to 
its first perfection, by banishing polygamy, and forbidding divorce, 



MARRIAGE, DECREE CONCERNING. 



293 



except In the case of adultery (Matt. 5: 32), nor leaving to the parties 
so separated, the liberty of marrying again (Luke 16: 18). Our Saviour 
blessed and sanctified marriage by being present himself at the wedding 
at Cana (John 2: 1, 2), and Paul declares the excellence of Christian 
marriage, when he says (Eph. 5: 33, 28-32), "Let every one of you so 
love his wife even as himself, and the wife see that she reverence her 
husband." " So ought men to love their wives as their own bodies. He 
that loveth his wife loveth himself. . . . For this cause shall a man leave 
his father and mother, and shall be joined unto his wife, and they two 
shall be one flesh. This is a great mystery; but I speak concerning 
Christ and the church." The union of husband and wife represents the 
sacred and spiritual marriage of Christ with his church. The same 
apostle assures us (Heb. 13: 4) that "marriage is honorable in all, and 
the bed undefiled; but whoremongers and adulterers God will judge." 
The New Testament prescribes no particular ceremony for the solem- 
nizing of matrimony; but in the church, a blessing has always been 
given to the married couple. — CalmeVs Dictionary of the Holy Bible. 
Edward Robinson, pp. 661, 662. New York: N. Tibbals & Sons, 1832. 

Marriage, Roman Catholic Definition of. — That Christian mar- 
riage (i. e., marriage between baptized persons) is really a sacrament 
of the new law in the strict sense of the word is for all Catholics an 
indubitable truth. According to the Council of Trent this dogma has 
always been taught by the church, and is thus defined in Canon 1, Sess. 
XXIV: " If any one shall say that matrimony is not truly and properly 
one of the seven sacraments of the evangelical law, instituted by Christ 
our Lord, but was invented in the church by men, and does not confer 
grace; let him be anathema." — The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. IX, 
art. "Marriage, Sacrament of." p. 707. 

Marriage, A Paet of the Ne Temeee Decree Concerning. — I. Only 
those matrimonial engagements are considered to be valid and to beget 
canonical effects which have been made in writing, signed by both the 
parties, and by either the parish priest or the ordinary of the place, 
or at least by two witnesses. 

III. Only those marriages are valid which are contracted before the 
parish priest, or the ordinary of the place, or a priest delegated by either 
of these, and at least two witnesses, in accordance with the rules laid 
down in the following articles, and with the exceptions mentioned under 
VII and VIII. 

VII. When danger of death is imminent, and where the parish 
priest, or the ordinary of the place, or a priest delegated by either of 
these, cannot be had, in order to provide for the relief of conscience, 
and (should the case require it) for the legitimation of the offspring, 
a marriage may be contracted validly and licitly before any priest and 
two witnesses. 

VIII. Should it happen that in any district the parish priest, or the 
ordinary of the place, or a priest delegated by either of them, before 
whom marriage can be celebrated, is not to be had, and that this con- 
dition of affairs has lasted for a month, marriage may be validly and 
licitly entered upon by the formal declaration of consent made by the 
contracting parties in the presence of two witnesses. 

XI. (i) The above laws are binding on all persons baptized in the 
Catholic Church, and on those who have been converted to it from 
heresy or schism (even when either the latter or the former have 
fallen away afterwards from the church), in all cases of betrothal or 
marriage. 



294 



MASS, EXPLANATION OF. 



(ii) The same laws are binding, also, on such Catholics, if they 
contract betrothal or marriage with non-Catholics, baptized or unbap- 
tized, even after a dispensation has been obtained from the impediment 
mixtw religionis or disparitatis cultus ; unless the Holy See have de- 
creed otherwise for some particular place or region. 

(iii) Non-Catholics, whether baptized or unbaptized, who contract 
among themselves, are nowhere bound to observe the Catholic form of 
betrothal or marriage. 

Given at Rome on the second day of August, in the year 1907. 

Vincent, Card. Bishop of Palestrina, Prefect. 

C. de Lai, Secretary. 
— " The New Marriage Legislation,'" on Engagements and Marriage, 
John T. McNicholas, 0. P., S. T. Lr. (R. C), pp. 9-14. Philadelphia: 
American Ecclesiastical Review. 

Marriage, Roman Catholtc View of Protestant or Civil. — 7. Mar- 
riage of all Catholics (both parties Catholics) before a minister or civil 
magistrate will be no marriage at all. ' 

8. Marriage of all fallen-away Catholics (who have become Prot- 
estants or infidels) before a minister or civil magistrate will be no 
marriage at all. 

9. Marriage of a Catholic to a non-baptized person is never a real 
marriage unless the church grants a dispensation. Such a marriage 
before a minister or a justice of the peace is no marriage at all for 
two reasons. 

10. Marriage of a Catholic to a Protestant (one never baptized in 
the Catholic Church) before a minister or civil magistrate will be no 
marriage at all, unless the Holy See makes a special law for the United 
States. — Id., p. 63. 

Marriage, Roman Catholic View of Civil. — A civil marriage is 
only licensed cohabitation. There should be no such legal abomination, 
and the church should be supreme judge of the marriage relation. — 
The Western Watchman (R. C.J, St. Louis, March 28, 1912. 

Marriage, Application of Roman Catholic Law of. — Many Prot- 
estants may think the church presumptuous in decreeing their mar- 
riages valid or invalid accordingly as they have or have not complied 
with certain conditions. As the church cannot err, neither can she be 
presumptuous. She alone is judge of the extent of her power. Any 
one validly baptized either in the church or among heretics, becomes 
thereby a subject of the Roman Catholic Church. The present marriage 
law does not bind any one baptized in heresy or schism, provided they 
have never entered the Catholic Church. — " The New Marriage Legis- 
lation:' John T. McNicholas, 0. P., S. T. Lr. (R. C.J, p. 49. Philadelphia: 
American Ecclesiastical Review. 

Marriage. — See Celibacy. 

Martyrs. — See Jesuits; Massacre of St. Bartholomew; Papacy; 
Persecution. 

Mass, Explanation of. — 12. Does Christ continue in heaven the 
sacrifice of Calvary? 

He continues it in this sense, that he realizes in his glory the 
effects of his sacrifice on earth, and that he applies these effects to those 
persons who are still in this world. 



MASS, FOR THE DEAD. 



295 



13. Ought the sacrifice of the cross to be continued on earth also? 
Yes; for as man is composed of mind and matter, he needs an 

external and sensible religious sacrifice. But since God has rejected all 
the figurative sacrifices of the old law, and accepts no oblation but that 
of his Son, the sacrifice of the cross must be continued till the end 
of time. 

14. What is the sacrifice that continues on earth the sacrifice of 
the cross? 

It is the holy sacrifice of the mass. 

15. What is the sacrifice of the mass? 

It is the sacrifice of Christ's body and blood, offered to God, under 
the appearances of bread and wine, in order to represent and continue 
the sacrifice of the cross. 

18. What relations exist between the sacrifice of the mass and that 
of the cross? 

The sacrifice of the mass is: (1) A representation and a com- 
memoration of the sacrifice of the cross; (2) its continuation and 
consummation. 

19. Is then the mass the same sacrifice as that of the cross? 

It is essentially the same; it differs only in the manner in which 
it is offered. 

22. Of what value is the sacrifice of the mass? 

The sacrifice of the mass is of infinite value, like that of the cross; 
but as a sacrifice of propitiation and of impetration, when applied to an 
individual, it is limited by his dispositions. — " Manual of Christian Doc- 
trine," by a seminary professor (R. C), pp. 437-439. Philadelphia: John 
Joseph McVey, 1914. 

Mass, a Propitiatoky Sacrifice. — We, therefore, confess that the 
sacrifice of the mass is and ought to be considered one and the same as 
that of the cross, as the victim is one and the same, namely, Christ 
our Lord, who immolated himself, once only, after a bloody manner, 
on the altar of the cross. For the bloody and unbloody victim are not 
two victims, but one only, whose sacrifice is daily renewed in the 
eucharist, in obedience to the command of the Lord: "Do this for a 
commemoration of me." 

But the priest also is one and the same, Christ the Lord; for the 
ministers who offer sacrifice, when they consecrate his body and blood, 
act not in their own, but in the person of Christ, as is shown by the 
words of consecration itself; for the priest does not say, " This is the 
body of Christ," but, " This is my body; "' and thus representing Christ 
the Lord, he changes the substance of the bread and wine into the true 
substance of his body and blood. 

This being the case, it must be unhesitatingly taught that, as the 
holy Council [of Trent] has also explained, the holy sacrifice of the 
mass is not a sacrifice of praise and thanksgiving only, or a mere 
commemoration of the sacrifice accomplished on the cross, but also a 
truly propitiatory sacrifice, by which God is appeased and rendered 
propitious to us. — " Catechism of the Council of Trent," translated 
by Rev. J. Donovan, D. D. (R. C), p. 226. Dublin: James Duffy, 8ons 
d Co. 

Mass, Available to the Dead. — Parish priests will next teach that 
such is the efficacy of this sacrifice, that it is profitable not only to the 
celebrant and communicant, but also to all the faithful, whether living 
with us on earth, or already numbered with those who are dead in the 
Lord, but whose sins have not yet been fully expiated. — Id., p. 227. 



296 



MASS, A SACRIFICE. 



Mass, Some Canons on. — Canon L If any one saith that in the 
mass a true and proper sacrifice is not offered to God; or that to be 
offered is nothing else but that Christ is given us to eat; let him be 
anathema. 

Canon II. If any one saith that by those words, " Do this for the 
commemoration of me," Christ did not institute the apostles priests; or 
did not ordain that they and other priests should offer his own body 
and blood; let him be anathema. 

Canon III. If any one saith that, the sacrifice of the mass is only 
a sacrifice of praise and of thanksgiving; or that it is a bare commemo- 
ration of the sacrifice consummated on the cross, but not a propitiatory 
sacrifice; or that it profits him only who receives; and that it ought 
not to be offered for the living and the dead for sins, pains, satisfactions, 
and other necessities; let him be anathema. — Published in the twenty- 
second session of the Council of Trent, Sept. 17, 1562; cited in "Dogmatic 
Canons and Decrees," pp. 142, 143. New York: The Bevin- Adair Com- 
pany, 1912. 

Mass, Worship Paid to the Host. — 33. What worship ought we to 
pay to Jesus in the tabernacle? 

It is of faith, as defined by the Council of Trent, that Jesus in the 
tabernacle [that is, the host] should be adored with a worship of latria. 

18. What is the worship of latria? 

The worship of latria, or adoration, is that which is given to God 
alone on account of his infinite perfection and his supreme dominion 
over all things created. — " Manual of Christian Doctrine," by a seminary 
professor (R. C), pp. 422, 239. Philadelphia: John Joseph McVey, 1914. 

Mass, Luther's Experience at Rome. — Luther heard [at Rome], 
so Protestant legend tells us, a celebrant at the altar say at the awful 
moment, " Panis es, et panis manebis [Bread thou art, and bread shalt 
thou remain]." — "Lectures on the Council of Trent," James Anthony 
Froude. pp. 32, 33. London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1896. 

Note. — In Roman Catholic countries this doctrine of the real presence in 
the wafer is presented to the people in its baldest form. We will cite one real 
instance : In connection with the celebration of the feast of Corpus Christi " to 
solemnly commemorate the institution of the holy eucharist." held June, 1914, in 
Porto Rico, as reported in the Converted Catholic for July, 1914, an announce- 
ment was printed in the Roman Catholic paper of Ponce, El Ideal Catolico, a 

Portion of which we quote : " Catholics of Ponce, to the procession of the most 
oly Corpus Christi ! Tomorrow, at half past five in the afternoon, the most holy 
sacrament of the altar will leave the parish church, in order to pass through 
the customary places. Tomorrow Jesus Christ, true God and true man, hidden for 
love for us beneath the sacramental elements, will leave his habitual dwelling, 
the holy temple, in order to receive the homage which, as King of heaven and 
earth, is due him. . . . Let all the people come to prostrate themselves before 
Jesus in his triumphal march." — Eds. 

Mass, a Commemorative Sacrifice. — Our Saviour, in leaving to us 
his body and blood, under two distinct species or kinds, instituted not 
only a sacrament, but also a sacrifice; a commemorative sacrifice, dis- 
tinctly showing his passion and death until he come. For as the sac- 
rifice of the cross was performed by a distinct effusion of his blood, so is 
that sacrifice commemorated in this of the altar by a distinction of the 
symbols. Jesus, therefore, is here given not only to us, but for us; and 
the church is thereby enriched with a true, proper, and propitiatory 
sacrifice usually termed the mass: propitiatory, we say, because repre- 
senting, in a lively manner, the passion and death of our Lord it is 
peculiarly pleasing to our eternal Father, and thus more effectually 



MASS, VIEWS OF. 



297 



applies to us the all-sufficient merits of the sacrifice of the cross. — " The 
Faith of Catholics on Certain Points of Controversy Confirmed by Scrip- 
ture" Berington and Kirk (R. CJ, pp. 263, 264. London: Joseph Booker, 
1830. 

Mass, Compabed with Calvary. — So far as the practical effects 
upon the soul are concerned, the holy mass has in some senses the 
advantage over Calvary. The reason is this: on the cross we are re- 
deemed, but on the altar the work of our redemption is carried out. — 
" On the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass," Herbert Cardinal Vaughan (R. C). 
p. 42. 

Mass, Protestant View oe. — The offering of Christ once made, is 
that perfect redemption, propitiation, and satisfaction for all the sins 
of the whole world, both original and actual: and there is none other 
satisfaction for sin but that alone. Wherefore the sacrifices of masses, 
in which it was commonly said that the priest did offer Christ for the 
quick and the dead to have remission of pain or guilt, were blasphemous 
fables, and dangerous deceits. — The Thirty-first Article of the Thirty- 
nine Articles of Religion of the Church of England; " Sermons, or 
Homilies, Appointed to be Read in Churches in the Time of Queen 
Elizabeth," p. 580. London: Ellerton and Henderson, 1817. 

Mass, Catholic View of. — The holy eucharist is the sublime source 
of this intimate union with Jesus Christ during man's earthly pilgrim- 
age, for in receiving holy communion, the Christian soul may truly 
exclaim: "And I live, now not I, but Christ liveth in me." Gal. 2: 20. 
— " The Catholic Church the True Church of the Bible," Rev. C. J. O'Con- 
nell (R. CJ, pp. 132, 133. St. Louis, Mo.: B. Herder, 1913. 

Mass, Luther's View of. — At the present day the whole body of 
priests and monks, with their bishops and all their superiors, are idola- 
ters and living in a most perilous state. — " On the Babylonish Captivity 
of the Church," Martin Luther; cited in " Luther's Primary Works," 
Wace and Buchheim, p. 324. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1896. 

Mass, Liability to Idolatry in. — But suppose I am satisfied in 
the point of transubstantiation, it is not enough for me to know in 
general that there is such a change; but I must believe particularly 
that very bread to be changed so, which I am now to worship, and by 
what means can I be sure of that? For my church tells me that it is 
necessary that he be a priest that consecrates, and that he had an 
intention of consecrating that very bread which I am to adore. But 
what if it should come to pass after many consecrations, that such a 
person prove no priest, because not rightly baptized (which is no 
unheard-of thing) ; what became of all their actions who worshiped 
every host he pretended to consecrate? They must be guilty of idolatry 
every mass he celebrated. But how is it possible for me to be sure of 
his priesthood, unless I could be sure of the intention of the bishop 
that ordained him, and the priest that baptized him? which it is im- 
possible for me to be. Yet suppose I were sure he was a priest, what 
assurance have I that he had an intention to consecrate that very wafer 
which I am to adore? If there were thirteen, and he had an intention 
to consecrate only twelve, if I worship the thirteenth, I give divine 
honor to a mere creature; for without the intention of the priest in 
consecration, it can be nothing else; and then I am guilty of downright 
idolatry. So that upon the principles of the Roman Church no man 



298 



MASS, IN HISTORY, 



can be satisfied that he doth not worship a mere creature with divine 
.honor, when he gives adoration to the host. — "A Discourse Concerning 
the Idolatry Practised in the Church of Rome," Edward Stilingfleet, 
D. D., pp. 123-125. London: Henry Mortlock, 1671. 

Mass, A Priest's View of. — I never invite an angel down from 
heaven to hear mass here. This is not the place for angels. The only 
person in heaven I ever ask to come down here is Jesus Christ, and 
him I command to come down. He has to come when I hid him. I 
took bread in my fingers this morning and I said: "This is the body 
and blood of Jesus Christ," and he had to come down. That is one 
of the things he must do. He must come down every time I say mass 
at my bidding, because he made me a priest and said: "Do you this in 
memory of me." I do it in obedience. I do it in reverence. I do it in 
homage. I do it in adoration; but I do it, and when I do it, Christ 
must obey. — Extract from a Sermon by Rev. D. 8. Phelan, LL. D. 
(R. C), preached on Sunday, June 13, 1915, and printed in the Western 
Watchman of June 10, 1915. 

Mass, Effect of Real Presence in. — The real presence of our di- 
vine Lord in the blessed eucharist makes every Catholic church a taber- 
nacle of the Most High. — The True Voice (R. C), Omaha, Nebr., April 
18, 1913. 

Mass, Christ Adored in. — Canon VI. If any one saith that, in the 
holy sacrament of the eucharist, Christ, the only begotten Son of God, 
is not to be adored with the worship, even external, of latria [" which 
is due to the true God "] ; and is, consequently, neither to be venerated 
with a special festive solemnity, nor to be solemnly borne about in 
processions, according to the laudable and universal rite and custom of 
holy church; or is not to be proposed publicly to the people to be 
adored, and that the adorers thereof are idolaters; let him be anathema. 
— "Dogmatic Canons and Decrees," p. 83. New York: The Devin-Adair 
Company, 1912. 

Mass, Historical Notes Concerning. — The mass is the complex 
of prayers and ceremonies that make up the service of the eucharist in 
the Latin rites. . . . 

In the first period, while Greek was still the Christian language at 
Rome, we find the usual Greek names used there, as in the East. . . . 

The classical name Missa. The first certain use of it is by St. Am- 
brose (d. 397). . . . 

We may consider St. Ambrose as the earliest certain authority 
for it. . . . 

The Origin of the Mass. — The Western mass, like all liturgies, be- 
gins, of course, with the Last Supper. . . . 

Justin Martyr . . . gives us the fullest liturgical description of 
any Father of the first three centuries. . . . We have hardly any knowl- 
edge at all of what developments the Roman rite went through during 
the third and fourth centuries. ... In these documents we see that 
the Roman liturgy is said in Latin and has already become in essence 
the rite we still use. ... 

By about the fifth century we begin to see more clearly. Two doc- 
uments of this time give us fairly large fragments of the Roman 
mass. . . . 

We come now to the end of a period at the reign of St. Gregory I 
(590-604). Gregory knew the mass practically as we still have it. 
There have been additions and changes since 5Us t\m & % hnX none to 



MASS AND 44 CONTINUAL SACRIFICE.* 



299 



compare with the complete recasting of the canon that took place before 
him. At least as far as the canon is concerned, Gregory may be con- 
sidered as having put the last touches to it. . . . 

Why and when was the Roman liturgy changed from what we see 
in Justin Martyr to that of Gregory I? The change is radical, especially 
as regards the most important element of the mass, the canon. . . . 
The Roman canon as it stands is recognized as a problem of great 
difficulty. It differs fundamentally from the Anaphora of any Eastern 
rite and from the Gallican canon. . . . 

We have then as the conclusion of this paragraph that at Rome 
the eucharistic prayer was fundamentally changed and recast at some 
uncertain period between the fourth and the sixth and seventh cen- 
turies. . . . 

After Gregory the Great (590-604) it is comparatively easy to 
follow the history of the mass in the Roman rite. — The Catholic En- 
cyclopedia, Vol. IX, art. " Mass," pp. 790-796. 

Mass, the Greatest Abomination. — Oh! what a tremendous, blas- 
phemous, God-dishonoring lie is Rome's sacrifice of the mass! The 
Creator of the world, the Redeemer of mankind, and its future Judge, 
contained in a few ears of wheat, manufactured into a wafer, flattened 
by an iron, and given existence to, divine and human, by a wretched, 
corruptible, and corrupting worm of the earth/called a priest of Rome! 
And not one Christ only, but millions; and not by one priest only, but 
by hundreds of thousands; and not on one day only, but every day and 
hour in the year; and not in one year only, but throughout centuries! 
If there could by any possibility be any spiritual existence in the 
wafer-lie, it would be that of Satan himself; for out of hell there is no 
greater abomination than this blasphemous pretense of lying popes, 
cardinals, bishops, priests, and friars, that they can create myriads of 
gods, yea, of the God of heaven and earth, the King of kings, the Lord 
of lords, by their wizard words and incantations in the spurious sacri- 
fice of the mass. — " Rome, Antichrist, and the Papacy" Edward Harper, 
pp. 76, 77. London: Protestant Printing and Publishing Company. 

Mass, An Interpretation of. — The pretense is, that "the sacrifice 
of the altar is the same as the sacrince on the cross, the priest and 
victim being the same in both." It is therefore that, in one of your 
Romish prayer books, " The Path to Paradise," we read the following: 



" When the priest goes to the altar, 
When the priest kisses the altar, 
At the unveiling of the chalice, 
At the covering of the chalice, 
When the priest washes his fingers, 
When the priest signs the oblation, 
At the elevation of the Host, 
At the elevation of the chalice, 

At the breaking of the Host, 



Jesus enters the garden. 
Jesus is betrayed with a kiss. 
Jesus is spoiled of his garments. 
Jesus is crowned with thorns. 
Pilate washes his hands. 
Jesus is nailed to the cross. 
The cross is raised up. 
Jesu's blood flows from his 

wounds. 
Jesus dies upon the cross." 

— Id., p. 99. 



Mass, Relation of, to "the Continual Sacrifice." — What is this 
"taking away of the continual sacrifice"? It was taken away in type 
at the destruction of Jerusalem. The sacrifice of the temple, that is, 
of the lamb, morning and evening, in the temple of God, was entirely 
abolished with the destruction of the temple itself. Now the prophet 
Malachias says: "From the rising of the sun even to the going down, 



300 



MASSACRE OP ST. BARTHOLOMEW. 



my name is great among the Gentiles; and in every place there is 
sacrifice, and there is offered to my name a clean oblation." 

This passage of the prophet has been interpreted by the Fathers of 
the church, beginning with St. Irenseus, St. Justin Martyr, and I know 
not how many besides, to be the sacrifice of the holy eucharist, the 
true paschal Lamb, which came in the place of the type, namely, the 
sacrifice of Jesus himself on Calvary, renewed perpetually and con- 
tinued forever in the sacrifice on the altar. 

Now has that continual sacrifice been taken away? That which 
was typical of it in old days has been already taken away. But has 
the reality been taken away? The holy Fathers who have written upon 
the subject of Antichrist, and have interpreted these prophecies of 
Daniel, say that about the end of the world, during the reign of Anti- 
christ, the public offering of the holy sacrifice for a little time will 
cease. Has there ever come to pass anything which may be called an 
instalment or a forerunner of such an event as this? Look into the 
East. The Mahometan superstition, which arose in Arabia, and swept 
over Palestine and Asia Minor, the region of the seven churches, and 
Egypt, the north of Africa — the home of St. Augustine, St. Cyprian, 
St. Optatus — and finally penetrated into Constantinople, where soon it 
became dominant, has in every place persecuted and suppressed the 
worship and sacrifice of Jesus Christ. . . . 

Now let us look into the Western world: has the continual sacrifice 
been taken away in any other land? — for instance, in all those churches 
of Protestant Germany which were once Catholic, where the holy sacri 
fice of the mass was daily offered? throughout Norway, and Sweden, 
and Denmark, and one half of Switzerland, where there are a multitude 
of ancient Catholic churches? throughout England, in the cathedrals 
and the parish churches of this land, which were built simply as shrines 
of Jesus incarnate in the holy eucharist, as sanctuaries raised for the 
offering of the holy sacrifice? What is the characteristic mark of the 
Reformation, but the rejection of the mass, and all that belongs to it, 
as declared in the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England to be 
blasphemous fables and dangerous deceits? The suppression of the 
continual sacrifice is, above all, the mark and characteristic of the 
Protestant Reformation. . . . 

This prophecy of Daniel has already its fulfilment both in the East 
and West, — in the two wings, as it were; while in the heart of Chris- 
tendom the holy sacrifice is offered still. What is the great flood of 
infidelity, revolution, and anarchy, which is now sapping the founda- 
tions of Christian society, not only in France, but in Italy, and en 
compassing Rome, the center and sanctuary of the Catholic Church, but 
the abomination which desolates the sanctuary, and takes away the 
continual sacrifice? — " The Temporal Power of the Vicar of Jesus 
Christ," Henry Edward Mantling, D. D. (R. G.J, pp. 158-161. London: 
Burns and Lambert, 1862. 

Massacre of St. Bartholomew. — The Protestants never occupied a 
more triumphant position, and their prospects were never brighter, than 
in the summer of 1572. For many years the progress of their religion 
had been incessant. The most valuable of the conquests it has retained 
were already made; and the period of its reverses had not begun. The 
great division which aided Catholicism afterwards to recover so much 
lost ground was not openly confessed; and the effectual unity of the 
Reformed Churches was not yet dissolved. In controversial theology 
the defense was weaker than the attack. The works to which the Refor- 
mation owed its popularity and system were in the hands of thousands, 



MASSACRE OF ST. BARTHOLOMEW. 



301 



while the best authors of the Catholic restoration had not begun to 
write. The press continued to serve the new opinions better than the 
old; and in literature Protestantism was supreme. Persecuted in the 
South, and established by violence in the North, it had overcome the 
resistance of princes in Central Europe, and had won toleration without 
ceasing to be intolerant. In France and Poland, in the dominions of 
the emperor and under the German prelates, the attempt to arrest its 
advance by physical force had been abandoned. In Germany it covered 
twice the area that remained to it in the next generation, and, except 
in Bavaria, Catholicism was fast dying out. [102, 103] . . . 

By the peace of St. Germain the Huguenots had secured, within 
certain limits, freedom from persecution and the liberty of persecuting; 
so that Pius V declared that France had been made the slave of heretics. 
Coligny was now the most powerful man in the kingdom. His scheme 
for closing the civil wars by an expedition for the conquest of the Neth- 
erlands began to be put in motion. French auxiliaries followed Lewis 
of Nassau into Mons; an army of Huguenots had already gone to his 
assistance; another was being collected near the frontier, and Coligny 
was preparing to take the command in a war which might become a 
Protestant crusade, and which left the Catholics no hope of victory. 
Meanwhile many hundreds of his officers followed him to Paris, to 
attend the wedding which was to reconcile the factions, and cement 
the peace of religion. 

In the midst of those lofty designs and hopes, Coligny was struck 
down. On the morning of the 22d of August he was shot at and badly 
wounded. Two days later he was killed; and a general attack was made 
on the Huguenots of Paris. It lasted some weeks, and was imitated in 
about twenty places. The chief provincial towns of France were among 
them. 

Judged by its immediate result, the Massacre of St. Bartholomew 
was a measure weakly planned and irresolutely executed, which de- 
prived Protestantism of its political leaders, and left it for a time to 
the control of zealots. There is no evidence to make it probable that 
more than seven thousand victims perished. Judged by later events, it 
was the beginning of a vast change in the conflict of the churches. At 
first it was believed that a hundred thousand Huguenots had fallen. It 
was said that the survivors were abjuring by thousands, that the chil- 
dren of the slain were made Catholics, that those whom the priest had 
admitted to absolution and communion were nevertheless put to death. 
Men who were far beyond the reach of the French government lost their 
faith in a religion which Providence had visited with so tremendous a 
judgment; and foreign princes took heart to employ severities which 
could excite no horror after the scenes in France. [105, 106] . . . 

The opinion that the Massacre of St. Bartholomew was a sudden 
and unpremeditated act cannot be maintained; but it does not follow 
that the only alternative is to believe that it was the aim of every 
measure of the government for two years before. . . . 

By the month of February, 1572, the plan had assumed a practical 
shape. . . . 

The court had determined to enforce unity of faith in France. 
An edict of toleration was issued for the purpose of lulling the Hugue- 
nots; but it was well known that it was only a pretense. Strict in- 
junctions were sent into the provinces that it should not be obeyed; 
and Catherine said openly to the English envoy, " My son will have 
exercise but of one religion in his realm." On the 26th [of February] 
the king explained his plan to Mondoucet, his agent at Brussels: 

" Since it has pleased God to bring matters to the point they have 
now reached, I mean to -use the opportunity to secure a perpetual re- 



302 



MASSACRE OF ST. BARTHOLOMEW. 



pose in my kingdom, and to do something for the good of all Christen- 
dom. It is probable that the conflagration will spread to every town in 
France, and that they will follow the example of Paris, and lay hands 
on all the Protestants. ... I have written to the governors to assemble 
forces in order to cut to pieces those who may resist." 

The great object was to accomplish the extirpation of Protestant- 
ism in such a way as might leave intact the friendship with Protestant 
states. Every step was governed by this consideration; and the diffi- 
culty of the task caused the inconsistencies and the vacillation that 
ensued. [115-117] . . . 

The belief was common at the time, and is not yet extinct, that 
the massacre had been promoted and sanctioned by the court of Rome. 
No evidence of this complicity, prior to the event, has ever been pro- 
duced; but it seemed consistent with what was supposed to have oc- 
curred in the affair of the dispensation. The marriage of Margaret of 
Valois with the king of Navarre was invalid and illicit in the eyes of 
the church; and it was known that Pius V had sworn that he would 
never permit it. When it had been celebrated by a cardinal, in the 
presence of a splendid court, and no more was heard of resistance on 
the part of Rome, the world concluded that the dispensation had been 
obtained. De Thou says, in a manuscript note, that it had been sent, 
and was afterwards suppressed by Salviati; and the French bishop, 
Spondanus, assigns the reasons which induced Gregory XIII to give 
way. Others affirmed that he had yielded when he learned that the 
marriage was a snare, so that the massacre was the price of the dis- 
pensation. . . . 

Camillo Capilupi, a nephew of the Mantuan bard, held office about 
the person of the Pope, and was employed on missions of consequence. 
As soon as the news from Paris reached Rome, he drew up the ac- 
count which became so famous under the title of Lo Stratagemma di 
Carlo IX. [128, lia] . . . 

Charles IX and Salviati both wrote to Rome on St. Bartholomew's 
Day; and the ambassador's nephew, Beauville, set off with the tidings. 
They were known before he arrived. On the 27th, Mandelot's secretary 
dispatched a secret messenger from Lyons with orders to inform the 
Pope that the Huguenot leaders were slain, and that their adherents 
were to be secured all over France. The messenger reached Rome on 
the 2d of September, and was immediately carried to the Pope by the 
Cardinal of Lorraine. Gregory rewarded him for the welcome intelli- 
gence with a present of a hundred crowns, and desired that Rome should 
be at once illuminated. This was prevented by Ferralz, who tried the 
patience of the Romans by declining their congratulations as long as 
he was not officially informed. Beauville and the courier of the nuncio 
arrived on the 5th. The king's letter, like all that he wrote on the 
first day, ascribed the outbreak to the old hatred between the rival 
houses, and to the late attempt on the admiral's life. He expressed a 
hope that the dispensation would not now be withheld, but left all par- 
ticulars to Beauville, whose own eyes had beheld the scene. Beauville 
told his story, and repeated the king's request; but Gregory, though 
much gratified with what he heard, remained inflexible. 

Salviati had written on the afternoon of the 24th. He desired to 
fling himself at the Pope's feet to wish him joy. His fondest hopes had 
been surpassed. Although he had known what was in store for Coligny, 
he had not expected that there would be energy and prudence to seize 
the occasion for the destruction of the rest. A new era had com- 
menced; a new compass was required for French affairs. It was a fair 
sight to see the Catholics in the streets wearing white crosses, and 
cutting down heretics; and it was thought that, as fast as the news 



MASSACRE OF ST. BARTHOLOMEW. 



303 



6pread, the same thing would be done in all the towns of France. This 
letter was read before the assembled cardinals at the Venetian palace, 
and they thereupon attended the Pope to a Te Deum in the nearest 
church. The guns of St. Angelo were fired in the evening, and the city 
was illuminated for three nights. To disregard the Pope's will in this 
respect would have savored of heresy. Gregory XIII exclaimed that the 
massacre was more agreeable to him than fifty victories of Lepanto. 

For some weeks the news from the French provinces sustained the 
rapture and excitement of the court. It was hoped that other countries 
would follow the example of France; the emperor was informed that 
something of the same kind was expected of him. On the 8th of Sep- 
tember the Pope went in procession to the French church of St. Lewis, 
where three-and-thirty cardinals attended at a mass of thanksgiving. 
On the 11th he proclaimed a jubilee. In the bull he said that foras- 
much as God had armed the king of France to inflict vengeance on the 
heretics for the injuries done to religion, and to punish the leaders of 
the rebellion which had devastated his kingdom, Catholics should pray 
that he might have grace to pursue his auspicious enterprise to the end, 
and so complete what he had begun so well. Before a month had passed 
Vasari was summoned from Florence to decorate the hall of kings with 
paintings of the massacre. The work was pronounced his masterpiece; 
and the shameful scene may still be traced upon the wall, where, for 
three centuries, it has insulted every pontiff that entered the Sistine 
Chapel. [132-135] . . . 

The theory which was framed to justify these practices has done 
more than plots and massacres to cast discredit on the Catholics. This 
theory was as follows: Confirmed heretics must be rigorously punished 
whenever it can be done without the probability of greater evil to reli- 
gion. Where that is feared, the penalty may be suspended or delayed 
for a season, provided it be inflicted whenever the danger is past. 
Treaties made with heretics and promises given to them must not be 
kept, because sinful promises do not bind, and no agreement is lawful 
which may injure religion or ecclesiastical authority. No civil power 
may enter into engagements which impede the free scope of the church's 
law. It is part of the punishment of heretics that faith shall not be kept 
with them. It is even mercy to kill them that they may sin no more. 

Such were the precepts and the examples by which the French Cath- 
olics learned to confound piety and ferocity, and were made ready to 
immolate their countrymen. [140, 141] . . . 

A time came when the Catholics, having long relied on force, were 
compelled to appeal to opinion. That which had been defiantly acknowl- 
edged and defended, required to be ingeniously explained away. The 
same motive which had justified the murder now prompted the lie. Men 
shrank from conviction that the rulers and restorers of their church 
had been murderers and abetters of murder, and that so much infamy 
had been coupled with so much zeal. They feared to say that the most 
monstrous of crimes had been solemnly approved at Rome, lest they 
should devote the Papacy to the execration of mankind. A swarm of 
facts were invented to meet the difficulty: The victims were insignifi- 
cant in number; they were slain for no reason connected with religion; 
the Pope believed in the existence of the plot; the plot was a reality; 
the medal is fictitious; the massacre was a feint concerted with the 
Protestants themselves; the Pope rejoiced only when he heard that it 
was over. These things were repeated so often that they have been 
sometimes believed; and men have fallen into this way of speaking 
whose sincerity was unimpeachable, and who were not shaken in their 
religion by the errors or the vices of popes. Mohler was preeminently 
such a man. In his lectures on the history of the church, which were 



304 



MEDO-PERSIA, BEGINNINGS OF. 



published only last year [1868], he said that the Catholics, as such, 
took no part in the massacre; that no cardinal, bishop, or priest shared 
in the councils that prepared it; that Charles informed the Pope that 
a conspiracy had been discovered; and that Gregory made his thanks- 
giving only because the king's life was saved. Such things will cease 
to be written when men perceive that truth is the only merit that gives 
dignity and worth to history. [148, 149]. — " The History of Freedom 
and Other Essays," John Emerich Edward Dalberg-Acton (R. C), pp. 
102-149. London: Macmillan & Co., 1909. 

Massacre of St. Bartholomew, Froude's View of. — The history of 
Europe for a hundred years was the history of the efforts of the church, 
with open force or secret conspiracy, with all the energy, base or noble, 
which passion or passionate enthusiasm could inspire, to crush and 
annihilate its foes. No means came amiss to it, sword or stake, tor- 
ture chamber or assassin's dagger. The effects of the church's working 
were seen in ruined nations and smoking cities, in human beings tear- 
ing one another to pieces like raging maniacs, and the honor of the 
Creator of the world befouled by the hideous crimes committed in his 
name. All this is forgotten now, forgotten or even audaciously denied. 
I will mention but one illustration connected with the subject of these 
lectures. 

The decrees of the Council of Trent were not received in France, 
and when the gutters of Paris were running with Huguenot blood after 
the black day of St. Bartholomew, and the unhappy country was shud- 
dering with horror, the guilty king tried to excuse what had been done 
by charging the Huguenots with political conspiracy. This is the ex- 
planation now commonly given by those who wish to defend the French 
government, and at the same time to defame its victims. Pope Greg- 
ory XIII rebuked the modesty of the son of St. Louis, and forbade him 
to explain away an action so pious and so glorious. He held processions 
and thanksgiving services at Rome in honor of the destruction of the 
infidels. He sent Cardinal Orsino to France with his congratulations, 
and the expressions of his hope that after such an evidence of the piety 
of the king and the nation, the decrees of Trent would now be introduced. 

The cardinal on reaching Avignon found the Catholics excusing the 
massacre as an unfortunate accident. He invited them to an attitude 
more worthy of themselves and of the signal services which they had 
rendered to the truth. At Lyons there had been a massacre only second 
to that of Paris. The cardinal (I quote from De Thou, the greatest of 
the French historians, who was in the midst of the scenes which he 
described) sought out the leader of the Lyons butchery, and gave him 
his blessing and his absolution. At Paris afterwards he urged Charles 
to claim openly the credit of a deed achieved for the glory of God and 
the honor of the Holy See, so he said future ages would know that no 
personal fears or feelings had led him to consent to the slaughter of 
his subjects, but zeal for the catholic and apostolic Roman religion 
which the Council of Trent had purged from heresy, and which now 
required the extermination of the Protestant sect. — "Lectures on the 
Council of Trent" James Anthony Froude, pp. 301, 302. London: Long- 
mans, Green & Co., 1896. 

Maximilian. — See Holy Roman Empire, 212. 

Medo-Persia, Beginnings of. — In remote times some Aryan tribes, 
separating from the other members of tlie Aryan family, sought new 
abodes on the plateau of Iran. The tribes that settled in the south 
became known as the Persians, while those that took possession of the 



MEDO-PERSIA, ASCENDANCY. 



305 



mountain regions of the northwest were called Medes. The names of 
the two peoples were always very closely associated, as in the familiar 
legend, " The law of the Medes and Persians, which altereth not." 

The Medes were at first the leading people. Cyaxares (625-585 B. c.) 
was their first prominent leader and king. It was this king who, aided 
by the Babylonians, overthrew the last king of Nineveh and destroyed 
that capital. The destruction of the Assyrian power resulted in the 
speedy extension of the frontiers of the new Median Empire to the river 
Halys in Asia Minor. — " General History," Philip Van Ness Myers, p. 
59. Boston: Ginn and Company. 

Medo-Persia, First Median Ascendancy, Then Persian. — When 
Nineveh fell, it was not at the behest of Babylonia only. A new power, 
fresh from a long rest and not wasted by civilization's insidious pres- 
sure, had contributed to that overthrow. This new people was the 
Medes, and in the years that followed the Medes had not been idle. To 
them had fallen in the partition of the Assyrian Empire the whole of 
the old land of Assyria, with northern Babylonia. The very ownership 
of such territory as this was itself a call to the making of an empire. 
To this the Medes had set themselves, and with extraordinary and rapid 
success. While Nebuchadnezzar lived, they maintained peace with him 
and offered no threats against Babylonia. To the north and west their 
forces spread. These movements we cannot trace in detail. From the 
Medes, who were men of action, and not writers of books, there have 
come to us no stories of conquest. From the events which follow, of 
which we have Babylonian accounts, we can trace with reasonable cer- 
tainty, even though broadly, their progress. As early as 560 b. c. their 
border had been extended as far west as the river Halys, which served 
as the boundary between them and the kingdom of Lydia, over which 
Croesus, of proverbial memory, was now king (560-546 b. a). If no 
violent end came to a victorious people such as the Medes now were, it 
could not be long before the rich plains, the wealthy cities, and the 
great waterways of Babylonia would tempt them southward, and the 
great clash would come. . . . Their king was now Astyages. ... A man 
of war of extraordinary capacity he certainly was, but perhaps little 
else. However that may be, he was not to accomplish the ruin of 
Nabonidus. What he had gained was to be used to that end by another, 
and he was now preparing. 

In Anshan, a province in the land of Elam, a great man had arisen. 
From Elam for centuries no impulse had been given in the world's 
history. The people had rested. Kings had ruled over them, indeed, 
but their influence had been little beyond their own borders. When 
Cyrus was born, son of Cambyses, a place was ready for him, and 
greatness soon found it. Cyrus, king of Anshan — the title had no high 
sound, and to it were added no other titles of rule in other lands. But 
in Cyrus the primary power of conquest was strong. He began at once 
a career of almost unparalleled conquest, and later displayed in extraor- 
dinary degree the power so to organize the result of one victory as to 
make it contributory to the next. His first foe was naturally Astyages, 
king of the Medes, whose attention he had attracted. We do not know 
what deeds of Cyrus led Astyages to determine upon attacking him, 
whether he had made reprisals upon the borders of the empire of the 
Medes, or had shown elsewhere ability which might later prove dan- 
gerous to the aspirations of the Medes. In 553 b. c. Astyages led an 
army against this new Asiatic conqueror. All the advantages seemed to 
lie upon the side of Astyages. He had victories behind him, he had 
the levies of an empire already vast on which to draw. But these and 
all other advantages were overturned by treachery. His own troops 



20 



306 



MEDO-PERSIA, POWER OF. 



rebelled against him and delivered him into the hands of Cyrus (An- 
nals of Nabonidus, col. ii, lines 1, 2), and that bound as a prisoner. 
Cyrus then took Ecbatana, sacked it, and overwhelmed the state. In 
an hour he had leaped from the position of king of Anshan, a rank 
hardly greater than petty prince, to the proud position of king of the 
Medes. A whole empire already made was his. Well might he assume 
a new title and call himself king of the Parsu — out of which has come 
to us the word " Persians." King of the Persians — in that new title 
of Cyrus was gathered all the impetus of a new and terrible force in 
the world. For his coming the day of judgment had waited. The day of 
great Semitic conquerors was waning, a new conqueror of the great 
unknown Indo-European races had arisen, and a new day had thus 
dawned. What did it mean for humanity — for civilization? — "History 
of Babylon and Assyria," Robert W. Rogers, Ph. D. f Vol. II, pp. 561-565, 
6th edition. New York: The Abingdon Press. 

Medo-Persia, Greek Poet Who Fought Against Xerxes, on Dual 
Character of. — 

Asia's brave host, 
A Mede first led. The virtues of his son 
Fixed firm the empire; for his temperate soul 
Breathed prudence. Cyrus third, by fortune graced, 
Adorned the throne, and blessed his grateful friends 
With peace. He to his mighty monarchy 
Joined Lydia and the Phrygians; to his power, 
Ionia bent reluctant; but the gods 
With victory his gentle virtues crowned. 

— " The Persians," JEschylus, Potter's translation. 

Medo-Persia, Conquests or Cyrus. — The Babylonian rulers that 
followed Nebuchadrezzar set themselves with the other powers of the 
world in opposition to Cyrus. Of these the most important was the 
kingdom of Lydia. It owed its greatness to the dynasty of Gyges who 
at about 700 b. c. had set aside the old ruling family of Midas and put 
himself in its place. Gyges and his successors — in particular Crcesus 
(560-546 b. c.) — conquered the entire coast of Asia Minor, making all 
the Greek cities, except Miletus, tributary. They also extended their 
sway to the Hellespont and in the interior to the Halys River, thus 
becoming by far the most powerful and opulent state in the peninsula. 

The fame of Croesus for wealth was so great that his name has 
become a synonym Tor riches. Through his realm lay a main highway 
from Assyria and Babylon to the ^gean sea, and a mixed culture de- 
veloped in Lydia which was at once sympathetic to Greece and the 
Orient. The father of Crcesus had fought with the Medes, but later had 
made a peace with them (585 b. c). Now Croesus joined with Egypt, 
and even the leading Greek state, Sparta, in the endeavor to put a stop 
to the victorious career of Cyrus. It was all in vain. Cyrus defeated 
Croesus, king of Lydia, and captured him and his capital, Sardis 
(546 b. a). . . . 

Babylon was then attacked, and yielded to him in 539 b. c. Thus 
the last Semitic empire of the Mesopotamian valley passed away, and a 
new race took the reins of government over a wider world than had 
ever fallen within the bounds of an ancient state. — "A History of the 
Ancient World," George 8. Goodspeed, Ph. D., pp. 56, 57. New York: 
Charles Scribner's Sons. 

Medo-Persia, Power Such that " None Might Stand Before Him " 
(Dan. 8: 4). — Cyrus was able so to penetrate that vast extent of conn- 



MEDO-PERSIA, PROPHECY FULFILLED. 



307 



try by the sheer terror of his personality that the inhabitants were 
prostrate before him: not one of them dared lift hand against him. 
And yet he was able, at the same time, to inspire them all with so 
deep a desire to please him and win his favor that all they asked was 
to be guided by his judgment and his alone. Thus he knit to himself 
a complex of nationalities so vast that it would have taxed a man's 
endurance merely to traverse his empire in any one direction, east or 
west or south or north, from the palace which was its center. — 
•• Cyropadia," Xenophon, book 1, chap. 1, par. 5, translation by Henry 
Graham Dakyns. Everyman's Library, E. P. Button & Co., 'New York. 

Medo-Persia, Extent of Empire. — The geographical extent of the 
fifth monarchy [at its height, under Darius I] was far greater than that 
of any one of the four which had preceded it. While Persia proper is 
a comparatively narrow and poor tract, extending in its greatest length 
only some seven or eight degrees (less than 500 miles), the dominions of 
the Persian kings covered a space fifty-six degrees long, and in places 
more than twenty degrees wide. The boundaries of their empire were 
the desert of Thibet, the Sutlej, and the Indus, on the east; the Indian 
Sea, the Persian Gulf, the Arabian and Nubian deserts, on the south; 
on the west, the Greater Syrtis, the Mediterranean, the ^Egean, and the 
Strymon River; on the north, the Danube, the Black Sea, the Caucasus, 
the Caspian, and the Jaxartes. Within these limits lay a territory, the 
extent of which from east to west was little less than 3,000 miles, while 
its width varied between 500 and 1,500 miles. Its entire area was prob- 
ably not less than two millions of square miles — or more than half 
that of modern Europe. It was thus at least eight times as large as 
the Babylonian Empire at its greatest extent, and was probably more 
than four times as large as the Assyrian. — " The Five Great Mon- 
archies" George Rawlinson, M. A., Yol. Ill, pp. 84, 85; " The Fifth Mon- 
archy," chap. 1. New York: Dodd, Mead & Go. 

Medo-Persia, Cykus's Account of Return of Captives from Baby- 
lon. — I am Cyrus, king of the world, the great king, the mighty king, 
king of Babylon, king of Sumer and Akkad, king of the four quarters 
of the world, son of Cambyses, the great king, king of Anshan, grandson 
of Cyrus, the great king, king of Anshan, great-grandson of Teispes, the 
great king, king of Anshan; an everlasting seed of royalty, whose gov- 
ernment Bel and Nabu love, whose reign in the goodness of their hearts 
they desire. When I entered in peace into Babylon, with joy and re- 
joicing I took up my lordly dwelling in the royal palace, Marduk, the 
great lord, moved the understanding heart of the people of Babylon to 
me, while I daily sought his worship. My numerous troops dwelt 
peacefully in Babylon; in all Sumer and Akkad no terrorizer did I 
permit. In Babylon and all its cities in peace I looked about. The 
people of Babylon [I released] from an unsuitable yoke. Their dwell- 
ings — their decay I repaired; their ruins I cleared away. Marduk, the 
great lord, rejoiced at these deeds and graciously blessed me, Cyrus, the 
king who worships him, and Cambyses, my son, and all my troops, 
while we in peace joyfully praised before him his exalted divinity. All 
the kings who dwell in palaces, from all quarters of the world, from 
the upper sea to the lower sea, who live [in palaces], all the kings of the 
Westland who live in tents, brought me their heavy tribute in Babylon 
and kissed my feet. From ... to Ashur and Susa, Agade, Eshnunak, 
Zamban, Meturnu, Deri, to the border of Gutium, the cities [beyond] 
the Tigris, whose sites had been founded of old, — the gods who dwelt 
in them I returned to their places, and caused them to settle in their 
eternal shrines. All their people I assembled and returned them to 



308 



MJGDO-PEKSIA, CYRUS TO XKKXES. 



their dwellings, — Cyrus's Cylinder recording Capture of Babylon, in 
"Arch&ology and the Bible" George A. Barton, Ph. D., LL. D., pp. 385, 
386. Philadelphia: American Sunday -School Union. 

Medo-Persia, Cyrus Fulfils Prophecy of Restoration of. — (1) Id 
addition to the restoration and rehabilitation of captive and dethroned 
deities, he says (Cyl. 32) : "All of their peoples I gathered together and 
restored to their own dwelling-places." This definitely stated national 
policy gives us one reason for the royal proclamation (Ezra 1:2-4) issued 
in favor of the Jews. (2) It is altogether probable that Cyrus caught 
up from some one in Babylonia the mission which had been assigned 
him by the prophets: " Cyrus is my shepherd, and shall perform all my 
pleasure: even saying of Jerusalem, She shall be built; and to the tem- 
ple, Thy foundation shall be laid." Isa. 44: 28. (3) Palestine had 
been a kind of buffer state from time immemorial between southwestern 
Asia and Egypt. To occupy and hold that strong fortress, Jerusalem, 
was the first step toward the conquest of the rival power. If Cyrus 
could conserve that advantage by aiding the Jews to build and hold h, 
he would be setting up one battlement in the face of Egypt's army. 
For one of his next strokes would be at the rival power on the Nile. — 
" The Monuments and the Old Testament,'" Ira M. Price, Ph. D., 5th 
edition, p. 234. Philadelphia: American Baptist Publication Society. 
1907. 

Medo-Persia, Josephus on the Return of the Jews from Cap- 
tivity. — This [that he was to return the Jews to Jerusalem] was known 
to Cyrus by his reading the book which Isaiah left behind him of his 
prophecies; for this prophet said that God had spoken thus to Rim in a 
secret vision: "My will is, that Cyrus, whom I have appointed to be 
king over many and great nations, send back my people to their own 
land, and build my temple." This was foretold by Isaiah one hundred 
and forty years before the temple was demolished. Accordingly, when 
Cyrus read this, and admirea the divine power, an earnest desire and 
ambition seized upon him to fulfil what was so written; so he called 
for the most eminent Jews that were in Babylon, and said to them, 
that he gave them leave to go back to their own country, and to rebuild 
their city Jerusalem, and the temple of God, for that he would be their 
assistant, and that he would write to tne rulers and governors that were 
in the neighborhood of their country of Judea, that they should contrib- 
ute to them gold and silver for the building of the temple, and besides 
that, beasts for their sacrifices. — "Antiquities of the Jews" Josephus, 
book 11, chap. 1, par. 2, Winston's translation. 

Medo-Persia, from Cyrus to Xerxes. — Cyrus, slain in battle in 
529 b. c, was succeeded by his son Cambyses. This ambitious young 
man, to secure his crown, murdered his brother and sister. After eight 
years of apparent success, in a fit of despair, he took his life. For eight 
months a usurper, Gomates [the Magian, pretending to be Smerdis, son 
of Cyrus], held the throne, but was finally slain, and Darius Hystaspes 
(521-485 b. c.) seized the crown. It was under the early years of his 
administration that the Jews at Jerusalem completed and dedicated 
their temple (516 b. a). During these years Darius suppressed revolts 
and uprisings in all parts of his realm. He then carried his conquests 
as far as Scythia in Europe (508 b. a). He fully equipped two great 
expeditions for invading Greece, but both failed, the second at the 
famous battle of Marathon (490 b. c). A third expedition was planned, 
but a revolt in Egypt (487 b. cj and his own deatn (485) intervened. 
... He was the greatest king that ever sat on Persia's throne, both as 



ME I JO-P KRS1A , XERXES' AIM. 



regards conquests and power of administration. He was succeeded by 
Xerxes I, supposed to be a remote kin of Cyrus the conqueror of 
Babylon. 

Xerxes' first great work was the subjugation of Egypt (485 b. c). 
After chastising rebels in Babylonia, he next turned his attention to the 
still un conquered state of Greece. He called together his nobles and 
counselors from all parts of the empire, as a kind of council of war. 
The conclusion of their deliberations was that the most elaborate prep- 
arations be made, and Greece be brought to their feet. Careful and 
complete provisions were made covering a space of four years. The 
army was thoroughly organized, and the commissary department ade- 
quately equipped. In 480 b. c. the army started on its long campaign, 
aided by a large and well-equipped fleet. It crossed the Hellespont on 
a bridge of double boats and pushed through Macedonia down to Greece. 
Through Thermopylae it poured over the bodies of the brave 300 Spar- 
tans until Athens was captured and burnt. The Persian fleet, disabled 
by storms, was finally destroyed by the Greeks at the battle of Salamis 
(Sept. 23, 480). The land force retreated to Thessaly, where a picked 
army remained over winter. In the spring it resumed active offensive 
operations and recaptured Attica. The Spartans raised a large army, 
crossed the isthmus, and forced the Persians to retire into Bceotia. On 
Sept. 25, 479 b. c, the Persian host was completely routed at Plataea, 
and returned to Asia, never again to invade European Greece. — " The 
Monuments and the Old Testament" Ira Ik. Price, Ph. D., 5th edition, 
pp. 252-254:. Philadelphia: American Baptist Publication Society, 1907. 

Medo-Persia, Gomates (Smerdis the Impostor) Counted in List 
of Kings (Dan. 11: 2). — The Babylonians called him Barzia. A num- 
ber of contract tablets have been found which are dated in his reign. 
Media and Persia, besides Babylonia, temporarily acknowledge him 
king. — " Light on the Old Testament from Babel," Albert T. Clay, Ph. D., 
p. 386. Philadelphia: The Sunday School Times Company, 1907. 

Medo-Persia, Xerxes Evidently the Ahasuerus of Esther. — 
Xerxes (the Greek form of the Persian Khshayarsha; Old Testament 
Ahasverus, Akhashverosh, i. e., Ahasuerus). — Encyclopedia Britannica. 
art. '* Xerxes," 11th edition, Vol. XXVIII. p. 887. 

In the English of the Old Testament this ruler is known as Ahas- 
uerus. In the inscriptions, his name is written Ahshhvarshu, AJcshiar- 
shu, Hishiarshi, etc., which is quite similar to the Hebrew, Ahashwe- 
rosh. . . . Further, the excavations of Dieulafoy in the mounds of Susa, 
where he uncovered " Shushan the palace" (Esther 1: 2), discovering 
also one of the dice with which the people at that time " cast Pur, that 
is, the lot" (Esther 3: 7), make the story so realistic that we cannot 
but feel that it rests upon historical facts. — " Light on the Old Testa- 
ment from Babel." Albert T. Clay, Ph. D., p. 388. Philadelphia: The 
Sunday School Times Company, 1907. 

Medo-Persia, Xerxes' Aim to " Stir Up All Against the Realm 
of Grecia" (Dan. 11: 2). — Xerxes thus levied his army, searching out 
every region of the continent. 20. For from the reduction of Egypt, he 
was employed four whole years in assembling his forces, and providing 
things necessary for the expedition. In the course of the fifth year he 
began his march with a vast multitude of men; for of the expeditions 
with which we are acquainted, this was by far the greatest. ... 21. 
. . . For what nation did not Xerxes lead out of Asia against Greece? 
what stream, being drunk, did not fail him, except that of great rivers? 



310 



MEDO-PERSIA, OVEKTHHOW OF. 



Some supplied ships; others were ordered to furnish men for the in- 
fantry, from others cavalry were required, from others transports for 
horses, together with men to serve in the army; others had to furnish 
long ships for the bridges, and other provisions and vessels. — Herodo- 
tus, book 7, pars. 19, 20, Gary's translation. 

And myriad-peopled Asia's king, a battle-eager lord, 

From utmost east to utmost west sped on his countless horde, . 

In unnumbered squadrons marching, in fleets of keels untold, 

Knowing none dared disobey, 

For stern overseers were they 
Of the godlike king begotten of the ancient race of Gold. 

— " The Persians,'" JEschylus, Way's translation. 

Medo-Persia, Many Nations Gathered Against Grecia. — Forty- 
nine nations, according to Herodotus, served under his [Xerxes'] stand- 
ard; and their contingents made up a grand total of eighteen hundred 
thousand men. Of these, eighty thousand were cavalry, while twenty 
thousand rode in chariots or on camels; the remainder served on foot. 
There are no sufficient means of testing these numbers. Figures in the 
mouth of an Oriental are vague and almost unmeaning; armies are 
never really counted. . . . Nevertheless there would be limits beyond 
which exaggeration could not go; and if Xerxes was made to believe 
that the land force which he took with him into Europe amounted to 
nearly two millions of men, it is scarcely doubtful but that it must have 
exceeded one million. — " The Five Great Monarchies" George Rawlin- 
son, M. A., Vol. Ill, pp. 452, 453; " The Fifth Monarchy;' chap. 7. New 
York: Dodd, Mead & Co. 

Medo-Persia, Riches of Xerxes (Dan. 11: 2).— When Pythius [of 
Asia Minor] offered money [to help defray cost of war], Xerxes asked 
the Persians near him who this Pythius was, and what riches he pos- 
sessed, that he made such an offer. They answered, " O king, this is the 
person who presented your father Darius with the golden plane-tree and 
the vine; and he is now the richest man we know of in the world, next 
to yourself." — Herodotus, book 7, par. 27, Gary's translation. 

Medo-Persia, Effect of Xerxes' Defeat. — The wreck of Xerxes' 
expedition is the turning-point in the history of the Persian Empire. 
The superiority of the Greeks was so pronounced that the Persians 
never found courage to repeat their attack. . . . The really decisive 
point was, rather, that the disasters of Salamis and Platsea definitely 
shattered the offensive power of the empire; that the center of gravity 
in the world's history had shifted from Susa and Babylon to the iEgean 
Sea; and that the Persians were conscious that in spite of all their 
courage they were henceforward in the presence of an enemy, superior 
in arms as well as in intellect, whom they could not hope to subdue by 
their own strength. — Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. XXI, art. " Persia," 
p. 211, 11th edition. 

Medo-Persia, from Artaxerxes I (successor of Xerxes) to Over- 
throw. — The reigns of Artaxerxes I (464-424), Xerxes II, and Darius II 
(423-405) witnessed the rapid decline of the Persian monarchy. The 
celebrated expedition of Cyrus the Younger (401) against his brother 
Artaxerxes II, ending in Cyrus's victory and death at Cunaxa, showed 
the Greeks how open to attack was their formerly dreaded foe, and thus 
at a later period encouraged Alexander the Great to invade the domin- 
ions of Darius III. 



MEDO-PERSIA , PASSING OF. 311 



Crossing the Hellespont in 334, Alexander defeated the Persians at 
Issus (333) and at Gaugamela [near Arbela] (Oct. 1, 331), thus over- 
throwing forever the empire of the Archaemenians. Persia then became 
part of the Macedonian Empire. — Nelson's Encyclopedia, Vol. IX, art. 
"Persia," p. 838. New York: Thomas Nelson & Sons, 1907. 

With sacred awe 

The Persian law 
No more shall Asia's realms revere; 

To their lord's hand, 

At his command, 
No more the exacted tribute bear. 

Before the Ionian squadrons Persia flies, 
Or sinks engulfed beneath the main; 
Fallen! fallen! is her imperial power, 
And conquest on her banners waits no more. 

- — " The Persians" Mschylus, Potter's translation. 

Medo-Persia, Passing of Dominion to Greece. — Darius [III] did 
not long enjoy in peace the power which had been so much envied. 
Having ascended the throne the same year as Alexander, some days 
before the battle of the Chersonesus, he saw the dangers threatening 
him from the Macedonian's ambition, and he was powerless to prevent 
them. 

He was beaten at the Granicus, beaten at Issus, beaten at Arbela 
[b. c. 331], and then killed in flight by one of his satraps. Alexander 
then took possession of his empire, and henceforth the Greek race sup- 
planted the Persians in the part they had played for two centuries as 
the ruling power of the world. — " The Historians' History of the World," 
Vol. II, p. 631. New York: The Outlook Company, 1904. 

Medo-Persia, Passing of Dominion at Akbela. — It is needless to 
pursue further the dissolution of the empire. The fatal blow was struck 
at Arbela — all the rest was but the long death-agony. At Arbela the 
crown of Cyrus passed to the Macedonian; the fifth monarchy came to 
an end. The he goat, with the notable horn between his eyes, had come 
from the west to the ram which had two horns, and had run into him 
with the fury of his power. He had come close to him, and, moved 
with choler, had smitten the ram and broken his two horns — there was 
no power in the ram to stand before him, but he had cast him down to 
the ground and stamped upon him — and there was none to deliver the 
ram out of his hand. — " The Five Great Monarchies," George Rawlin- 
son, M. A., Vol. Ill, pp. 538, 539: " The Fifth Monarchy," chap. 7. New 
York: Dodd, Mead & Co. 

Mehemet All. — See Eastern Question. 

Memorial of Hanover. — See Religious Liberty, 414, 415. 

Methodism, Rise of. — See Religious Liberty, 414. 

Milan, Edict of. — See Edict of Milan. 

Millennium, Temporal. — See Advent, Second, 10, 13. 

Missions, Livingstone on Providential Preparation of the Way. — 
Who would not be a missionary? " They that be wjg© shall phi tip as the 



312 



MISSIONS, OPENINGS FOR. 



brightness of the firmament, and they that turn many to righteousness 
as the stars forever and ever." Is God not preparing the world for 
missions which will embrace the whole of Adam's family? The gallant 
steamships circumnavigate the globe. Emigration is going on at a rate 
to which the most renowned crusades of antiquity bear no proportion. 
Many men go to and fro, and knowledge is increased. . . . 

There will yet be a glorious consummation of Christianity. The 
last fifty years have accomplished wonders. — Paper on Missionary 
Sacrifices in " The Personal Life of David Livingstone," W. Garden 
Blaikie, D. D., LL. D., Appendix, p. 499. New York: Fleming H. Revell 
Company. 

Missions, Opening of Closed Lands in This Generation. — Most 
countries shut out Christian missions by organized opposition, so that 
to attempt to bear the good tidings was simply to dare death for Christ's 
sake; the only welcome awaiting God's messengers was that of cannibal 
ovens, merciless prisons, or martyr graves. But, as the little band ad- 
vanced, on every hand the walls of Jericho fell, and the iron gates 
opened of their own accord. India, Siam, Burma, China, Japan, Turkey, 
Africa, Mexico, South America, the Papal States, and Korea were suc- 
cessively and successfully entered. Within five years, from 1853 to 1858, 
new facilities were given to the entrance and occupation of seven differ- 
ent countries, together embracing half the world's population. — " The 
Modern Mission Century," Arthur T. Pierson, p. 25. New York: The 
Baker and Taylor Company. 

Missions, Shrinkage of World in This Half-Century. — Since the 
seventies we have entered upon an entirely new era; we are conscious 
of having passed under the dominion of unfamiliar forces. Some of 
these, perhaps not all, it is possible to discern. The first is that of 
physical science. Science has affected politics in a hundred ways. I 
am concerned only with one. By the immense impetus it has given 
to the means of transport; by the utilization of electricity as a means 
of communication; by telegraphy, telephony, and by the invention of 
aircraft, it has led to a conspicuous shrinkage in the world. For all 
practical purposes the world is much smaller than it was half a century 
ago. Asia, America, Australia, and Africa have come within the ambit 
of European politics; the continental chanceries are as much con- 
cerned with the Pacific as they are with the Mediterranean. — J. A. R. 
Marriott, in the Nineteenth Century and After (London), April, 1918. 

Missions, The Recent Opening of Africa. — Why does special inter- 
est attach to what is styled in colloquial speech "the opening up of 
Africa"? — Because only twenty-five years ago Europe and civilized 
America were very slightly acquainted with the greater part of the geog- 
raphy, peoples, and products of Africa;- . . . yet nevertheless since 1885 
African discovery has proceeded at a rate so astonishing that there is 
nothing quite comparable to it in the history of human civilization. — 
" The Opening Up of Africa," Sir H. H. Johnston, p. 9. New York: 
Henry Holt & Co., 1911. 

I hear people complain that Africa goes slow. When I look at what 
has been effected in my own lifetime, it appears to me that on the con- 
trary it has been rushed. The maps that I learned from as a boy showed 
the whole interior as a blank. There are now no parts that are not 
more or less known. Railways are running over regions unknown 
forty years ago. — Rear-Admiral Wharton, of the British Navy, London 
Geographical Journal, October, 1905. 



MODERN ISM. 



Missions, The Tuening-Point in Human History.— The next tec 
years will in all probability constitute a turning-point in human his- 
tory, and may be of more critical importance in determining the spirit- 
ual evolution of mankind than many centuries of ordinary experience. 

— From a Message to the Members of the Church in Christian Lands 
by the World Missionary Conference, Edinburgh, June 23, 1910; " The 
History and Records of the Conference," Vol. IX, p. 108. Edinburgh: 
Oliphant, Anderson, and Ferrier. 

Missions, A Century of Progress, Since 1810, When the First 
Foreign Mission Society was Projected in America. — 

1810 1910 



Nearly every country in Asia and 
Africa was closed to the gospel. 

The church did not believe in 
foreign missions. 

There were practically no Prot- 
estant Christians in heathen lands. 

Only one hundred foreign mis- 
sionaries had been sent out. 

The Bible was translated into 
only sixty-five languages. 

Only a few thousand dollars 
were given yearly for foreign mis- 
sions. 

There were no medical mission- 
aries. 

There were no mission hospitals 
or orphanages. 

There was no native Christian 
ministry. 

Missionary work was not recog- 
nized in American and British col- 
leges. 

There were no unmarried women 
missionaries, and no organized 
work for women. 

There were no mission presses 
or means for preparing and dis- 
tributing Christian literature in 
non-Christian lands. 



Practically every nation in the 
world is open to missionaries. 

All evangelical churches are in- 
terested in missions. To speak 
against missions is counted a dis- 
grace. 

More than two million Protes- 
tant Christians have been gathered 
in heathen lands, besides all who 
have died in the faith. 

There are nearly twenty-two 
thousand foreign missionaries in 
the world. 

The Bible has. been translated 
into about five hundred languages 
and dialects. 

Total foreign missionary contri- 
butions amount to nearly $25,000,- 
000 annually. 

Thousands of medical mission- 
aries in the heathen lands treat 
three million patients a year. 

There are four hundred mission 
hospitals and over five hundred 
orphanages and asylums in foreign 
lands, operated by missionaries. 

There are over six thousand un- 
married women missionaries to 
heathen women and children. 



— The Missionary Review of the World, January, 1910. New York: 
Funk and Wagnalls Company.* 

Missions, A Quick Work in. — It is not unreasonable to suppose 
that the last conquests of Christianity may be achieved with incom- 
parably greater rapidity than has marked its earlier progress and sig- 
nalized its first success; and that in the instance of India, "the plow- 
man may overtake the reaper, the treader of grapes him that soweth 
the seed," and the type of the prophet realized, that "a nation will be 
born in a day." — " Christianity in Ceylon" Sir J. E. Tennent, p. 327. 

Missions, Rise of Modern. — See Increase of Knowledge, 232, 233. 

Modernism, Definition of. — Modernism is a movement within the 
Roman Catholic Church which seeks and aims to force an adjustment 
between the church in her medieval garb and the results of physical 



314 



MONASTICISM. 



science and literary criticism. Back of, and associated with, both 
science and criticism there lies a philosophical theory, speculative and 
rationalistic in type. Modernism received its name from the Jesuit 
Fathers in Rome, and [the name] was adopted by the Pope and the 
Vatican authorities, who have combated it at every turn in the tide, 
first by excommunicating its leaders, men like Tyrrell, Mivart, and 
Loisy, then by papal encyclical, and finally by exacting a reprofession 
of faith from every priest actively engaged in the ministry. — " Modern- 
ism and the Reformation," John Benjamin Rust, Ph. D., D. D., p. 168. 
New York: Fleming H. Revell Company. 

Mohammedanism. — See Seven Trumpets. 

Monasticism, Historical Notes Concerning. — It was during the 
period between the third and the sixth century that there grew up in 
the church the institution known as Monasticism. This was so remark- 
able a system, and one that exerted so profound an influence upon 
medieval and even later history, that we must here acquaint ourselves 
with at least its spirit and aims. 

The term " monasticism," in its widest application, denotes a life 
of austere self-denial and of seclusion from the world, with the object 
of promoting the interests of the soul. As thus defined, the system 
embraced two prominent classes of ascetics: (1) Hermits, or anchorites, 
— persons who, retiring from the world, lived solitary lives in desolate 
places; (2) cenobites, or monks, who formed communities and lived 
usually under a common roof. . . . 

St. Anthony, an Egyptian ascetic (b. about a. d. 251), who by his 
example and influence gave a tremendous impulse to the movement, 
is called the " Father of the Hermits." . . . 

Most renowned of all the anchorites of the East was St. Simeon 
Stylites, the Saint of the Pillar (d. a. d. 459), who spent thirty-six 
years on a column only three feet in diameter at the top, which he had 
gradually raised to a height of over fifty feet. 

During the fourth century the anchorite type of asceticism, which 
was favored by the mild climate of the Eastern lands and especially by 
that of Egypt, assumed in some degree the monastic form; that is to 
say, the fame of this or that anchorite or hermit drew about him a 
number of disciples, whose rude huts or cells formed what was known 
as a laura, the nucleus of a monastery. 

Soon after the cenobite system had been established in the East 
it was introduced into Europe, and in an astonishingly short space of 
time spread throughout all the Western countries where Christianity 
had gained a foothold. Here it prevailed to the almost total exclusion 
of the hermit mode of life. Monasteries arose on every side. The 
number that fled to these retreats was vastly augmented by the disorder 
and terror attending the invasion of the barbarians and the overthrow 
of the empire in the West. — "Mediaeval and Modern History" Philip 
Van Ness Myers, pp. 22-24. Boston: Ginn and Company. 

Napoleon. — See Eastern Question, 148, 149; French Revolution, 
177-180; Papal Supremacy, 366-369. 

National Reform Association. — See Sunday Laws, 544, 545. 

Nature of Man, Dr. Hales on Immortality Only in Christ.— But 
when it is said that man was made " an heir " of immortality, " accord- 
ing to the hope of eternal life " (Titus 3:7), this is not to be understood 
as being derived from any inherent virtue in his nature; as if the spirit 



NATURE OF MAN — 44 GIVING SOUJV 



315 



or mind was necessarily immortal, according to the arrogant notions of 
heathen philosophers, and philosophizing divines of their school. The 
divine sentence pronounced on Adam, " Dust thou art, and unto dust 
shalt thou return" (Gen. 3: 19), included the dissolution of the spirit 
also. . . . "And this, I say," says St. Paul, "that flesh and blood [or 
mankind, Matt. 16: 17] are not able [naturally] to inherit the kingdom 
of God, neither shall corruption inherit incorruption: " in order to this 
end, a great and sudden change is to be wrought in both soul and body; 
for the apostle proceeds, " Behold, I tell you a mystery: We shall not all 
sleep [an eternal sleep, in death], but shall all be changed, in a moment, 
in the twinkling of an eye, at the last trumpet (for the trumpet shall 
sound), and the dead shall be raised incorruptible, and we shall be 
changed: for this corruptible [body] must put on incorruption, and this 
mortal [soul] put on immortality." 1 Cor. 15:50-53. "Eternal life, 
indeed, is the free gift of God, through Jesus Christ our Lord " (Rom. 
6:23); "Who illustrated life and incorruption both by the gospel" 
(2 Tim. 1: 10), which he preached (John 6: 68; 20: 21); and by the 
example of his own resurrection, in a glorified body, as " the first fruits," 
the sample and the pledge, of " the resurrection of the just," to " glory, 
honor, and immortality." 1 Cor. 15: 20-23; Luke 14: 14; Rom. 2:7; Col. 
3: 1-4. — "A New Analysis of Chronology and Geography," Rev. William 
Hales, D. D. (Church of England, in Ireland), Vol. II, pp. 5, 6. London: 
C. J. G. & F. Rivington, 1830. 

Note. — The Greek word aphthartos (immortal, incorruptible) occurs as fol- 
lows : Rom. 1 : 23 ; 1 Cor. 9 : 25 : 15 : 52 ; 1 Tim. 1:17; 1 Peter 1:4. 23 ; 3:4. 
The word athanasia (immortality) occurs : 1 Cor. 15 : 53, 54 ; 1 Tim. 6 : 16. 
The word aphtharsia (immortality, incorruption, sincerity) occurs: Rom. 2:7; 
1 Cor. 15 : 42, 50, 53, 54 ; Eph. 6 : 24 ; 2 Tim. 1 : 10 ; Titus 2 : 7. — Eds. 

Nature of Man, Greeks Received Doctrine of Immortality of Soul 
from Egypt. — The Egyptians . . . were also the first to broach the 
opinion that the soul of man is immortal, and that when the body dies, 
it enters into the form of an animal which is born at the moment, 
thence passing on from one animal into another, until it has circled 
through the forms of all the creatures which tenant the earth, the 
water, and the air, after which it enters again into a human frame, and 
is born anew. The whole period of the transmigration is (they say) 
three thousand years. There are Greek writers, some of an earlier, 
some of a later date, who have borrowed this doctrine from the Egyp- 
tians, and put it forward as their own. — Herodotus, book 2, chap. 123 
(Vol. I, p. 177). Everyman's Library edition. 

Nature of Man, Clarke on "Living Soul." — Nephesh chaiyah: a 
general term to express all creatures endued with animal life, in any of 
its infinitely varied gradations. — Dr. Adam Clarke's Commentary on 
Gen. 1:24, Vol. I, p. 35. New York: Phillips & Hunt, 1833. 

Note. — This is the term used in Gen. 2:7, of man ; also of animals In 
Gen. 1 : 20, 21, 24, 30. — Eds. 

Nature of Man, Dr. Kitto on "Living Soul." — And Jehovah God 
formed the man (Heb., the Adam) dust from the ground, and blew into 
his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living animal. . . . 
Some of our readers may be surprised at our having translated nephesh 
chaiyyah by " living animal." There are good interpreters and preach- 
ers, who, confiding in the common translation, "living soul," have 
maintained that here is intimated a distinctive pre-eminence above the 
inferior animals, as possessed of an immaterial and immortal spirit. 
But, however true that distinction is, and supported by abundant argu- 



316 



NATURE OF MAX — " SOUL." 



ment from both philosophy and the Scriptures, we should be acting un- 
faithfully if we were to affirm its being contained or implied in this 
passage. — Religious Encyclopedia, John Kitto, D. D„ art. "Adam," p. 58. 
Edinburgh: Adam and Charles Black, 1862. 

Nature of Man, Professor Bush on " Living Soul." — The phrase 
" living soul " is in the foregoing narrative repeatedly applied to the 
inferior orders of animals, which are not considered to be possessed of 
a " soul " in the sense in which that term is applied to man. It would 
seem to mean the. same, therefore, when spoken of man that it does when 
spoken of beasts; viz., an animated being, a creature possessed of life 
and sensation, and capable of performing all the physical functions by 
which animals are distinguished, as eating, drinking, walking, etc. . . . 
Indeed, it may be remarked that the Scriptures generally afford much 
less explicit evidence of the existence of a sentient, immaterial prin- 
ciple in man, capable of living and acting separate from the body, than 
is usually supposed. — Prof. George Bush, Notes on Gen. 2:7. 1840. 

Nature of Man, Adam's Mortality Shown. — The expression, " liv- 
ing soul," as used in Genesis, is often taken to indicate an order of 
being superior to the brute, and is the text of many an argument to 
prove the immortality of the soul. The incorrectness of this assump- 
tion will be readily seen by referring to Gen. 1: 20, 21, 24, and elsewhere, 
in which passages the words translated " living soul " are applied also 
to the entire lower creation. They are used indifferently of man and 
beast to express animal life in general; and it is in this very light the 
apostle uses them [1 Cor. 15: 45], as the course of his argument shows. 
Adam is spoken of as a living soul, not to prove his immortality, but 
rather his mortality. — Dr. J. P. Lange's Commentary, on 1 Cor. 15:45, 
Philip Schaff's translation. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1868. 

Note. — In his book, " Here and Hereafter," Uriah Smith says : " Gesenius, 
the standard Hebrew lexicographer, defines nephesh as follows : ' 1. Breath. 
2. The vital spirit, as the Greek psuche, the Latin anima, through which the body 
lives ; i. e., the principle of life manifested in the breath.' To this he also 
ascribes ' whatever has respect to the sustenance of life by food and drink, 
and on the contrary.' ' 3. The rational soul, mind, animus, as the seat of feel- 
ings, affections, and emotions. 4. Concr. living thing, animal in which is the 
nephesh, life.'" — Page 61, edition 1907. 

" The word nephesh occurs 745 times in the Old Testament, and is trans- 
lated by the term ' soul ' about 473 times. In every instance in the Old Testa- 
ment where the word 4 soul ' occurs, it is from nephesh, with the exception of 
Job 30 : 15, where it comes from ~D*"l2 (n'dee-oah), and Isa. 57 : 16, where it is 

from h£*£3 (n'shah-mah). But the mere use of the word 'soul ' determines noth- 
ing ; for it cannot be claimed to signify an immortal part, until we somewhere 
find immortality affirmed of it. 

" Besides the word ■ soul,' nephesh is translated ' life ' and ' lives,' as in 
Gen. 1 : 20, 30, in all 118 times. It is translated ' person,' as in Gen. 14 : 21, in 
all 29 times. It is translated 4 mind,' as in Gen. 23:8, in all 15 times. It is 
translated 4 heart,' as in Ex. 23 : 9, in all 15 times. It is translated 4 body,' or 
4 dead body,' as in Num. 6:6, in all 11 times. It is translated 4 will,' as in 
Ps. 27 : 12, in all 4 times. It is translated 4 appetite,' as in Prov. 23 : 2, twice ; 
' lust,' as in Ps. 78 : 18, twice ; 4 thing,' as in Lev. 11 : 10, twice. 

44 Besides the foregoing, it is rendered by the various pronouns, and by the 
words, 4 breath, beast, fish, creature, ghost, pleasure, desire,' etc. — in all forty- 
three different ways. Nephesh is never rendered 4 spirit.' 

44 Nephesh Is Mortal. — This 4 soul ' (nephesh) is represented as in danger of 
the grave. Ps. 49 : 14, 15 ; 89 : 48 ; Job 33 : 18, 20, 22 ; Isa. 38 : 17. It is also 
spoken of as liable to be destroyed, killed, etc. Gen. 17 : 14 ; Ex. 31 : 14 ; Joshua 
10:30, 32, 35. 37, 39, etc."— Pages 62, 63, edition 1907. — Eds. 

Nature of Man, Dr. Clarke on " Gave Up the Ghost " (Gen. 25: 8). 
— Highly as I value our translation for general accuracy, fidelity, and 
elegance. I must beg leave to dissent from this version. The original 
word 383* (yigva), from the root fgava), signifies to pant for breath, 



NATURE OP MAN — 44 SOUL." 



317 



to expire, to cease from breathing, or to breathe one's last; and here, 
and wherever the original word is used, the simple term expired would 
be the proper expression. In our translation this expression occurs 
Gen. 25: 8, 17; 35: 29; 49: 33; Job 3: 11; 10: 18; 11: 20; 13: 19; 14: 10; 
Lam. 1: 19; in all of which places the original is (gava). — Dr. 
Adam Clarice's Commentary on Gen. 25:8, Vol. I, p. 152. New York: 
Phillips & Hunt. 1833. 

Nature of Man, Bullinger's Greek Lexicon on 14 Soul." — Soul, 
psuche, one of the manifestations of zoe (life), viz.: that which is mani- 
fested in animals, animal life; hence, breath (not breath as mere air, 
but as the sign of life). Once applied to vegetable life. Isa. 10: 18. 

In Old Testament everywhere LXX for nephesh, and is said to be 
possessed by all the lower creatures. Gen. 1: 20, 21, 24, 30; 2:7, 19; 
9: 10, 12, 15, 16; Lev. 11: 10, 46; Num. 31: 28; Prov. 7: 23; 12: 10; 
Eze. 47: 9. So also Rev. 8:9; 16: 3. 

It denotes the vital principle in animal bodies. 1 Sam. 22: 23: 
1 Kings 1: 12; 2 Chron. 1: 11; Esther 7: 3; Prov. 1: 19; 6: 26; 16: 25, 
26; Luke 12: 19-23; 1 John 3: 16. 

It is used of the person as possessed of such life. Gen. 12: 5; 14: 21; 
17: 14; 19: 17, 19, 20; 46: 18; Ex. 12: 15; Lev. 4: 2; 5: 15; 7: 27; Esther 
9: 31; Isa. 47: 14 (cf. Rev. 6:9). Also of a dead person (with the adj.). 
Lev. 21: 11. And of those raised, Rev. 20: 4, as contrasted with those 
vet unraised, Rev. 20: 5. 

It can die or be killed. Lev. 24: 17, 18; Num. 23: 10; 31: 19; Deut. 
19: 6; 22: 26; 27: 25; Judges 16: 30; Prov. 7: 23; Eccl. 3: 19. So of per- 
sons. Joshua 10: 28, 30, 39; Lev. 23: 30. Also Matt. 10: 28; Mark 3: 4; 
Luke 9: 54-56; Rev. 16: 3. 

It goes to the grave (Job 33: 22), and can be hazarded by danger. 
Acts 15: 26; Rom. 11: 3. 

It is identified with the blood (as the spirit never is). Gen. 9: 4, 5; 
Lev. 17: 11, 14; Ps. 72: 14; 94: 21; Prov. 28: 17. 

The Greek psuche is identified with Hebrew nephesh by comparing 
Acts 2: 27 with Ps. 16: 10; Rom. 11: 3 with 1 Kings 19: 10; 1 Cor. 15: 
45 with Gen. 2:7; Matt. 20: 28 with Isa. 53: 10. 

44 My soul " is the same as 44 me " or 44 myself." Num. 23: 10; Judges 
16: 30; 1 Kings 20: 32; Ps. 35: 13; 59: 3; 131: 2; Jer. 18: 20 (cf. 38: 6). 

"His soul" is the same as 44 him " or 44 himself." Gen. 37: 21; Job 
18: 4; Ps. 23: 29 [22: 29]; 105: 17, 18— " Critical Lexicon," Rev. E. W. 
Bullinger, D. D. (Church of England), under "Soul." London: Long- 
mans, Green & Co. 

Note. — Of psuche (soul) the Greek word corresponding to the Hebrew 
nephesh, Uriah Smith sums up the use as follows : 

"Psuche Defined. — Greenfield gives to psuche the following definition: . . . 
"'Breath; life: i. e., the animal soul, principle of life (Luke 12:19, 20; Acts 
20 : 10) : life ; i. e.. the state of being alive, existence (spoken of natural life) 
(Matt. 2 : 20 ; 6 : 25) ; and by implication, of life as extending beyond the grave 
(Matt. 10:39; John 12:25) ; by metonymy, that which has life, a living crea- 
ture, living being (1 Cor. 15:45) ; spoken of a man, person, individual (Acts 
2:41).' 

44 Bagster's analytical Greek lexicon gives substantially the same definition 
as follows : 

44 ' Breath : the principle of animal life ; the life (Matt. 2 : 20) ; an inanimate 
being (1 Cor. 15:45) ; a human individual, soul (Acts 2:41) ; the immaterial 
soul (Matt. 10 : 28) ; the soul as the seat of religious and moral sentiment (Matt. 
11:29) ; the soul as a seat of feeling (Matt, 12:18) ; the soul, the inner self 
(Luke 12 : 19). 

" Psuche as Used in the Scriptures. — The word ' soul ' in the New Testa- 
ment comes invariably from the Greek tyvxh (psuche); which word occurs 105 
times. It is translated ' soul ' 58 times ; 4 life ' 40 times ; * mind ' 3 times ; 4 heart * 
twice ; ' us ' once ; and ' you ' once — six different ways." — 44 Here and Here- 
after." p. 63, edition 1907. 



318 



NATURE OF MAN — " SPIRIT." 



Nature of Man, Bullinger's Greek Lexicon on " Spirit." — Spirit, 
pneuma (from pneo, to blow, breathe; send forth an odor; to breathe or 
smell of a thing; of animals, to breathe hard, pant, gasp; gen., to draw 
breath, breathe, and so to live); hence, the air we breathe, wind; 
breathing as the sign and condition of life, breath. When it is not used 
for wind, it expresses immateriality, that which cannot be apprehended 
by the senses, but is recognized only by its operations or manifestations, 
as it is seen by the life, the liveliness, the activities, whether these 
activities be mental, moral, or physical. In the Old Testament pneuma 
is everywhere the translation of ruach, and is the life principle spring- 
ing from God, and is said to be possessed by all the lower creatures. 
Gen. 6: 17; 7: 14; Ps. 104: 29, 30; Eccl. 3: 19, 20; Isa. 42: 5. The ruach, 
or pneuma, of God is the source of life in all its manifestations. . . . 
The withdrawal of it leaves thanatos (death), the opposite of zoe (life). 
Ps. 114: 30 [104: 29]; 137: 17 [107: 17, 18]; 146: 4; Job 15: 30; 27: 3; 
Eccl. 8:8; 12: 7; James 2: 26. — "Critical Lexicon," Rev. E. W. Bullin- 
ger, D. D. (Church of England), under "Spirit." London: Longmans, 
Green d Co. 

Note. — Of the use of the words ruach (Hebrew) and pneuma (Greek). 
Uriah Smith says : 

" Ruach Defined. — For the definition of this word we appeal again to 
Gesenius : 

" ' riVl • 1. Breath, a breathing, blowing ; i. e., (a) breath of the nostrils, 

a snuffing, snorting; (b) breath of the mouth. Often of the vital breath, breath 
of life ; fully, C^.j, ,jVl (Gen. 6 : 17) ; (c) Breath of air, in motion. 2. The same 

as "££X \l/vx~fl> anima; i. e., the vital spirit, breath of life. 3. The rational 

soul, mind, spirit; (a) as the seat of the affections; (5) in reference to the dis- 
position, the mode of feeling and acting ; (c) of will, counsel, purpose ; (d) more 
rarely of the understanding. 4. The Spirit of God.' 

" Ruach as Used in the Scriptures. — This word occurs in the Old Testament 
442 times. The word ' spirit ' in every instance of its occurrence in the Old 
Testament, 234 times, is from this word, except in Job 26 : 4 and Prov. 20 : 27, 
where it is from n'shah-mah. Besides being rendered 232 times 4 spirit,' it is 
translated ' wind ' 97 times, 4 breath ' 28 times, ' smell ' 8 times, 4 mind ' 6 times. 
4 blast ' 4 times, also 4 anger, courage, smell, air,' etc. — in all sixteen different 
ways. 

" ' Spirit ' in the New Testament is from the Greek irvevjxa (pneuma) in 
every instance. 

" Pneuma Defined. — Robinson, in his Greek Lexicon of the New Testament, 
defines this word to mean, primarily. 4 1. A breathing, breath, breath of air, air 
in motion, 2. The spirit of man ; i. e., the vital spirit, life, soul, the principle 
of life residing in the breath breathed into men from God, and again returning 
to God.' Parkhurst, in his Greek Lexicon, says : 4 It may be worth remarking 
that the leading sense of the old English word 44 ghost " [which in Matt. 27 : 
50 ; John 19 : 30, and ninety other places is from this word pneuma] is breath ; 
. . . that ghost is evidently of the same root with gust of wind ; and that both 
these words are plain derivatives from the Hebrew, to move with violence; 
whence also gush, etc' 

"Pneuma as Used in the Scriptures. — This word occurs in the New Testa- 
ment 385 times ; and besides being rendered 4 spirit ' 288 times, is rendered 
'ghost' 92 times, 4 wind ' once, and 4 life ' once — four different ways." — "Here 
and Hereafter," pp. 63-65, edition 1907. 

Nature of Man, Dr. Clarke on the " Spirits in Prison " (1 Peter 
3: 19). — The inhabitants of the antediluvian world, who, having been 
disobedient, and convicted of the most flagrant transgressions against 
God, were sentenced by his just law to destruction. But their punish- 
ment was delayed to see if they would repent; and the long-suffering of 
God waited one hundred and twenty years, which were granted to them 
for this purpose; during which time, as criminals tried and convicted, 
they are represented as being in prison — detained under the arrest of 
divine justice, which waited, either for their repentance or the expiration 
of the respite, that the punishment pronounced might be inflicted. 



NATURE OF MAN — LUKE 28: 48. 



319 



This I have long believed to be the sense of this difficult passage; 
and no other that I have seen is consistent with the whole scope of the 
place. That the Spirit of God did strive with, convict, and reprove 
the antediluvians is evident from Gen. 6:3.... The word pneumasi 
(spirits) is supposed to render this view of the subject improbable, 
because this must mean disembodied* spirits; but this certainly does not 
follow, for "the spirits of just men made perfect" (Heb. 12: 23), cer- 
tainly means righteous men, and men still in the church militant; and 
"the Father of spirits" (Heb. 12: 9), means men still in the body; and 
the God of the spirits of all flesh (Num. 16: 22; 27: 16), means men not 
in a disembodied state. — Clarke's Commentary, on 1 Peter 3:19, Vol. 
VI, p. 820. New York: Phillips & Hunt, 1833. 

Nature of Man, Edersheim on the Dying Thief's Request. — The 
familiar words of our Authorized Version — " When thou comest into 
thy kingdom " — convey the idea of what we might call a more spiritual 
meaning of the petition. But we can scarcely believe that at that mo- 
ment it implied either that Christ was then going into his kingdom, or 
that the " penitent thief " looked to Christ for admission into the heav- 
enly kingdom. The words are true to the Jewish point of vision of the 
man. He recognized and owned Jesus as the Messiah, and he did so by 
a wonderful forthgoing of faith, even in the utmost humiliation of 
Christ. And this immediately passed beyond the Jewish standpoint, for 
he expected Jesus soon to come back in his kingly might and power, 
when he asked to be remembered by him in mercy. — " The Life and 
Times of Jesus the Messiah," Rev. Alfred Edersheim, M. A. Oxon., D. D., 
Ph. D., Vol. II, p. 600. 

Nature of Man, Rotherham's Translation of Luke 23: 43, and 
Comment. — " And he said unto Jesus, Lord, remember me when thou 
comest into thy kingdom. And Jesus said unto him, Verily I say unto 
thee, Today shalt thou be with me in paradise." Luke 23: 42, 43. 

It is left for the reader to determine whether the words " this day " 
should be joined fa) with the former part of the sentence, or (b) with 
the latter. In favor of (a) may be urged (1) the fact that semeron, 
" this day," does not always stand first in the clause to which it belongs 
(see Luke 2: 11; 5: 26; 22: 34; Acts 20: 26; 22: 3; 24: 21; 26: 29); (2) 
that being essentially a demonstrative word, it will bear any reasonable 
stress that may be laid upon it, whether it be placed before or after the 
words which it qualifies; (3) that it is far from meaningless if regarded 
as belonging to the opening words of asservation ("Thou dost ask to 
be remembered then: verily thou art assured now. As on this day of 
my weakness and shame, thou hast faith to ask, I this day have author- 
ity to answer ") ; (4) that the latter part of the verse is thus left free 
to refer to the very matter of the supplicant's request ("Thou dost ask 
to be remembered when I come in my kingdom: thou shalt be remem- 
bered then, and with distinguished favor: thou shalt be in my kingdom; 
shalt be with me in the very paradise of my kingdom, in the garden of 
the Lord — Isa. 51: 3 [Septuagint, paradeisosl; Rev. 2: 7 — in that 
most central and blessed part of the coming kingdom, of which thou 
dost believe me to be the destined king"). — "Translation of the New 
Testament," Rotherham, note on Luke 23:43 * 

Nature of Man, Literal Translation of Luke 23: 42-44. — " AND 
HESAIDTOJESUSREMEMBERMELORDWHENTHOUSHALTCOMEIN 
THYDOMINIONANDSAIDTOHIMJESUSVERILYISAYTOTHEETODAY 
WITHMETHOUSHALTBEINPARADISENOWITWASABOUTTHETHIR 
DHOUR." — "Triglott Evangelist's Interlinear Translation of the Bible. 



320 



NATURE OF MAN — 44 GEHENNA." 



Nature of Man, Lexicons on Use of Word u Hell/'— This is the 
word generally used by our translators to render the Hebrew sheol. It 
would perhaps have been better to retain the Hebrew word, or else ren- 
der it always by " the grave " or " the pit." — Smith's " Comprehensive 
Dictionary of the Bible," art. " Hell," p. 373. 

Gehenna, . . . the "valley of Hinnom; "... a deep, narrow glen 
south of Jerusalem, where, after the introduction of the worship of the 
fire-gods by Ahaz, the idolatrous Jews offered their children to Molech. 
— Id., art. " Gehenna," p. 325. 

Hell. — As in Middle English hell meant " the state of the dead," the 
translators of the American Version have used it freely to represent the 
Hebrew sheol and the Greek hades. Occasionally sheol is translated 
" grave." ... In the New Testament there is a clearly marked distinc- 
tion between the state of the dead (R. V. "hades") and the place of 
punishment (R. V. "Gehenna"). — " The Temple Bible Dictionary," art. 
"Hell." Ewing & Thompson* 

Note. — The Hebrew word for grave is sheol, translated "grave" (as Gen. 
37:35) and "hell" (as Ps. 16:10). The New Testament equivalent is shown 
by Acts 2:27, where this same text (Ps. 16:10) is quoted, using the word 
" hades." Of the two words translated " hell " and " grave " in the New Testa- 
ment, Uriah Smith says in his " Here and Hereafter " : 

" The word ' hell ' in our English version is from three different Greek 
words. These words are $5rjs (hades), yetvva (ge-enna), and raprapdu) (tar- 
taro-o, a verb signifying to thrust down to Tartarus). These all designate 
different places ; and the following full list of the instances of their occurrence 
in the New Testament, will show their use : 

"Hades occurs in the following passages: Matt. 11:23; 16:18; Luke 10: 
15 ; 16 : 23 ; Acts 2 : 27 ; 2 : 31 ; 1 Cor. 15 : 55 ; Rev. 1 : 18 ; 6:8; 20 : 13 ; 20 : 14. 

" Ge-enna signifies Gehenna, the valley of Hinnom, near Jerusalem, in which 
fires were kept constantly burning to consume the bodies of malefactors and the 
rubbish which was brought from the city and cast therein. It is found in the 
following places : Matt. 5 : 22 ; 5 : 29 ; 5 : 30 ; 10 : 28 ; 18 : 9 ; 23 : 15 ; 23 : 33 : 
Mark 9 : 43, 45, 47 ; Luke 12 : 5 ; James 3 : 6. 

" Tartar o-o is used only in the following text : ' God spared not the angels 
that sinned, but cast them down to hell.' 2 Peter 2 : 4. 

" From these references it will be seen that hades is the place of the dead, 
whether righteous or wicked, from which they are brought only by a resurrection. 
Rev. 20 : 13. On the contrary, Gehenna is the place into which the wicked are 
to be cast alive with all their members, to be destroyed soul and body." — Pages 
111, 112, edition 1907. 

Nature of Man, " Gehenna " the Place of Utter Consumption. — 
Gehenna, or Gehennon, or valley of the sons of Hinnom (see Joshua 
15: 8; 2 Kings 23: 10, Heb.), a valley adjacent to Jerusalem, through 
which the southern limits of the tribe of Benjamin passed. ... It is 
thought to have been the common sewer belonging to Jerusalem, and 
that a fire was always burning there to consume the filth of the city. — 
Robinson's Bible Dictionary, art. " Gehenna." 

The English word " hell," in the New Testament, usually stands for 
the word " gehenna," underneath. That was the word used for the place 
outside Jerusalem, where the refuse of the city was burned. Of course 
the Gehenna fires of Jerusalem were for the health of the city, to burn 
up what would endanger health and life. — " Quiet Talks About Our 
Lord's Return," 8. T ). Gordon, pp. 255, 256. New York: Fleming H. Re- 
vell Company. 

Nature of Man, Eternal Destruction of the Lost — Not Eternal 
Torment. — Fire, in the Bible, is generally an emblem of destruction, 
not of torment. The chaff, the tares, the fruitless tree, are not to be 
tortured, but to be destroyed. The hell-fire spoken of in the New Testa- 



NATURE OF MAN — ♦FOREVER.' 



321 



ment is the fire of Gehenna, kept burning outside the walls of Jerusalem, 
to destroy the offal of the city. Here was the worm that dieth not, and 
the fire that is unquenched; emblems of destruction, not of torment. I 
find nothing in the New Testament to warrant the terrible opinion that 
God sustains the life of his creatures throughout eternity, only that they 
may continue in sin and misery. That immortality is the gift of God 
through our Lord Jesus Christ; that man is mortal, and must put on 
immortality; that only he can put it on who becomes, through Christ, a 
partaker of the divine nature, and so an inheritor of him " who only 
hath immortality; " that eternal life is life eternal, and eternal death 
is death eternal, and everlasting destruction is destruction without rem- 
edy, — this is the most natural, as it is the simplest reading of the New 
Testament. — Dr. Lyman Abbott, D. D., editorial in the Christian Union 
(now The Outlook). 

Note. — In his " Here and Hereafter " Uriah Smith gives definitions from 
lexicons of the words translated " forever " and " forever and ever " in the 
New Testament : " These words are translated in the New Testament, from 
aubv (axon) and atwwos (aionios), respecting which the following facts may be 
stated : 

" Aion is defined by different lexicographers as follows: 

"Greenfield: 'Duration, finite or infinite, unlimited duration, eternity, a 
period of duration past or future, time, age, lifetime ; the world, universe.' 

" Schrevelius : ' An age. a long period of time ; infinite duration ; time, 
whether longer or shorter." 

" Liddell and Scott : ' A space or period of time, especially a lifetime, life, 
tevum; an age. a generation; long space of time, eternity: in plural eis tons 
aion as ton aion on, unto ages of ages, forever and ever, New Testament. Gal. 
1:5. 3. Later, a space of time clearly defined and marked out, an era, age, 
period of a dispensation : ho aion houtos, this present life, this world." " — Pages 
293, m- 

Nature of Man, Illustrating a Traditional View of Eternal Tor- 
m.ent. — Little child, if you go to hell, there will be a devil at your 
side to strike you. He will go on striking you every day forever and 
ever without ever stopping. The first stroke will make your body as bad 
as Job, covered from head to foot with sores and ulcers. The second 
stroke will make your body twice as bad as the body of Job. The tbird 
stroke will make your body three times as bad as the body of Job. The 
fourth stroke will make your body four times as bad as the body of 
Job. How then will your body be after the devil has been striking it 
every moment for a hundred millions of years without stopping? . . . 

See, it is a pitiful sight; the little child is in this red-hot oven. 
Hear how it screams to come out. See how it turns and twists itself 
about in the fire. It beats its head against the roof of the oven. It 
stamps its little foot on the floor of the oven. You can see on the face of 
the little child what you see in all the faces of all in hell — despair, des- 
perate and horrible. — " The Sight of Hell," by a Catholic priest (Booklet 
for Children), Dublin, Ireland; cited in The Present Truth (London). 
April 30, 1914* 

Nature of Man, Consolation of True View of Fate of the Lost. — 
It has for me thrown a light on God's character, and God's Word, and 
the future of his world, which I once thought I should never have seen 
on this side of the grave. It has not removed the wholesome and neces- 
sary terrors of the Lord from the mind, but it has clothed God with a 
loveliness which makes him, and the eternal Son who represents him 
to man, incalculably more attractive. I am no longer looking for shifts 
to excuse his conduct in my own eyes and those of others, and forced to 
feel that here at least I could never find one to answer my object. I can 
look at all he has done, and all he tells me he will hereafter do, and, 
scanning it closely, and examining it even where it has most of awe and 



23 



322 



ORDER, CANONS ON. 



severity, exclaim with all my heart and with all my understanding. 
<( Just and true are thy ways, thou King of saints."—" Duration and 
Nature of Future Punishment," Henry Constable, A. M. (England), p. iv. 

Nebuchadnezzar, Date of Beginning of Reign of. — Bee Babylon, 
45, 50; Daniel, 132. 

Nero. — See Jerusalem, 259; Persecution, 372. 
Nestorius. — See Councils, 119. 

Nicholas I. — See Greek Church, 194, 195; Isidorian Decretals, 256, 
257; Papacy, 342, 349. 

Oath, of Jesuits. — See Jesuits, 265. 

Oaths, Roman Catholic Views of. — An oath taken against the 
good of the church does not bind. . . . Because those are not oaths but 
rather perjuries which are taken against the interests of the church. 
— " The Decretals of Gregory IX," i book 2, title 24, chap. 27. 

Oaths.— See Heretics, 204, 205. 

Odoacer.— See Rome, 438, 439, 442, 445, 450-452; Seven Trumpets, 
499, 506; Ten Kingdoms, 554, 556. 

Order, Canons on. — Canon I. If any one saith that there is not 
in the New Testament a visible and external priesthood; or that there 
is not any power of consecrating and offering the true body and blood 
of the Lord and of forgiving and retaining sins; but only an office and 
bare ministry of preaching the gospel; or that those who do not preach 
are not priests at all; let him be anathema. 

Canon II. If any one saith that, besides the priesthood, there are 
not in the Catholic Church other orders, both greater and minor, by 
which, as by certain steps, advance is made unto the priesthood; let 
him be anathema. 

Canon III. If any one saith that order, or sacred ordination, is not 
truly and properly a sacrament instituted by Christ the Lord; or that 
it is a kind of human figment devised by men unskilled in ecclesiastical 
matters; or that it is only a kind of rite for choosing ministers of the 
word of God and of the sacraments; let him be anathema. 

Canon IV. If any one saith that, by sacred ordination, the Holy 
Ghost is not given; and that vainly therefore do the bishops say: 
"Receive ye the Holy Ghost; " or that a character is not imprinted by 
that ordination; or that he who has once been a priest can again become 
a layman; let him be anathema. 

Canon VI. If any one saith that in the Catholic Church there is 
not a hierarchy by divine ordination instituted, consisting of bishops, 
priests, and ministers; let him be anathema. 

Canon VII. If any one saith that bishops are not superior to priests; 
or that they have not the power of confirming and ordaining; or that 
the power which they possess is common to them and to priests; or 
that orders, conferred by them, without the consent or vocation of the 
people, or of the secular power, are invalid; or that those who have 



1 This collection is authentic, and has the force of law in every particular ; 
the same holds of the Clementine collections. The titles even are authentic, and 
serve as rules of law. — " Elements of Ecclesiastical Laic," Rev. 8. B. Smith, D. D. 
(R. C), Vol. /, p. 70 (book I, part 1, chap. 9, par. 158). New York: Benziger 
Brothers, 1877. 



PAGANISM, OVERTHROW OF. 



323 



neither been rightly ordained, nor sent, by ecclesiastical and canonical 
power, but come from elsewhere, are lawful ministers of the word and 
of the sacraments; let him be anathema. — "Dogmatic Canons and De- 
crees" pp. 156-158. New York: The Devin-Adair Company, 1912. 

Order, Roman View of Origin of. — From Scripture we learn that 
the apostles appointed others by an external rite (imposition of hands), 
conferring inward grace. The fact that grace is ascribed immediately 
to the external rite, shows that Christ must have thus ordained. The 
fact that x«/>ofTOfetV, x €L P OTOvia ' which meant electing by show of hands, 
had acquired the technical meaning of ordination by imposition of 
hands before the middle of the third century, shows that appointment 
to the various orders was made by that external rite. . . . Grace was 
attached to this external sign and conferred by it. — The Catholic En- 
cyclopedia, Vol. XI, art. " Orders," p. 279. 

Origen. — See Fathers, 168. 

Ostrogoths — -See Rome, 437, 439, 444-449; Ten Kingdoms, 552-556. 
Ottoman Empire. — See Eastern Question. 

Pagan Rites, in the Christian Church. — See Apostasy, 36, 37; 
Sabbath, Change of, 472, 473. 

Paganism, Ruin of Roman. — The ruin of paganism, in the age of 
Theodosius [a. d. 379-395], is perhaps the only example of the total 
extirpation of any ancient and popular superstition; and may therefore 
deserve to be considered as a singular event in the history of the 
human mind. The Christians, more especially the clergy, had im- 
patiently supported the prudent delays of Constantine, and the equal 
toleration of the elder Valentinian; nor could they deem their conquest 
perfect or secure, as long as their adversaries were permitted to exist. 
— " The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." 
Edward Gibbon, chap. 28, par. 1. - 

The generation that arose in the world after the promulgation of 
the imperial laws [forbidding the pagan worship], was attracted within 
the pale of the Catholic Church: and so rapid, yet so gentle, was the fall 
of paganism, that only twenty-eight years after the death of Theodosius, 
the faint and minute vestiges were no longer visible to the eye of the 
legislator. — Id., par. 10. 

Paganism, Time of Overthrow of, in the Roman Empire. — Li- 
cinius, having made war against Constantine, a. d. 314, and again in 
324, after the conversion of the latter to Christianity, was supported by 
the good wishes and the power of the pagan priests. Constantine 
believed that paganism was a danger to the throne, and began to 
discourage it. In 331 he ordered the destruction of the pagan temples 
throughout the Roman Empire. Julian, in 361, began to rebuild them, 
but the work ceased with his death. In 385 Theodosius I issued an 
edict against pagan sacrifices, and soon afterwards closed the temples 
and the shrines. In 388 the Roman senate renounced paganism, and 
in 391 it was legally abolished through the whole Roman Empire, and 
afterwards gradually died away. — The Encyclopaedic Dictionary, art. 
" Paganism," p. 3441. Philadelphia: Syndicate Publishing Company. 

Thus, by character and education, deeply impressed with Chris- 
tianity, and that of a severe and uncompromising orthodoxy, Theodosius 



324 



PAGANISM, TRANSFER OF. 



undertook the sacred obligation of extirpating paganism, and of re- 
storing to Christianity its severe and inviolable unity. . . . 

The laws of Theodosius against the pagan sacrifices grew insensibly 
more and more severe. The inspection of the entrails of victims, and 
magic rites, were made capital offenses. In a. d. 391, issued an edict 
prohibiting sacrifices, and even the entering into the temples. In the 
same year, a rescript was addressed to the court and prefect of Egypt, 
fining the governors of provinces who should enter a temple fifteen 
pounds of gold, and giving a kind of authority to the subordinate of- 
ficers to prevent their superiors from committing such offenses. The 
same year, all unlawful sacrifices are prohibited by night or day, 
within or without the temples. In 392, all immolation is prohibited 
under the penalty of death, and all other acts of idolatry under for- 
feiture of the house or land in which the offense shall have been com- 
mitted. — " The History of Christianity" Henry Hart Milman, D. D.. 
Vol. Ill, pp. 61, 62. London: John Murray, 1867. 

Paganism, Transfer of, to the Church. — " It was a maxim with 
some of the early promoters of the Christian cause to do as little vio- 
lence as possible to existing prejudices. They would run the risk of 
Barnabas being confounded with Jupiter, and Paul with Mercury. In 
the transition from pagan to papal Rome much of the old material was 
worked up. The heathen temples became Christian churches; the altars 
of the gods, altars of the saints; the curtains, incense, tapers, votive 
tablets, remained the same; the aquaminarium was still the vessel for 
holy water; St. Peter stood at the gate, instead of Cardea; St. Roque 
or St. Sebastian in the bedroom, instead of the 'Phrygian Penates;' St. 
Nicholas was the sign of the vessel, instead of Castor and Pollux; the 
Matre Deum became the Madonna; 'alms pro Matre Deum ' became alms 
for the Madonna; the Festival of the Matre Deum, the Festival of the 
Madonna, or Lady Day; the hostia, or victim, was now the host; the 
4 Lugentes Campi,' or dismal regions, purgatory; the offerings to the 
manes were masses for the dead." 

Such is the testimony of Blunt, who adds in a note that the very 
name purgatory is heathen; since the annual Feast of Purification in 
February was called " Sacrum Purgatorium." . . . 

The following quotation, also from Picart, illustrates the principle, 
alluded to above, of doing no violence to sinful prejudices and habits; 
in other words, of doing evil that good may come: 

" In order to win the pagans to Christ, instead of pagan watchings 
and commemorations of their gods, the Christians rejoiced in vigils 
and anniversaries of their martyrs; and, to show that they had regard 
to the public prosperity, in place of those feasts in which the heathen 
priests were wont to supplicate the gods for the welfare of their country 
— such as the Ambarvalia, Robigalia, etc. — they introduced rogations, 
litanies, and processions made with naked feet, invoking Christ instead 
of Jupiter." (Vol. I, p. 26.) And this, according to the writer, is the 
reason why " our fetes and ceremonies have generally a pagan origin." 

Thus we trace what has been faithfully called the introduction of a 
baptized heathenism. — "Rome: Pagan and Papal" Mourant Brock,. 
M. A., pp. 25, 26. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1883. 

In further confirmation of the previous chapters on the early cor- 
ruption of Christianity, we quote the following passage from Merivale's 
"Lectures on Early Church History," in which the dean gives his view 
of the paganized condition of the church in the fifth century — a period 
which many are wont to consider comparatively pure; 



PAGANISM, TRANSFER OF. 



325 



" But neither Leo — that is Leo the Great, pope from a. d. 440 to 
a. d. 461 — nor, I think, the contemporary doctors of the church, seem 
to have had an adequate sense of the process hy which the whole essence 
of paganism was, throughout their age, constantly percolating the ritual 
of the church, and the hearts of the Christian multitude. It is not to 
these teachers that we can look for a warning — 

" That the fasts prescribed by the church had their parallel in the 
abstinence imposed by certain pagan creeds; 

" That the monachism which they extolled so warmly, and which 
spread so rapidly, was, in its origin, a purely pagan institution, com- 
mon to the religions of India, Tibet, and Syria; 

" That the canonizing of saints and martyrs, the honors paid to 
them, and the trust reposed in them, were simply a revival of the old 
pagan mythologies; 

" That the multiplication of ceremonies, together with processions, 
lights, incense, vestments, and votive offerings, was a mere pagan ap- 
peal to the senses, such as can never fail to enervate man's moral fiber; 

" That., in short, the general aspect of Christian devotion was a 
faint, and rather frivolous, imitation of the old pagan ritual. 

" The working of true Christianity was never more faint among the 
masses; the approximation of church usage to the manners and cus- 
toms of paganism never really closer. 

" Surely we must complain that all this manifest evil was not, at 
this time, denounced by the teachers of the Christian church; nay, that 
it was rather fostered and favored by them." 

A little further on he remarks: 

"The spirit of the old (heathen) traditions had become to a great 
extent merged in the popular Christianity, and actually assimilated 
to it." 

" The multitudes, half Christian and half pagan, met together in 
those unhappy days to confuse the Feast of the Nativity with the Feast 
of the Saturnalia (in honor of Saturn); the Feast of the Purification 
with the Feast of the Lupercalia (in honor of Pan); and the Feast of 
Rogations with the Feast of the Ambarvalia (in honor of Ceres)." 

Such is the opinion of Dean Merivale. We will now cite the tes- 
timony of a layman to the same effect, an extract from a well-known 
book, "Matthew's Diary of an Invalid: " 

" Amongst the antiquities of Rome you are shown the temple of 
Romulus, built round the very house in which they say he lived. Need 
we go further to seek the prototype of the tale of the house of Loretto? 

" The modern worship of saints is a revival of the old adoration 
paid to heroes and demigods. 

" What are nuns with their vows of celibacy, but a new edition of 
the vestal virgins? 

" What the tales of images falling from heaven, but a repetition of 
the old fable of the Palladium of Troy? 

" Instead of tutelary gods, we find guardian angels. 

" The canonization of a saint is but another term for the apotheosis 
of a hero. 

" The processions are clearly copied from ancient patterns. 

" The lustral water, and the incense of the heathen temple, remain 
without alteration in the holy water and in the censer of the church. 

" The daily ' sacrifice of the mass ' seems to be copied from the 
victim — Jiostia — of the heathen ritual. 

" The ceremonial of Isis to have been revived in the indecent 
emblems presented by women; e. g., at Isernia, near Naples, up to the 
?-ear 1790, as votive offerings at the shrine of St. Cosmo in that city. 



326 



PAGANISM REVIVED. 



" Nay, some would trace the Pope himself, with the triple crown 
on his head and the keys of heaven and hell in his pocket, to our old 
acquaintance Cerberus with his three heads, who keeps guard as the 
custos of Tartarus and Elysium. 

" The very same piece of brass which the old Romans worshiped as 
Jupiter, with a new head on its shoulders — like an old friend with a 
new face — is now, in St. Peter's, adored with equal devotion by the 
modern Italians. 

" And, as if they wished to make the resemblance as perfect as 
possible, they have, in imitation of his pagan prototype, surrounded the 
tomb of the apostle with a hundred ever-burning lights." 

" Centum aras posuit, vigilemque sacraverat ignem." i 

The writer further observes that " some traces of the old heathen 
superstitions, are indeed constantly peeping out from under their Roman 
Catholic disguises. We cannot so inoculate our old stock but that we 
shall relish by it. If anything could have improved the tree, it must 
have borne better fruit by being grafted with Christianity. But in many 
particulars, so far as Italy is concerned, all the change produced has 
been a mere change of name" (p. 90). 

Just in the same strain Forsyth [" Italy," p. 134], a man well ac- . 
quainted with Italy, and possessed of a fine classic taste, writes as 
follows: 

" I have found the statue of a god pared down into a Christian 
saint; a heathen altar converted into a church box for the poor; a 
Bacchanalian vase officiating as a baptismal font; a Bacchanalian tripod 
supporting the holy water basin; the sarcophagus of an old Roman 
adored as a shrine full of relics; the brass columns of Jupiter Capito 
linus now consecrated to the altar of the blessed sacrament; and the 
tomb of Agrippa turned into the tomb of a pope." 

And indeed all writers who are acquainted with antiquity — be they 
lay or clerical, Protestant or papal, Italian or foreign — agree as to the 
pagan origin of Rome's present usages and ceremonies. — "Rome, Pagan 
and Papal" Mourant Brock, pp. 28-31. 

Paganism, Revived in Romanism. — Romanism is simply the old 
Roman paganism revived under Christian names. Romanism and 
paganism bear to each other the most exact and extraordinary resem- 
blance. 

Had paganism its temples and altars, its pictures and images? So 
has popery. Had paganism its use of holy water and its burning of 
incense? So has popery. Had paganism its tonsured priests, presided 
over by a pontifex maximus, or sovereign pontiff? So has popery; and 
it stamps this very name, which is purely heathen in origin, upon the 
coins, medals, and documents of the arrogant priest by whom it is 
governed. Had paganism its claim of sacerdotal infallibility? So has 
popery. Had paganism its adoration of a visible representative of Deity 
carried in state on men's shoulders? So has popery. Had paeanism 
its ceremony of kissing the feet of the sovereign pontiff? So has po- 
pery. Had paganism its college of pontiffs? So has popery, in the College 
of Cardinals. Had paganism its religious orders? So has popery. Had 
paganism its stately robes, its crowns and crosiers of office? So has 
popery. Had paganism its adoration of idols, its worship of the queen 
of heaven, its votive offerings? So has popery. Had paganism its rural 
shrines and processions? So has popery. Had paganism its pretended 
miracles, its speaking images, and weeping images, and bleeding inv 



1 Virgil's iEneicl. iv, 200. 



PAPACY, PROPHECIES CONCERNING. 



327 



ages? So has popery. Had paganism its begging orders and fictitious 
saints? So has popery. Had paganism its canonization of saints, as in 
the deification of the dead Caesars? So has popery. Had paganism its 
idolatrous calendar and numerous festivals? So has popery. Had 
paganism its enforced celibacy, its mystic signs, its worship of relics? 
So has popery. Had paganism its cruel persecution of those who op- 
posed idolatry? So has popery. Was paganism satanically inspired? 
So is popery. God overthrew paganism; Satan revived it under Chris- 
tian names: but God shall yet destroy it, and sweep its hateful presence 
from the earth. — "Romanism and the Reformation," H. Grattan Guin- 
ness, D. D., pp. 198, 199. London: J. Nisbet d- Co., 1891. 

Paganism — See Apostasy, 37; Idolatry, 214-217; Popery, 388, 389; 
Priesthood, 391; Purgatory, 405; Sabbath, Change of, 472, 473; Seven 
Churches, 489, 490. 

Papacy, Wylie on. — The Papacy, next to Christianity, is the great 
fact of the modern world. . . . Fully to trace the rise and development 
of this stupendous system, were to write a history of Western Europe. 
The decay of empires; the extinction of religious systems; the disso- 
lution and renewal of society; the rise of new states; the change of 
manners, customs, and laws; the policy of courts; the wars of kings; 
the decay and revival of letters, of philosophy, and of arts, — all- con- 
nect themselves with the history of the Papacy, to whose growth they 
ministered, and whose destiny they helped to unfold. — " The Papacy,'' 
Rev. J. A. Wylie, p. 1. Edinburgh: Johnstone and Hunter, 1851. 

Papacy. — It is impossible to deny that the polity of the Church of 
Rome is the very masterpiece of human wisdom. In truth, nothing but 
such a polity could, against such assaults, have borne up such doctrines. 
The experience of twelve hundred eventful years, the ingenuity and 
patient care of forty generations of statesmen, have improved that pol- 
ity to such perfection that, among the contrivances that have been de- 
vised for deceiving and oppressing mankind, it occupies the highe-t 
place. — Lord Macaulay, in his Essay on Ranke's "History of the Popes 
of Rome," par. 33. 

The rise of the Papacy, from the persecuted head of an insignifi- 
cant local church to the supreme domination over both the spiritual 
and the temporal hierarchy of Europe, is one of the most curious prob- 
lems in history. — "Studies in Church History," Henry G. Lea, p. 112. 
Philadelphia: Henry C. Lea's Son & Co., 1883. 

Papacy, Revealed by Inspiration. — The Roman Papacy is revealed 
by the rar-reacning light of the divinely written Word. Its portrait is 
painted; its mystery is penetrated; its character, its deeds are drawn; 
its thousand veils and subterfuges are torn away. The unsparing hand 
of inspiration has stripped it, and left it standing upon the stage of 
history deformed and naked, a dark emanation from the pit, blood- 
stained and blasphemous, blindly struggling in the concentrated rays 
of celestial recognition, amid the premonitory thunders and lightnings 
of its fast-approaching doom. — " Romanism and the Reformation," H. 
Grattan Guinness, D. D., F. R. A. S., pp. 83, 84. London: J. Nisbet & 
Co., 1891. 

Papacy, Prophecies Concerning. — There are three distinct sets of 
prophecies of the rise, character, deeds, and doom of Romanism. The 
first is found in the book of Daniel, the second in the epistles of Paul, 
and the third in the letters and Apocalypse of John; and no one of these 



328 



PAPACY, DANIEL'S VIEW OF. 



three is complete in itself. It is only by combining their separate fea- 
tures that we obtain the perfect portrait. Just as we cannot derive 
from one Gospel a complete life of Christ, but in order to obtain this 
must take into account the records in the other three: so we cannot 
from one prophecy gather a correct account of Antichrist; we must add 
to the particulars given in one those supplied by the other two. Some 
features are given in all three prophecies, just as the death and resur- 
rection of Christ are given in all four Gospels. Others are given only 
in two, and others are peculiar to one. 

As might be expected from the position and training of the prophet, 
who was a statesman and a governor in Babylon, Daniel's foreview 
presents the political character and relations of Romanism. The apos- 
tle Paul's foreview, on the other hand, gives the ecclesiastical character 
and relations of this power; and John's prophecies, both in Revelation 
13 and 17, present the combination of both, the mutual relations of 
the Latin Church and Roman State. He uses composite figures, one 
part of which represents the political aspect of Romanism as a tem- 
poral government, and the other its religious aspect as an ecclesiastical 
system. — "Romanism and the Reformation," H. Grattan Guinness. 
D. D., F. R. A. 8.. p. 7. London: J. Nisbet & Co., 1891. 

Papacy, Daniel's View of. — The Papacy has existed for thirteen 
centuries, has had to do with forty or fifty generations of mankind in 
all the countries of Christendom. Its history is consequently ex- 
tremely complicated and various. It embraces both secular and ec- 
clesiastical matters, and has more or less to do with all that has 
happened in Europe since the fall of the old Roman Empire. The time 
is long, the sphere vast, the story exceedingly complex. I want you to 
tell it all, in outline at least, in a narrative that you could read in less 
than five minutes or write in ten. You must bring in every point of 
importance: the time and circumstances of the origin of the Papacy, 
its moral character, its political relations, its geographical seat, its 
self-exalting utterances and acts, its temporal sovereignty, and a com- 
parison of the extent of its dominions with those of the other king- 
doms of Europe; its blasphemous pretensions, its cruel and long- 
continued persecutions of God's people, the duration of its dominion, its 
present decay, and the judgments that have overtaken it; and you must, 
moreover, add what you think its end is likely to be, and explain the 
relation of the whole history to the revealed plan of divine providence. 
You must get all this in, not in the dry style of an annual Times sum- 
mary of the events of the year, but in an interesting, vivid, picturesque 
style, that will impress the facts on the memory, so that to forget them 
shall be impossible. 

Can you do it? I might safely offer a prize of any amount to the 
person who can solve this puzzle and write this story as I have 
described. But hard, even impossible, as it would be for you to dp this, 
even if you perfectly knew the history of the last thirteen centuries, 
how infinitely impossible would it be if that history lay in the unknown 
and inscrutable future, instead of in the past and present! If no eye 
had seen, nor ear heard it; if it was an untraversed continent, an un- 
seen world, a matter for the evolution of ages yet to come, — who then 
could tell the story at all, much less in brief? 

Now this is precisely what the prophet Daniel, by inspiration of the 
omniscient and eternal God, has done. He told the whole story of the 
Papacy twenty -five centuries ago. He omitted none of the points I have 
enumerated, and yet the prophecy only occupies seventeen verses of a 
chapter which can be read slowly and impressively in less than five 
minutes. This is because it is written in the only language in which 



• 

PAPACY, CONTRADICTIONS OF. 



329 



It is possible thus to compress multum in parvo [much in little], the 
ancient language of hieroglyphics. God revealed the future to Daniel 
by a vision in which he saw, not the events, out living, moving, speaking 
hieroglyphics of the events. These Daniel simply describes, and his 
description of them constitutes the prophecy written in the seventh 
chapter of his book. — "Romanism and the Reformation" H. Grattan 
Guinness, D. D., F. R. A. 8., pp. 20, 21. London: J. Nisbet & Co., 1891. 

Papacy, Age and Vigor of. — There is not, and there never was on 
this earth, a work of human policy so well deserving of examination as 
the Roman Catholic Church. The history of that church joins together 
the two great ages of human civilization. No other institution is left 
standing which carries the mind back to the times when the smoke of 
sacrifice rose from the Pantheon, and when camelopards and tigers 
bounded in the Flavian amphitheater. The proudest royal houses are 
but of yesterday, when compared with the line of the Supreme Pontiffs. 
That line we trace back in an unbroken series from the Pope who 
crowned Napoleon in the nineteenth century to the Pope who crowned 
Pepin in the eighth; and far beyond the time of Pepin the august 
dynasty extends, till it is lost in the twilight of fable. 

The republic of Venice came next in antiquity. But the republic 
of Venice was modern when compared with the Papacy; and the repub- 
lic of Venice is gone, and the Papacy remains. The Papacy remains, 
not in decay, not a mere antique, but full of life and useful vigor. 
The Catholic Church is still sending forth to the farthest ends of the 
world missionaries as zealous as those who landed in Kent with Au- 
gustin, and still confronting hostile kings with the same spirit with 
which she confronted Attila. The number of her children is greater 
than in any former age. Her acquisitions in the New World have more 
than compensated for what she has lost in the Old. Her spiritual 
ascendency extends over the vast countries which lie between the plains 
of the Missouri and Cape Horn, countries which, a century hence, may 
not improbably contain a population as large as that which now in- 
habits Europe. The members of her communion are certainly not 
fewer than a hundred and fifty millions; and it will be difficult to show 
that all other Christian sects united amount to a hundred and twenty 
millions. 

Nor do we see any sign which indicates that the term of her long 
dominion is approaching. She saw the commencement of all the gov- 
ernments and of all the ecclesiastical establishments that now exist in 
the world; and we feel no assurance that she is not destined to see the 
end of them all. She was great and respected before the Saxon had 
set foot on Britain, before the Frank had passed the Rhine, when Gre- 
cian eloquence still flourished in Antioch, when idols were still wor- 
shiped in the temple of Mecca. And she may still exist in undiminished 
vigor when some traveler from New Zealand shall, in the midst of a 
vast solitude, take his stand on a broken arch of London Bridge to 
sketch the ruins of St. Paul's. — Lord Macaulay in his Essay on Ranke's 
" History of the Popes of Rome." 

Papacy, a' Mystery of Contradictions. — Who can measure it [the 
Papacy], or analyze it, or comprehend it? The weapons of reason 
appear to fall impotent before its haughty dogmatism. Genius cannot 
reconcile its inconsistencies. Serenely it sits, unmoved amid all the 
aggressions of human thought and all the triumphs of modern sci- 
ence. It is both lofty and degraded; simple, yet worldly wise; 
humble, yet scornful and proud; washing beggars' feet, yet im- 
posing commands on the potentates of earth; benignant, yet severe 



330 



« 

PAPACY, ESSENCE OF. 



on all who rebel; here clothed in rags, and there reveling in pal- 
aces; supported by charities, yet feasting the princes of the earth; 
assuming the title of " servant of the servants of God," yet arrogating 
the highest seat among worldly dignitaries. Was there ever such a 
contradiction? — "glory in debasement and debasement in glory," — 
type of the misery and greatness of man? Was there ever such a mys- 
tery, so occult are its arts, so subtle its policy, so plausible its preten- 
sions, so certain its shafts? How imposing the words of paternal bene- 
diction! How grand the liturgy brought down from ages of faith! 
How absorbed with beatific devotion appears to be the worshiper at its 
consecrated altars! How ravishing the music and the chants of grand 
ceremonials! How typical the churches and consecrated monuments of 
the passion of Christ! Everywhere you see the great emblem of our 
redemption, — on the loftiest pinnacle of the medieval cathedral, on the 
dresses of the priests, over the gorgeous altars, in the ceremony of the 
mass, in the baptismal rite, in the paintings of the side chapels; every- 
where are rites and emblems betokening maceration, grief, sacrifice, 
penitence, the humiliation of humanity before the awful power of divine 
Omnipotence, whose personality and moral government no Catholic 
dares openly to deny. . 

And yet, of what crimes and abominations has not this govern- 
ment been accused? If we go back to darker ages, and accept what 
history records, what wars has not this church encouraged, what dis- 
cords has she not incited, what superstitions has she not indorsed, what 
pride has she not arrogated, what cruelties has she not inflicted, what 
countries has she not robbed, what hardships has she not imposed, 
what deceptions has she not used, what avenues of thought has she 
not guarded with a flaming sword, what truth has she not perverted, 
what goodness has she not mocked and persecuted? Ah, interrogate 
the Albigenses, the Waldenses, the shades of Jerome of Prague, of Huss, 
of Savonarola, of Cranmer, of Coligny, of Galileo; interrogate the 
martyrs of the Thirty Years' War, and those who were slain by the 
dragonnades of Louis XIV, those who fell by the hand of Alva and 
Charles IX; go to Smithfield, and Paris on St. Bartholomew; think of 
Gunpowder Plots and Inquisitions, and Jesuit intrigues and Dominican 
tortures, of which history accuses the papal church, — barbarities worse 
than those of savages, inflicted at the command of the ministers of a 
gospel of love! . . . 

As for the supreme rulers of this contradictory church, so benevo- 
lent and yet so cruel, so enlightened and yet so fanatical, so humble and 
yet so proud, — this institution of blended piety and fraud, equally 
renowned for saints, theologians, statesmen, drivelers, and fanatics; the 
joy and the reproach, the glory and the shame of earth, — there never 
were greater geniuses or greater fools: saints of almost preternatural 
sanctity, like the first Leo and Gregory, or hounds like Boniface VIII 
or Alexander VI; an array of scholars and dunces, ascetics and gluttons, 
men who adorned and men who scandalized their lofty position. — 
"Beacon Lights of History,'" John Lord, LL. D., Vol. V, pp. 99-102. 
New York: James Clarke & Co. 

Papacy, Essence of. — The supremacy is the essence of the whole 
Roman system. Take away the assertion of St. Peter's supremacy and 
the Pope's equal power as his successor, and the Roman Church is 
Roman and imperial no longer: it is then no more to the rest of 
Christendom than the church of Ethiopia or Armenia would be, except 
so far as one branch might be more pure, enlightened, or efficient than 
another.—" The Rise of the Papal Power" Robert Hussey, B. Z> M Pref- 
ace, p, XXX. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1863 a 



PAPACY, CULMINATION OF. 



Papacy, Offspring of Man. — No one can study the development of 
the Italian ecclesiastical power without discovering how completely it 
depended on human agency, too often on human passion and intrigues; 
how completely wanting it was of any mark of the divine construction 
and care — the offspring of man, not of God, and therefore bearing upon 
it the lineaments of human passions, human virtues, and human sins. 
— "History of the Intellectual Development of Europe," John William 
Draper, M. D.,LL. D., Vol. I, p. 382. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1876. 

Papacy, Geowth of. — We undertake to trace the story of the Ro- 
man see from the earliest evidence that can be found, to show that in 
the primitive times there neither existed in fact, nor was claimed as of 
right, any such supremacy as that which the see of Rome now claims; 
we undertake to show how the Roman power advanced step by step, in 
age after age, until at length, not by any prerogative divinely conferred 
on it from the beginning, but by a slow, gradual, and distinctly traceable 
progress, by means which, without forgetting the overruling control of 
the divine Providence, we may call simply natural, it attained its great- 
est fulness under such popes as Gregory VII in the latter half of the 
eleventh century, and Innocent III in the beginning of the thirteenth. 
— "Plain Lectures on the Growth of the Papal Power," James Graigie 
Robertson, M. A., pp. 4, 5. London: Society for Promoting Christian 
Knowledge. 

The history of the growth of the papal power, i. e., popery, properly 
so called, exhibits clearly the rise and progress of a worldly principle 
within the church. 

Setting out from an acknowledged precedence among equals in rank, 
possessing from the first an actual influence well earned by distinguished 
merit, Rome proceeded by degrees to the fictions of St. Peter's suprem- 
acy, and the Pope's inheritance of a divine right to govern the whole 
church. When we observe how these doctrines, unheard of in primitive 
ages, were first obscurely intimated, then more broadly asserted, after 
this perpetually referred to, introduced into every opening, never 
omitted, but every incident taken advantage of, and all circumstances 
dexterously turned into an argument to support them; how succeeding 
popes never retracted, but adopted and uniformly improved upon the 
pretensions of their predecessors; how an Innocent went beyond a 
Julius, as Leo beyond Innocent, and a Gregory VII, in later times, 
overshot him; when we see the care and anxiety with which popes seem 
in all things, and sometimes above all things, to have provided for the 
security of their own authority; and how this end was carried out by 
interpolations and falsification of ecclesiastical documents, which, when 
detected, were never retracted or disavowed, and somewhat later grew 
into a notorious and scandalous system of forgery; when we weigh all 
these things, it seems impossible for unprejudiced readers to acquit 
the papal seat of the charge of worldly ambition and corrupt motives. 
— " The Rise of the Papal Power," Robert Hussey. B. D., pp. 148, 149. 
Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1863. 

Papacy, Culmination of Apostasy. — The history of the Christian 
church does not record a steady progress in the pathway of truth and 
holiness, an uninterrupted spread of the kingdom of God on earth. 
On the contrary, it tells the story of a tremendous apostasy. Even in 
the first century, as we learn from the New Testament, there set in a 
departure from the gospel, and a return to certain forms of ritualism, 
as among the Galatians. In the second and third centuries, antichris- 
tian doctrine and antichristian practices, sacramentarianism and sacer- 



332 



PAPACY, SUPREMACY OF. 



dotalism, invaded the church, and gradually climbed to a commanding 
position, which they never afterwards abandoned. In the fourth cen 
tury, with the fall of paganism, began a worldly, imperial Christianity, 
wholly unlike primitive apostolic Christianity, a sort of Christianized 
heathenism; and in the fifth and sixth centuries sprang up the Papacy, 
in whose career the apostasy culminated later on. — " Romanis m and the 
Reformation,'" H. Grattan Guinness, D. D., F. R. A. S., pp. 60, 61. Lon- 
don: J. Nisbet & Co., 1891. 

Papacy, Five Steps in the Development of. — The papal power was 
gradually developed, and it is not difficult to trace the principal steps 
of its development. 

First Step. — The influence of the pseudo-Clementine Letters and 
Homilies, a forgery probably of the middle of the second century. These 
writings profess to be from the hand of Clemens Romanus, who writes 
to James after the death of Peter, and states that the latter shortly 
before his death appointed the writer his successor. Here we have the 
origin of the story, repeated by Tertullian, that Clement was ordained 
Bishop of Rome by St. Peter. The bishop of Manchester is of opinion 
that "the whole early persuasion of St. Peter's Roman Episcopate 
' was due ' to the acceptance in the third and following centuries of the 
Clementine fiction as genuine history. ... No one had any suspicion 
that the Clementine romance was a lie invented by a heretic. The story 
was accepted on all sides." 

With this view coincides the encyclical letter of the Holy Orthodox 
Church of the East already referred to: "Those absolutistic preten- 
sions of popedom were first manifested in the pseudo-Clementines." 

Second Step. — The action of the Council of Sardica (a. d. 343) in 
giving a right of appeal to the Bishop of Rome on the part of any bishop 
who considered himself unjustly condemned. This led to the con- 
solidation of power in the hands of the Bishop of Rome, although the 
decree of the council was not accepted by the churches of Africa or 
the East. 

Third Step. — The decree of the emperor Valentinian I, that all 
ecclesiastical cases arising in churches in the empire should be hence- 
forth referred for adjudication to the Bishop of Rome. 

Fourth Step. — The appeals provided for by the Council of Sardica 
and by the decree of Valentinian were voluntary appeals; but Pope 
Nicolas I, in the ninth century, set up the claim that, with or without 
appeal, the Bishop of Rome had an inherent right to review and decide 
all cases affecting bishops. 

Fifth Step. — The forged Isidorian Decretals, which pretended to be 
a series of royal orders, and letters of ancient bishops of Rome, rep- 
resented that primitive Christianity recognized in the bishops of Rome 
supreme authority over the church at large. They became a strong 
buttress and bulwark of the vast powers now claimed by the popes in 
the person of Nicolas I. — " Romanism in the Light of History," Randolph 
H. McKim, D. C. L., pp. 97, 98. New York: G. P. Putnam: s Sons, 1914. 

Papacy, " the First Essay of Papal Usurpation." — But what 
most of all distinguished the pontificate of Victor was the famous con- 
troversy about the celebration of Easter, between the Eastern and 
Western bishops; the former keeping that solemnity on the 14th day 
of the first moon, on what day soever of the week it happened to fall; 
and the latter putting it off till the Sunday following. . . . 

Victor, not satisfied with what his two immediate predecessors had 
done, took upon him to impose the Roman custom on all the churches 
that followed the contrary practice. But, in this bold attempt, which we 



PAPACY AND ROME. 



333 



may call the first essay of papal usurpation, he met with a vigorous and 
truly Christian opposition. — " The History of the Popes" Archibald 
Bower, Vol. I, p. 18. Philadelphia: Griffith and Simon, 1847. 

Papacy, Formal Claim to Supremacy by. — The supremacy of the 
see of Rome began in the fourth century. Then for the first time the 
precedence among equals willingly conceded to Rome in early ages was 
turned into a claim of authority; which was demanded on a new 
ground, and from that time never ceased to advance in pretensions, 
until it assumed the form of The Supremacy, that is, absolute dominion 
throughout Christendom. — " The Rise of the Papal Power" Robert Hus- 
sey, B. D., p. 1. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1863. 

Papacy, Effect of Removal of Capital from Rome to Constan- 
tinople. — The removal of the capital of the empire from Rome to 
Constantinople in 330, left the Western Church practically free from 
imperial power, to develop its own form of organization. The Bishop 
of Rome, in the seat of the Caesars, was now the greatest man in the 
West, and was soon forced to become the political as well as the spir- 
itual head. To the Western world Rome was still the political capital 
— hence the whole habit of mind, all ambition, pride, and sense of 
glory, and every social prejudice favored the evolution of the great city 
into the ecclesiastical capital. Civil as well as religious disputes were 
referred to the successor of Peter for settlement. Again and again, 
when barbarians attacked Rome, he was compelled to actually assume 
military leadership. Eastern emperors frequently recognized the high 
claims of the popes in order to gain their assistance. It is not difficult 
to understand how, under these responsibilities, the primacy of the 
Bishop of Rome, established in the pre-Constantine period, was em- 
pnasized and magnified after 313 [Edict of Milan], The importance of 
this fact must not be overlooked. The organization of the church was 
thus put on the same divine basis as the revelation of Christianity. 
This idea once accepted led inevitably to the medieval Papacy. — " The 
Rise of the Mediaeval Church" Alexander Clarence Flick, Ph. D.. Litt. D.. 
pp. 168, 169. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1909. 

Papacy, Effect of Fall of Western Empire upon. — The fall of 
the shadowy empire of the West, and the union of the imperial power 
in the person of the ruler of Constantinople, brought a fresh accession 
of dignity and importance to the Bishop of Rome. The distant emperor 
could exercise no real power over the West. The Ostrogothic kingdom 
in Italy scarcely lasted beyond the lifetime of its great founder, 
Theodoric. The wars of Justinian only served to show how scanty were 
the benefits of the imperial rule. The invasion of the Lombards united 
all dwellers in Italy in an endeavor to escape the lot of servitude and 
save their land from barbarism. In this crisis it was found that the 
imperial system had crumbled away, and that the church alone possessed 
a strong organization. In the decay of the old municipal aristocracy 
the people of the towns gathered round their bishops, whose sacred 
character inspired some respect in the barbarians, and whose active 
charity lightened the calamities of their flocks. 

In such a state of things Pope Gregory the Great raised the 
Papacy to a position of decisive eminence, and marked out the course 
of its future policy. — "A History of the Papacy" M. Creighton, D. D., 
Vol. I, pp. 7, 8. London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1899. 

Papacy, Successor of Imperial Rome. — Now the abandonment of 
Rome was the liberation of the pontiffs. Whatsoever claims to obedience 
the emperors may have made, and whatsoever compliance the Pontiff 



334 



PAPACY, EXALTATION OF. 



may have yielded, the whole previous relation, anomalous, and annulled 
again and again by the vices and outrages of the emperors, was finally 
dissolved by a higher power. The providence of God permitted a 
succession of irruptions, Gothic, Lombard, and Hungarian, to desolate 
Italy, and to efface from it every remnant of the empire. The pontiffs 
found themselves alone, the sole fountains of order, peace, law, and 
safety. And from the hour of this providential liberation, when, by 
a divine intervention, the chains fell off from the hands of the successor 
of St. Peter, as once before from his own, no sovereign has ever reigned 
in Rome except the vicar of Jesus Christ. — " The Temporal Power of 
the Vicar of Jesus Christ" Henry Edward Manning, B. B. (R. C). 
Preface, pp. xxviii, xxix. London: Burns and Lambert, 1862. 

If any man will consider the original of this great ecclesiastical 
dominion, he will easily perceive that the Papacy is none other than the 
ghost of the deceased Roman Empire, sitting crowned upon the grave 
thereof. — Thomas Hobbes, of Malmesbury. 

Out of the chaos of the great Northern migrations, and the ruins 
of the Roman Empire, there gradually arose a new order of states, 
whose central point was the Papal See. Therefrom inevitably resulted 
a position not only new, but very different from the former. The new 
Christian Empire of the West was created and upheld by the Pope. The 
Pope became constantly more and more (by the state of affairs, with 
the will of the princes and of the people, and through the power of 
public opinion) the chief moderator at the head of the European com- 
monwealth, and, as such, he had to proclaim and defend the Christian 
law of nations, to settle international disputes, to mediate between 
princes and people, and to make peace between belligerent states. 
The Curia became a great spiritual and temporal tribunal. In short, 
the whole of Western Christendom formed, in a certain sense, a kingdom, 
at whose head stood the Pope and the emperor — the former, however, 
with continually increasing and far preponderating authority. — " The 
Church and the Churches," Br. Bollinger (R. C.J, pp. 42, 43. London: 
Hurst and Blackett, 1862. 

Papacy, Exaltation of, After the Fall of Rome. — With Rome 
would have fallen her bishop, had he not, as if by anticipation of the 
crisis, reserved till this hour the masterstroke of his policy. He now 
boldly cast himself upon an element of much greater strength than 
that of which the political convulsions of the times had deprived him; 
namely, that the Bishop of Rome is the successor of Peter, the prince 
of the apostles, and, in virtue of being so, is Christ's vicar on earth. 
In making this claim, the Roman pontiffs vaulted at once over the 
throne of kings to the seat of gods: Rome became once more the 
mistress of the world, arid her popes the rulers of the earth. . . . 

In the violent contention which raged between Symmachus and 
Laurentius, both of whom had been elected to the pontificate on the 
same day, we are furnished with another proof that at the beginning 
of the sixth century not only was this lofty prerogative claimed by the 
popes, but that it was generally acquiesced in by the clergy. We find 
the council convoked by Theodoric demurring to investigate the charges 
alleged against Pope Symmachus, on the grounds set forth by his 
apologist Ennodius, which were " that the Pope, as God's vicar, was 
the judge of all, and could himself be judged by no one." " In this 
apology," remarks Mosheim, " the reader will perceive that the foun- 
dations of that enormous power which the popes of Rome afterwards 
acquired were now laid." Thus did the pontiffs, providing timeously 



PAPACY, DEGENERACY OF. 



335 



against the changes and revolutions of the future, place the fabric 
of the primacy upon foundations that should be immovable for all 
time. — " The Papacy" Rev. J. A. Wylie, pp. 34-86. Edinburgh: John- 
stone and Hunter, 1851. 

Papacy, Experiences of, in the Sixth Centuey. — The power of 
Rome seems to have made no further advance for some years after the 
middle of the sixth century. The Lombard wars and the plague 
depressed the energies of the Romans: and the see began to feel more 
sensibly the weight of Constantinopolitan influence when the conquests 
of Belisarius and Narses had brought Italy into subjection to the 
emperor of the East again. The patriarchs had never submitted to the 
popes; from Vigilius's time they were in open feud with Rome; and 
now they had often the authority of the emperor on their side against 
Rome. Vigilius was banished by Justinian. Pelagius I, who succeeded 
him, was opposed by the Romans, but supported by Narses, Justinian's 
general. . . . 

The great and good Pope Gregory I, a. d. 590, in remonstrating 
against the patriarch's claim of the title, " Universal Bishop," has left 
on record his own judgment against the popes of later ages, who in 
their pretensions and their language went far beyond all that John of 
Constantinople claimed. " John, bishop of Constantinople," he wrote, 
" in opposition to God and the peace of the church, in contempt and 
to the injury of all the priesthood (bishops), exceeded the bounds of 
modesty and of his own measure, and unlawfully took to himself in 
synod the proud and pestilent title of Ecumenic, that is, Universal 
(bishop)." — " The Rise of the Papal Power," Robert Hussey, B. D., pp. 
151, 152. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1863. 

Agapetus died at Constantinople, April 22, 536. His successor 
Silverius was elected at Rome, under the influence of the Gothic king 
Theodatus, and his lot fell in troubled times. While Belisarius was 
besieged by the Goths under Vitiges, he was accused of favoring the 
Goths, and thereupon banished by Belisarius. He died soon afterwards, 
starved to death, it is reported, in his exile, a. d. 538. 

Vigilius, who was elected next, came in upon the interest of the 
court of Constantinople: he having, as it is said, given a promise to 
the empress that he would favor the Monophysite party. His career 
was not a glorious one in the annals of the popedom. — Id., pp. 145, 146. 

The immediate effect of the conquest of Italy [535-554] was the 
reduction of the popes to the degraded condition of the patriarchs of 
Constantinople. Such were the bitter fruits of their treason to the 
Gothic king. The success of Justinian's invasion was due to the clergy; 
in the ruin they brought upon their country, and the relentless tyranny 
they drew upon themselves, they had their reward. — "History of the 
Intellectual Development of Europe," John William Draper, M. D., LL. 
D.. Vol. I, p. 355. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1876. 

Papacy, Degeneracy of, in the Tenth Centuey. — It is usual to 
denominate it the iron age, on account of its barbarism and barrenness 
of all good; also the leaden age, on account of the abounding wicked- 
ness by which it was deformed; and the dark age, on account of the 
scarcity of writers. . . . One can scarcely believe, nay, absolutely can- 
not credit, without ocular demonstration, what unworthy conduct, what 
base and enormous deeds, what execrable and abominable transactions, 
disgraced the Holy Catholic See, which is the pivot on which the whole 



336 



PAPACY, DEGENERACY OF. 



Catholic Church revolves; when temporal princes, who, though called 
Christians, were most cruel tyrants, arrogated to themselves the elec- 
tion of the Roman pontiffs. Alas, the shame! Alas, the mischief! 
What monsters, horrible to behold, were then raised to the Holy See, 
which angels revere! What evils did they perpetrate; what horrible 
tragedies ensued! With what pollutions was this see, though itself 
without spot or wrinkle, then stained; what corruptions infected it; 
what filthiness defiled it; and hence what marks of perpetual infamy 
are visible upon it! — Baronius (R. C), Annates, ad ann. 900 (for the 
year 900). 

That the history of the Roman pontiffs of this century, is a history 
of monsters, a history of the most atrocious villainies and crimes, is 
acknowledged by all writers of distinction, and even by the advocates 
of popery. — " Institutes of Ecclesiastical History" John Laurence von 
Mosheim, D. D. (Protestant), Vol. II, book 3, cent. 10, part 2, chap. 2, 
par 2. London: Longman & Co., 1841. 

Papacy, Degradation of, in Eleventh Century. — Throughout the 
greater part of the tenth and almost all the first half of the eleventh 
century, the Papacy had been sunk in the deepest moral degradation. 
This deplorable state of things had been created largely by the inter- 
ference in the papal elections — which were nominally in the hands 
of the Roman clergy and people — by rival feudal factions at Rome 
which set up and pulled down popes at will. Through such influences 
it often happened that persons of scandalous life were, through violence 
and bribery, elevated to the papal chair. — " Mediaeval and Modern 
History," Phillip Van Ness Myers, p. 113. Boston: Ginn and Company. 

Papacy, in Thirteenth Century. — So low, indeed, was sunk the 
moral dignity of Christianity under the papal rule, so oppressive was 
that power, that of the three great potentates of Christendom at this 
period [thirteenth century], Frederick II was suspected of preferring 
the Koran to the Bible, and both Philip Augustus and John are be- 
lieved to have entertained the desire of adopting the tenets of the 
Arabian impostor; and all three were no doubt objects of polished scorn 
to the cultivated Arabs of Bagdad and Cordova. — " Historical Studies," 
Eugene Lawrence, p. 46. Neiv York: Harper & Brothers, 1876. 

During this period [the thirteenth century] the organization of the 
papal hierarchy was perfected. At the head stood the all-powerful and 
absolute Pope as God's agent on earth; hence, at least in theory and 
claim, he was the ruler of the whole world in temporal and spiritual 
affairs. He was the defender of Christianity, the church, and the clergy 
in all respects. He was the supreme censor of morals in Christendom 
and the head of a great spiritual despotism. He was the source of all 
earthly justice and the final court of appeal in all cases. Any person, 
whether priest or layman, could appeal to him at any stage in the 
trial of a great many important cases. He was the supreme lawgiver 
on earth, hence he called all councils and confirmed or rejected their 
decrees. He might, if he so wished, set aside any law of the church, 
no matter how ancient, so long as it was not directly ordained by the 
Bible or by nature. He could also make exceptions to purely human 
laws, and these exceptions were known as dispensations. He had the 
sole authority to transfer or depose bishops and other church officers. 
He was the creator of cardinals and ecclesiastical honors of all kinds. 
He was the exclusive possessor of the universal right of absolution, 



PAPACY, NOON OF. 



337 



dispensation, and canonization. He was the grantor of all church bene- 
fices. He was the superintendent of the whole financial system of the 
church and of all taxes. He had control over the whole force of the 
clergy in Christendom, because he conferred the pallium, the arch- 
bishop's badge of office. In his hands were kept the terrible thunders 
of the church to enforce obedience to papal law, namely, excommuni- 
cation and the interdict. — "The Rise of the Mediceval Church," Alexander 
Clarence Flick, Ph. D., Litt. I)., pp. 575, 576. New York: G. P. 
Putnam's Sons. 

Papacy, Noon of. — " In each of the three leading objects which 
Rome has pursued," says Hallam — " independent sovereignty, suprem- 
acy over the Christian church, control over the princes of the earth 
— it was the fortune of this Pontiff [Innocent III] to conquer." 
" Rome," he says again, " inspired during this age all the terror of 
her ancient name; she was once more mistress of the world, and kings 
were her vassals." She had fought a great fight, and now she celebrated 
an unequaled triumph. Innocent appointed all bishops; he summoned 
to his tribunal all causes, from the gravest affairs of mighty kingdoms 
to the private concerns of the humble citizen. He claimed all king- 
doms as his fiefs, all monarchs as his vassals, and launched with un- 
sparing hand the bolts of excommunication against all who withstood 
his pontifical will. Hildebrand's idea was now fully realized. The 
pontifical supremacy was beheld in its plenitude — the plenitude of 
spiritual power, and that of temporal power. It was the noon of the 
Papacy; but the noon of the Papacy was the midnight of the world. — 
" The History of Protestantism," Rev. J. A. Wylie, LL. D., Vol. I, pp. 
15, 16. London: Cassell and Company. 

Papacy, Medieval, Fall of. — With Boniface VIII fell the medieval 
Papacy. He had striven to develop the idea of the papal monarchy into 
a definite system. He had claimed for it the noble position of arbiter 
amongst the nations of Europe. Had he succeeded, the power which, 
according to the medieval theory of Christendom, was vested in the 
empire, would have passed over to the Papacy no longer as a theoretical 
right, but as an actual possession; and the Papacy would have asserted 
its supremacy over the rising state-system of Europe. His failure 
showed that with the destruction of the empire the Papacy had fallen 
likewise. Both continued to exist in name, and set forth their old 
pretensions; but the empire, in its old aspect of head of Christendom, 
had become a name of the past or a dream of the future since the 
failure of Frederick II. The failure of Boniface VIII showed that a 
like fate had overtaken the Papacy likewise. The suddenness and 
abruptness of the calamity which befell Boniface impressed this in- 
delibly on the minds of men. The Papacy had first shown its power 
by a great dramatic act; its decline was manifested in the same way. 
The drama of Anagni is to be set against the drama of Canossa. — 
"A History of the Papacy" M. Creighton, D. D., Vol. I, p. 32. London: 
Longmans, Green & Co. 1899. 

Papacy, Decline of. — Thus we have seen that the personal im- 
moralities and heresy of the popes brought on the interference of the 
king of France, who not only shook the papal system to its basis, but 
destroyed its prestige by inflicting the most conspicuous indignity upon 
it. For seventy years [from 1305] Rome was disfranchised, and the 
rivalries of France and Italy produced the great schism, than which 
nothing could be more prejudicial to the papal power. We have seen 
that, aided by the pecuniary difficulties of the Papacy, the rising in- 
22 



338 



PAPACY, DECLINE OF. 



tellect of Europe made good its influence and absolutely deposed the 
Pope. It was in vain to deny the authenticity of such a council; there 
stood the accomplished fact. At this moment there seemed no other 
prospect for the Italian system than utter ruin; yet, wonderful to be 
said, a momentary deliverance came from a quarter whence no man 
would have expected. The Turks were the saviors of the Papacy. . . . 

No more with the vigor it once possessed was the Papacy again to 
domineer over human thought and be the controlling agent of European 
affairs. Convulsive struggles it might make, but they were only death 
throes. The sovereign Pontiff must now descend from the autocracy 
he had for so many ages possessed, and become a small potentate, 
tolerated by kings in that subordinate position only because of the 
remnant of his influence on the uneducated multitude and those of 
feeble minds. — " History of the Intellectual Development of Europe" 
John William Draper, M. D., LL. D., Vol. II, pp. 103, 104. New York: 
Harper & Brothers. 

Papacy, Babylonish Captivity of. — Under Innocent III and his 
immediate successors the Papacy had attained its greatest power. The 
gigantic oak of the Holy Empire had spread forth its branches and 
overshadowed all lands. Glorious in its own luxuriance, it could hence- 
forth only await the slow decline of time, and the storms which would 
break it to pieces in ages to come. Already under Boniface VIII the 
signs of a coming tempest were gathering in the horizon. The sharp 
breeze which in his time set from France against Rome portended evil. 
Now Boniface was dead: the breeze had increased to a gale; and the 
first storm which, sweeping over the medieval Papacy, left it despoiled 
of a portion of its power, was the successful assertion of their political 
authority by the kings of France during the seventy years' residence 
of the popes at Avignon. That change of residence, marking as it does 
the time when the glories of the Papacy were over, and when it lost 
the political supremacy which it had previously enjoyed, has not inaptly 
been called the Babylonish captivity. It was the beginning of a new 
epoch in the history of the Papacy and the history of the empire — a 
period of decline for both. — " The See of Rome in the Middle Ages," 
Rev. Oswald J. Reichel, B. C. L., M. A., pp. 409, 410. London : Long- 
mans, Green & Co., 1870. 

Papacy, the Borgias. — The next phase in which the Papacy ex- 
hibits itself is the natural result of the possession of absolute temporal 
and spiritual power; the next representative Pope is a Borgia. In no 
other place than Rome could a Borgia have arisen; in no other position 
than that of Pope could so frightful a monster have maintained his 
power. Alexander VI, or Roderic Borgia, a Spaniard of noble family 
and nephew to Pope Calixtus III, was early brought to Rome by his 
uncle, and made a cardinal in spite of his vices and his love of ease. 
He became Pope in 1492 by the grossest simony. Alexander's only 
object was the gratification of his own desires and the exaltation of his 
natural children. Of these, whom he called his nephews, there were 
five, one son being Caesar Borgia, and one daughter the infamous 
Lucrezia. Alexander is represented to have been a poisoner, a robber, 
a hypocrite, a treacherous friend. His children in all the e traits of 
wickedness surpassed their father. Caesar Borgia, beautiful in person, 
and so strong that in a bullfight he struck off the head of the animal 
at a single blow — a majestic monster ruled by unbridled passions and 
stained with blood — now governed Rome and his father by the terror 
of his crimes. Every night, in the streets of the city, were found the 
corpses of persons whom he bad murdered either for their money or 



PAPACY, THE BORGIAS. 



339 



for revenge; yet no one dared to name the assassin. Those whom he 
could not reach by violence he took off by poison. His first victim was 
his own elder brother, Francis, Duke of Gandia, whom Alexander loved 
most of all his children, and whose rapid rise in wealth and station 
excited the hatred of the fearful Caesar. Francis had just been ap- 
pointed duke of Benevento; and before he set out for Naples there was 
a family party of the Borgias one evening at the papal palace, where 
no doubt a strange kind of mirth and hilarity prevailed. The two 
brothers left together, and parted with a pleasant farewell, Caesar 
having meantime provided four assassins to waylay his victim that 
very night. The next morning the duke was missing; several days 
passed, but he did not return. It was believed that he was murdered; 
and Alexander, full of grief, ordered the Tiber to be dragged for the 
body of his favorite child. An enemy, he thought, had made away 
with him. He little suspected who that enemy was. 

At length a Sclavonian waterman came to the palace with a 
startling story. He said that on the night when the prince disappeared, 
while he was watching some timber on the river, he saw two men 
approach the bank, and look cautiously around to see if they were 
observed. Seeing no one, they made a signal to two others, one of 
whom was on horseback, and who carried a dead body swung carelessly 
across his horse. He advanced to the river, flung the corpse far into 
the water, and then rode away. Upon being asked why he had not 
mentioned this before, the waterman replied that it was a common 
occurrence, and that he had seen more than a hundred bodies thrown 
into the Tiber in a similar manner. 

The search was now renewed, and the body of the ill-fated Francis 
was found pierced by nine mortal wounds. Alexander buried his son 
with great pomp, and offered large rewards for the discovery of his 
murderers. At last the terrible secret was revealed to him; he hid 
himself in his palace, refused food, and abandoned himself to grief. 
Here he was visited by the mother of his children, who still lived at 
Rome. What passed at their interview was never known; but all in 
quiry into the murder ceased, and Alexander was soon again immersed 
in his pleasures and his ambitious designs. 

Caesar Borgia now ruled unrestrained, and preyed upon the Romans 
like some fabulous monster of Greek mythology. He would suffer no 
rival to live, and he made no secret of his murderous designs. His 
brother-in-law was stabbed by his orders on the steps of the palace. 
The wounded man was nursed by his wife and his sister, the latter 
preparing his food lest he might be carried off by poison, while the Pope 
set a guard around the house to protect his son-in-law from his son. 
Caesar laughed at these precautions. " What cannot be done in the 
noonday," he said, " may be brought about in the evening." He broke 
into the chamber of his brother-in-law, drove out the wife and sister, 
and had him strangled by the common executioner. He stabbed his 
father's favorite, Perotto, while he clung to his patron for protection, 
and the blood of the victim flowed over the face and robes of the Pope. 

Lucrezia Borgia rivaled, or surpassed, the crimes of her brother; 
while Alexander himself performed the holy rites of the church with 
singular exactness, and in his leisure moments poisoned wealthy cardi- 
nals and seized upon their estates. He is said to have been singularly 
engaging in his manners, and most agreeable in the society of those 
whom he had resolved to destroy. At length, Alexander perished by 
his own arts. He gave a grand entertainment, at which one or more 
wealthy cardinals were invited for the purpose of being poisoned, and 
Caesar Borgia was to provide the means. He sent several flasks of poi- 
soned wine to the table, with strict orders not to use them except by 



340 



PAPACY, GENERAL VIEW OP. 



his directions. Alexander came early to the banquet, heated with exer= 
cise, and called for some refreshment; the servants brought him the 
poisoned wine, supposing it to be of rare excellence; he drank of it 
freely, and was soon in the pangs of death. His blackened body was 
buried with all the pomp of the Roman ritual. 

Scarcely is the story of the Borgias to be believed: such a father, 
such children, have never been known before or since. Yet the accu- 
rate historians of Italy, and the careful Ranke, unite in the general 
outline of their crimes. On no other throne than the temporal empire 
of Rome has sat such a criminal as Alexander; in no other city than 
Rome could a Caesar Borgia have pursued his horrible career; in none 
other was a Lucrezia Borgia ever known. The Pope was the absolute 
master of the lives and fortunes of his subjects; he was also the abso- 
lute master of their souls; and the union of these two despotisms pro- 
duced at Rome a form of human wickedness which romance has never 
imagined, and which history shudders to describe. — "Historical Stud- 
ies," Eugene Lawrence, pp. 51-54. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1876. 

Papacy, Condition of, at Beginning of the Reformation. — The 
downward course of the Papacy, from the time of Boniface VIII to the 
age of the Reformation, we have already contemplated. The removal 
of the Papal See to Avignon, the great schism, the ever bolder demand 
for general councils which should be superior to the Pope, the history 
of these councils themselves and of what followed them, the internal 
moral corruption which in Innocent VIII and Alexander VI recalled 
the times of the pornocracy in the tenth century, from the pollution of 
which Hildebrand had saved the church, may be cited in illustration of 
the decline of which we speak. And yet at the beginning of the Refor- 
mation, the nimbus which surrounded the papal dignity had not dis- 
appeared, nor was that dignity the object of the first attack either of 
Luther or of Zwingle; only when Rome betrayed the trust reposed in 
her by the Reformers, and shut her ear to their cry for help, was this 
opposition regarded by" them as a proof that instead of the Holy Father 
of Christendom they had to do with Antichrist. — " History of the Refor- 
mation in Germany and Switzerland Chiefly." Br. K. R. Hagenbach, 
Vol. I, p. 10. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1878. 

Papacy, General View of Growth and Decline. — This hierarchical 
centralization, which is so conspicuous in the Middle Ages, was a new 
thing in the seventh century, and in fact a result growing out of the 
church's altered relations. Such claims as were put forth by the popes 
in the eleventh and thirteenth centuries, would have been impossible 
in the first four centuries of Christendom. They were the claims of a 
city no longer mistress of the world, to be mistress of the world; the 
claims of a spiritual person to occupy the place once held by a political 
sovereign; the claims of one who felt the strength of his position, who, 
having been left to himself, had learned what it was to be free, and who, 
having learned what it was to be free, coveted to rule over others. They 
were the claims of a civilized ecclesiastic feeling his moral ascendancy 
over nations rude and uncultivated, and adroitly using his moral 
ascendancy for political purposes. Moreover, these claims were first 
advanced in the cause of civilization and Christianity. The error was 
that they were persevered in by those who had tasted the sweets of 
power, long after the rudeness and want which had first called them 
forth had passed away. Nay, are they not even now persevered in, 
although those upon whom they are made are far in advance of those 
who make them in intellectual enlightenment? 



PAPACY, HISTORICAL NOTES ON. 



341 



It is interesting to watch the progress of these claims, not forgetting 
that they form the basis on which the Holy Empire was built, and to 
see the oscillations of power from the temporal to the spiritual head, 
and back to the temporal head again. For, in the Holy Empire, religion 
and politics were ever combined. At one time the religious power is 
the strongest; at another, the two are equal; again the civil power has 
secured the upper hand, and seeks to dethrone the ecclesiastical alto- 
gether. When the connection between the two is finally severed, the 
Holy Empire is really at an end. 

Three definite stages may therefore be distinguished in the history 
of the See of Rome in the Middle Ages — an age of growth, an age of 
greatness, and an age of decline. 

In the first of these stages, the age of growth, the Latin system 
may be watched rapidly spreading over Europe with hardly a single 
obstacle. Civilization is confounded with Christianity, and Christianity 
with the Papacy. The spiritual power is continually rising in impor- 
tance, and founds the empire. 

In the next of these stages — the age of greatness — the Pope has 
become a spiritual autocrat, ruling the church absolutely, and through 
the church ruling the empire. That rule brings him into collision with 
the emperor. A struggle goes on ostensibly between popes and em- 
perors, really between the old world and the new world, between the 
old despotic Latin spirit and the new freedom-loving Teutonic spirit. 
And such is the power of the Papacy, that the emperors succumb in 
the struggle. In the moment of the greatest triumphs of the Papacy, 
however, the handwriting is seen on the wall. 

With the fourteenth century, marked nationalities begin to show 
themselves in language, literature, and distinct kingdoms. Europe has 
reached man's estate and will no longer be held in thraldom. Soon the 
system of the Papacy, as a living power, is seen to crumble away, 
declining far more rapidly than it had grown, and dragging down with 
it into ruin at once the popes and the emperors. During the papal 
residence at Avignon, the political supremacy of the popes was lost. 
By the Great Schism of the West, their ecclesiastical supremacy was 
undermined. And when vice had deprived them of what moral weight 
they still possessed, Western Christendom broke off its fetters, and the 
result was the Reformation. — " The See of Rome in the Middle Ages" 
Rev. Oswald J. Reichel. B. C. L., M. A., pp. 4-6. London: Longmans^ 
Green & Co., 1870. 

Papacy, Historical Notes ox Papal Absolutism. — The idea of 
papal absolutism and infallibility, like that of the sinlessness of Mary, 
can be traced to apocryphal origin. It is found first, in the second 
century, in the Pseudo-Clementine Homilies, which contain a singular 
system of speculative Ebionism, and represent James of Jerusalem, the 
brother of the Lord, as the bishop of bishops, the center of Christendom, 
and the general vicar of Christ; he is the last arbiter, from whom 
there is no appeal; to him even Peter must give an account of his 
labors, and to him the sermons of Peter were sent for safe keeping. 

In the Catholic Church the same idea, but transferred to the Bishop 
of Rome, is first clearly expressed in the Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals, 
that huge forgery of papal letters, which appeared in the middle of the 
ninth century, and had for its object the completion of the independence 
of the episcopal hierarchy from the state, and the absolute power of the 
popes, as the legislators and judges of all Christendom. Here the 
most extravagant claims are put into the mouths of the early popes, 
from Clement (91) to Damasus (384), in the barbarous French Latin 
of the Middle Ages, and with such numerous and glaring anachronisms 



342 



PAPACY, HISTORICAL NOT US ON. 



as to force the conviction of fraud even upon Roman Catholic scholars. 
One of these sayings is: "The Roman Church remains to the end free 
from stain of heresy." Soon afterwards arose, in the same hierarchical 
interest, the legend of the donation of Constantine and his baptism by 
Pope Silvester, interpolations of the writings of the Fathers, especially 
Cyprian and Augustine, and a variety of fictions embodied in the Gesta 
Liberii and the Liber Pontiftcalis, and sanctioned by Gratianus (about 
1150) in his Decretum, or collection of canons, which (as the first part 
of the Corpus Juris Canonici) became the code of laws for the whole 
Western Church, and exerted an extraordinary influence. By ttiis series 
of pious frauds the medieval Papacy, which was the growth of ages, 
was represented to the faith of the church as a primitive institution 
of Christ, clothed with absolute and perpetual authority. 

The popes since Nicholas I (858-867), who exceeded all his pred- 
ecessors in the boldness of his designs, freely used what the spirit of 
a hierarchical, superstitious, and uncritical age furnished them. They 
quoted the fictitious letters of their predecessors as genuine, the 
Sardican canon on appeals as a canon of Nicsea, and the interpolated 
sixth canon of Nicaea, " the Roman Cnurch always had the primacy," 
of which there is not a syllable in the original; and nobody doubted 
them. Papal absolutism was in full vigor from Gregory VII to Boniface 
VIII. Scholastic divines, even Thomas Aquinas, deceived by these 
literary forgeries, began to defend papal absolutism over the whole 
church, and the Councils of Lyons (1274) and of Florence (1439) 
sanctioned it, although the Greeks soon afterwards rejected the false 
union based upon such assumption. 

But absolute power, especially of a spiritual kind, is invariably 
intoxicating and demoralizing to any mortal man who possesses it. 
God Almighty alone can bear it, and even he allows freedom to his 
rational creatures. The reminiscence of the monstrous period when the 
Papacy was a football in the hands of bold and dissolute women 
(904-962), or when mere boys, like Benedict IX (1033), polluted the 
papal crown with the filth of unnatural vices, could not be quite forgot- 
ten. The scandal of the papal schism (1378 to 1409), when two and even 
three rival Popes excommunicated and cursed each other, and laid all 
Western Christendom under the ban, excited the moral indignation oi 
all good men in Christendom, and called forth, in the beginning of the 
fifteenth century, the three Councils of Pisa, Constance, and Basle, 
which loudly demanded a reformation of the church, in the head as well 
as in the members, and asserted the superiority of a council over the 
Pope. 

The Council of Constance (1414-1418), the most numerous ever 
seen in the West, deposed two popes — John XXIII (the infamous 
Balthasar Cossa, who had been recognized by the majority of the 
church), on the charge of a series of crimes (May 29, 1415), and 
Benedict XIII, as a heretic who sinned against the unity of the church 
(July 26, 1417), and elected a new pope, Martin V (Nov. 11, 1517), 
who had given his adhesion to the council, though after his accession 
to power he found ways and means to defeat its real object, i. e., the 
reformation of the church. 

This council was a complete triumph of the Episcopal system, and 
the papal absolutists and infallibilists are here forced" to the logical 
dilemma of either admitting the validity of the council, or invalidating 
the election of Martin V and his successors. Either course is fatal to 
their system. Hence there has never been an authoritative decision on 
the ecumenicity of this council, and the only subterfuge is to say that 
the whole case is an extraordinary exception; but this, after all, in- 



PAPACY, EXTENSION OF. 



343 



volves the admission that there is a higher power in the church over 
the Papacy. 

The Reformation shook the whole Papacy to its foundation, but 
could not overthrow it. A powerful reaction followed, headed by the 
Jesuits. Their general, Lainez, strongly advocated papal infallibility 
in the Council of Trent, and declared that the church could not err 
only because the Pope could not err. But the council left the question 
undecided, and the Roman catechism ascribes infallibility simply to 
" the Catholic Church." without denning its seat. Bellarmine advocated 
and formularized the doctrine, stating it as an almost general opinion 
that. the Pope could not publicly teach a heretical dogma, and as a 
probable and pious opinion that Providence will guard him even 
against private heresy. Yet the same Bellarmine was witness to the 
innumerable blunders of the edition of the Latin Vulgate prepared by 
Sixtus V, corrected by his own hand, and issued by him as the only true 
and authentic text of the Sacred Scriptures, with the stereotyped forms 
of anathema upon all who should venture to change a single word; 
and Bellarmine himself gave the advice that all copies should be called 
in, and a new edition printed with a lying statement in the preface 
making the printers the scapegoats for the errors of the Pope! This 
whole business of the Vulgate is sufficient to explode papal infallibility; 
for it touches the very source of divine revelation. Other Italian 
divines, like Alphonsus Liguori, and Jesuitical textbooks, unblushingly 
use long-exploded medieval fictions and interpolations as a groundwork 
of papal absolutism and infallibility. 

It is not necessary to follow the progress of the controversy between 
the Episcopal and the papal systems during the seventeenth and eight- 
eenth centuries. It is sufficient to say that the greatest Catholic divines 
of France and Germany, including Bossuet and Mohler, together with 
many from other countries, down to the eighty-eight protesting bishops 
in the Vatican Council, were anti-infallibilists; and that popular cate- 
chisms of the Roman Church, extensively used till 1870, expressly denied 
the doctrine, which is now set up as "an article of faith necessary to 
eternal salvation. — " Rome and the Newest Fashions in Religion," Wil- 
liam E. Gladstone, pp. 99-102. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1875. 

Papacy, Future Extension of. — It may be that the vicars of 
Jesus Christ have only begun their toil and their tutelage of the mon- 
archies and dynasties of princes and their royal houses; that a wider, 
larger, and weightier mission is before them to the nations and con- 
federation of commonwealths, and to the wayward turbulence of the 
popular will. The gospel of the kingdom has not yet been preached to 
all nations. The Christian family has not yet assimilated to itself more 
than one third of the human race. The leaven is in the meal, hut it 
has, as yet, penetrated only a portion. We know that " the whole must 
be leavened." The Christendom of today may be no more than the 
blade, or at most the stalk, to the full corn in the ear, which shall be 
hereafter. The pontificate and the sovereignty of the vicars of Jesus 
Christ will then reign with their divine authority over a fold which 
shall inclose nations as yet neither Christian nor civilized, to which all 
the Christendom of the past is but as the first fruits to the harvest. — 
" The Temporal Power of the Vicar of Jesus Christ," Henry Edward 
Manning. D. D. (R. C), Preface, p. liii. London: Burns and Lambert, 
1862. 

Papacy, Builders of, Leo I, Aspiration of. — It was the sublime 
effort of Leo to make the church the guardian of spiritual principles 
and give to it a theocratic character and aim, which links his name 



344 



PAPACY, BUILDERS OF, LEO I. 



with the mightiest moral movements of the world ; and when I speak 
of the church, I mean the Church of Rome, as presided over by men who 
claimed to be the successors of St. Peter, to* whom they assert Christ 
had given the supreme control over all other churches as his vicars on 
the earth. It was the great object of Leo to substantiate this claim, 
and root it in the minds of the newly converted barbarians; and then 
institute laws and measures which should make his authority and that 
of his successors paramount in all spiritual matters, thus centering 
in his see the general oversight of the Christian church in all the coun- 
tries of Europe. 

It was a theocratic aspiration, one of the grandest that ever entered 
into the mind of a man of genius, yet, as Protestants now look at it, 
a usurpation, — the beginning of a vast system of spiritual tyranny in 
order to control the minds and consciences of men. It took several 
centuries to develop this system, after Leo was dead. With him it was 
not a vulgar greed of power, but an inspiration of genius, — a grand 
idea to make the church which he controlled a benign and potent influ- 
ence on society, and to prevent civilization from being utterly crushed 
out by the victorious Goths and Vandals. It is the success of this 
idea which stamps the church cs the great leading power of Medieval 
Ages,; — a power alike majestic and venerable, benignant yet despotic, 
humble yet arrogant and usurping. — " Beacon Lights of History" John 
Lord, LL. D., Vol. IV, pp. 361, 362. New York: James Clarke & Co. 

Papacy, Builders of, Leo I. — Celestine's second successor, Leo, 
who held the see from 440 to 461, is one of those popes who stand out 
most prominently as agents in the exaltation of the Papacy. To this 
cause Leo the Great (as he is called) brought the service of a lofty and 
commanding mind, of great political skill, and of a theological knowledge 
which surpassed that of any one among his predecessors. And we may 
not doubt that, in his exertions for the elevation of the Roman see, he 
believed himself to be laboring, not for its benefit only, but for the 
benefit of the whole church. Yet while allowing this, we must not let 
ourselves be blinded to the striking fault of his character — the over- 
mastering love of domination. Barrow styles him, " this vixenly Pope," 
and although the use of the epithet is rather strange, we may under- 
stand what Barrow means by it, and perhaps he did Leo no injustice. 
Leo, with a reckless defiance of historical fact, declared the pretensions 
and practices of his church to be matter of unbroken apostolical tra- 
dition, ascribing that venerable character to rules which had been 
introduced within the last half century by Siricius, and even by later 
bishops. And under such pretenses he tried to enforce the usages of 
Rome on the whole church. — " Plain Lectures on the Growth of the 
Papal Power," James Craigie Robertson, M. A., pp. 94, 95. London: 
Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. 

During Leo's pontificate arose the controversy occasioned by the 
opinions of Eutyches. Like most other controversies of those ages, it 
began in the East; and in 449 a council, which was intended to be 
general, met at Ephesus for the decision of the questions which had 
been raised. ... It disgraced itself by the furious violence of its pro- 
ceedings (among other outrages, the aged Flavian, bishop of Constan- 
tinople, was so savagely treated that he died in consequence) : it de- 
cided amidst tumult and uproar in favor of the heretic Eutyches. . . . 

Leo, on hearing how things had gone, declared that the late assem- 
bly was not a synod, but a meeting of robbers — Latrocinium — a name 
by which it has continued to be known. He asked the emperor Theodo- 
sius II to summon a fresh council, to be held in Italy; and this was 



PAPACY, BULLDEKS OF, LEO I. 



345 



one of the occasions on which he cited the Sardican canon on appeals 
as if it had been the work of the Council of Nicsea, " decreed," as he 
says, " by the priests of the whole world." The application was in 
vain; but when Theodosius had been succeeded, a few months later, by 
his sister Pulcheria, who bestowed her hand and the Eastern empire on 
Marcian, a new general council was resolved on. . . . Marcian, as em- 
peror of the East, was resolved that the council should be held within 
his own dominions; and it met in 451 at Chalcedon, on the shore of 
the Bosporus, opposite to Constantinople. 

The legates whom Leo commissioned to act for him were charged 
to assume the presidency of the council, and to suffer nothing to be 
done except in their presence; but although much was allowed them, 
they were not able to exercise that entire supremacy which their 
master intended; and there was much in the proceedings of the council 
which was deeply distasteful to him. . . . 

That which was most offensive to Leo was a canon (the 28th) 
relating to the see of Constantinople. We have already seen that the 
second general council, in 381, assigned to the bishops of Constantinople 
a position next to the Bishop of Rome, and that the Roman bishops 
were dissatisfied with this. But differences had also arisen in the East 
as to the privileges of Constantinople; for, whereas the canon of 381 
had bestowed on it nothing but precedence, the bishops of Constanti- 
nople, whose dignity and influence had been continually on the increase, 
had also set up claims to patriarchal jurisdiction over Thrace, Asia, 
and Pontus. The twenty-eighth canon of Chalcedon, then, was intended 
to settle the privileges of Constantinople; and in so doing it repeated, 
with far greater distinctness, that reason for the precedence of Constan- 
tinople, which in the canon of the second general council had greatly 
offended the Romans. . . . 

On receiving a report of the council, Leo expressed himself strongly 
against the twenty-eighth canon. He denied, with his usual audacity 
in such matters, that the precedence of sees had ever depended on the 
importance of the cities in which they were. He asserted that the 
canon of the second general council had never been acted on or notified 
to the Roman see; although (not to mention other instances to the 
contrary) his own legates at the first session of Chalcedon had admitted 
the canon of the second general council by joining in a complaint 
against the Latrocinium for having degraded Flavian of Constantinople 
from the second to the fifth place among the bishops. He pretended 
that the new canon contradicted the Nicene Council by subjecting Alex- 
andria and Antioch to Constantinople; he declared it to be annulled by 
the authority of St. Peter, and loudly complained of the ambition of 
Anatolius in seeking the exaltation of his see. But, notwithstanding 
all this vehemence, the canon, from the time of its enactment, was 
steadily enforced by the Eastern court. . . . 

Before leaving Leo, however, let me mention that he introduced a 
novelty of considerable importance, by establishing a bishop at Con- 
stantinople as his representative, instead of the clergy of lower rank 
whom his predecessors had employed in that capacity. This bishop 
was evidently meant, not so much to watch over the interests of Rome 
in the East, as to overlook and coerce the Patriarch of Constantinople; 
and the manner in which Leo interfered even in the internal concerns 
of that church would probably have led to an open breach with the 
patriarch Anatolius, but for the death of Anatolius in 458. — "Plain 
Lectures on the Growth of the Papal Power," James Craigie Robert- 
son, M. A., pp. 100-109. London: Society for Promoting Christian 
Knowledge. 



PAPACY, BUILDERS OF, LEO I. 



There was wanted a man who could make the see of St. Peter take 
the place of the tottering imperial power: there was wanted a man 
capable above all things of disciplining and consolidating We-tern 
Christendom, so that it might present a firm front to the heretical bar- 
barians, and remain in unshaken consistency through all that stormy 
period which links the ancient with the modern world. The church 
must be strong, while all else of that old empire was weak. The church,- 
preserving her identity, must give the framework for the society which 
was to be. In order then that she might fulfil her function, large sac- 
rifices must be made to the surpassing necessity for unity, solidity, and 
strength. And Leo was the man for the post: lofty and severe in life 
and aims; rigid and stern in insisting on the rules of ecclesiastical 
discipline; gifted with an indomitable energy, courage, and persever- 
ance, and a capacity for keeping his eye on many widely distant spheres 
of activity at once; inspired with an unhesitating acceptance and an 
admirable grasp of the dogmatic faith of the church, which he was 
prepared to press everywhere at all costs; finally, possessed with, and 
unceasingly acting upon, an overmastering sense of the indefeasible 
authority of the Church of Rome as the divinely ordained center of all 
church work and life, Leo stands out as the Christian representative 
of the imperial dignity and severity of old Rome, and is the true 
founder of the medieval Papacy in all its magnificence of conception 
and uncompromising strength. — " A Dictionary of Christian Biography," 
edited by William Smith and Henry Wace, Vol. Ill, art. " Leo I," p. 654. 
London: John Murray, 1882. 

Leo was, without all doubt, a man of extraordinary parts, far supe- 
rior to all who had governed that church before him, and scarce equaled 
by any who governed it after him. He is extolled by the ancients 
chiefly for his unwearied zeal in defending the Catholic faith, and 
unshaken steadiness in combating the opposite errors, that either 
sprung up or were revived in his time. And truly their encomiums on 
that score are not ill bestowed; though on some occasions he had 
better have tempered his zeal, and acted with more moderation. But 
then his ambition knew no bounds; and to gratify it, he stuck at 
nothing; made no distinction between right and wrong, between truth 
and falsehood; as if he had adopted the famous maxim of Julius Csesar, 
or thought the most criminal actions ceased to be criminal, and became 
meritorious, when any ways subservient to the increase of his power 
or the exaltation of his see. ... So much was he attached to that 
object, that after he had procured, with infinite labor and pains, the 
assembling of an ecumenical council, as the only means of ascertaining 
the Catholic faith, and saving the church, at that time in the utmost 
danger from the prevailing party of Eutyches and Dioscorus in the 
East, he was ready, notwithstanding his extraordinary zeal, to undo all 
he had been doing, and to render that very council ineffectual, had not 
his legates been allowed to preside; an undeniable proof that he had 
more at heart the advancement of his see, that is, of his own power 
and authority, than either the purity of the faith or the welfare of the 
church. ... I shall therefore only observe here, that he has, and ever 
will have, the demerit of establishing an everlasting warfare between 
the East and the West, between Constantinople and Rome; the bishops 
of Constantinople, and their brethren in the East, thinking themselves 
bound to stand to a decree which had been so unanimously enacted by 
their predecessors, in an ecumenical council; and none of the later 
bishops of Rome, how peaceably soever inclined, daring to receive as 
valid a determination which one of the greatest of their predecessors 
had, with so much warmth, maintained to be null. 



PAPACY, BUILDERS OF, GREGORY I. 



347 



Of this dispute we shall see the dreadful effects in the sequel of 
the present history; and they ought all to be charged to Leo's account. 
For his authority drew in all the Western bishops to take the same 
part, and extended its influence over their successors, as well as his 
own. But as his ambition, in the pursuit of its own ends and designs, 
tended also to raise and promote the greatness of his see, that very 
crime became the cause of his sanctification, being more meritorious 
to Rome than all his virtues. Indeed, he was a principal founder of 
her exorbitant power. He brought with him to the pontificate, not 
only greater abilities, but more experience and practice in state affairs, 
than any of his predecessors; and used these advantages, through a long 
course of years, to advance the dignity and prerogatives of his see, 
with great skill and address, as well as intrepid assurance and courage. 
— " The History of the Popes" Archibald Bower. Vol. I. pp. 247. 248: 
Philadelphia: Griffith and Simon, 1847. 

Papacy, Builders of, Gregory I. — The Papacy, when Gregory the 
First, a great and also a good Pope, was elected to it in 590, had risen 
to a position far higher than that which it occupied in the time covered 
by the earlier part of our inquiry. Gregory (who is styled the Great) 
stands in the foremost rank of popes who have contributed to the ex- 
altation of their see. Those who may be classed with him in this respect 
are Leo the Great (440-461), Nicholas I (858-867), Gregory VII (1073- 
1085), and Innocent III (1198-1216); and to these, if his attempts had 
been crowned with success, you might add Boniface VIII (1294-1304), 
who carried the claims of the Papacy higher than any of his pre:le 
cessors. 

But Gregory differs from all the rest of them in this respect, that 
he is the only one of these popes whose memory we can regard with 
much affection. Whatever the gifts of the others may have been, and 
although we may make all possible allowance for their sincerity in 
thinking that the exaltation of the Roman see was the necessary 
means towards promoting the welfare of the whole Christian church 
and the highest interests of mankind, there is yet about them some- 
thing which, although we may admire them, makes it impossible that 
we should love them. However pure and unselfish their motives may 
have been, their conduct looks too much as if it were prompted by a 
politic and unscrupulous ambition. 

Gregory I, on the other hand, is a man with whom we feel a 
sympathy which in the case of the others is impossible. His letters, 
between 800 and 900 in number, and those passages of his sermons or 
other writings which bear a reference to his personal circumstances, 
show him to us in a very favorable light, as a man of truly human 
feelings, as struggling with great difficulties, as kind, generous, tolerant, 
while he is zealous for the propagation of the faith, and thoroughly 
devoted to the cause of the church. 

There are, indeed, two special blots on his character, and, although 
attempts have been made by some writers of more zeal than discretion 
to wash out these blots, there they remain. I mean (1) his subservient 
behavior to the emperor Phocas, a detestable usurper and tyrant in 
whom no trace of goodness can be discovered; and (2) his frequent 
compliments to the Frankish queen Brunichild or Brunehaut, who, 
unless she has been misrepresented more than probability will allow us 
to suppose, was a very strange object for the praises which Gregory 
bestows on her. 

These things, no doubt, are unpleasant to read of; but the right 
way of treating them, if we wish to deal kindly with Gregory, is not to 
deny clear historical facts, or to do violence to our own sense of right 



348 



PAPACY, BUILDERS OF, GREGORY I. 



and wrong, but to admit that he was not without human weaknesses — 
that he was an impulsive man, liable to do in haste things of which he 
might have cause to repent at leisure; liable, in his feeling of zeal for 
the church, to forget the duty of looking at all sides of a question, and 
to welcome such things as seemed to be for the church's immediate 
advantage, without taking account of all the circumstances which 
ought to have entered into his consideration. — " Plain Lectures on the 
Growth of the Papal Power" James Craigie Robertson, M. A., pp. 
115-117. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. 

In 568, the Lombards under Alboin descended into Italy; they 
wrested the northern part of the peninsula from the empire; they 
afterwards got possession of the Duchy of Beneventum, and in Gregory's 
days they threatened Rome itself. In this state of things, the Pope 
was necessarily called to take an active part in politics. The emperor 
was too far off, and too much engrossed in other affairs, to give any 
help to his Italian subjects; the exarchs cared for nothing but how 
to squeeze the highest possible amount of taxes out of the distressed 
and miserable people; they made no effective opposition to the Lom- 
bards. . . . 

In these circumstances, then, as the pressure of the Lombards made 
it urgently necessary that something should be done, and as no help 
was to be expected either from local authorities or from their distant 
master, the emperor, the Pope was compelled to act for himself, not only 
in his spiritual character, but as a great landowner. He did what he 
could to provide for the defense of the country, and he took it on himself 
to negotiate a peace with the Lombards, — a measure for which he re- 
ceived no better reward from the court of Constantinople than slights 
and ridicule, but which endeared him to the people whom he had res- 
cued from the miseries of war. Here, then, you see the Pope, as a 
great landowner, drawn, through the apathy or the helplessness of the 
imperial authorities, to enter into political engagements; and thus 
Gregory will be found to have paved the way for the great political 
influence exercised by his successors, and for the temporal sovereignty 
which they acquired. — Id., pp. 118-120. 

One thing more there is to be noted as to Gregory — his quarrel 
with John the Faster, Patriarch of Constantinople, as to the use of the 
term " ecumenical," which John had assumed as part of his style. We 
have already seen that this title had been sometimes given by Orientals 
to the bishops of Rome, the first instance having been at the Council 
of Chalcedon, when it was used by some Alexandrians who wished to 
recommend themselves to Leo the Great; that it was sometimes also 
given to the patriarchs of Constantinople; and that, according to the 
Eastern usage, it had not that exclusive sense which we might naturally 
ascribe to it; but that the world was supposed to have room for more 
than one ecumenical bishop, since the emperor Justinian gave the 
title alike to the bishops of Rome and of Constantinople. This, 
however, the Latins could not or would not understand; they translated 
the Greek word by universalis, and supposed that ecumenical or uni- 
versal bishop could not mean anything less than sole and supreme 
bishop of the whole church. When, therefore, John of Constantinople 
styled himself Ecumenical, the title was vehemently objected to, first 
by Pelagius II, Gregory's predecessor, and then by Gregory himself. 
Gregory declares it to be a " proud and foolish word; " that the assump- 
tion of it was an imitation of the devil, who exalted himself above his 



PAPACY, BUILDERS OF, NICHOLAS I. 



349 



fellow angels; that it was unlike the behavior of St. Peter, who, 
although first of the apostles, did not pretend to be more than of 
the same class with the rest (this, you will see, is not very consistent 
with the modern pretensions of the Papacy) ; that it was a token of 
Antichrist's speedy coming. — Id., pp. 124-126. 

Papacy, Builders of, Nicolas I. — The second successor of Leo 
was Nicolas I, who held the see from 858 to 867. The impression which 
this Pope made on those who lived near his own time, yet far enough 
from it to be able to view him without exaggerating his importance, 
will appear from the words of Regino, abbot of Priim, who wrote about 
a century later. " In the year of our Lord's incarnation, 868," says 
Regino (but it was really in May of the year before), "the most holy 
and blessed Pope Nicolas, after many labors for Christ, and many con- 
tests for the inviolable state of the holy church, departed to the 
heavenly realms, to receive from the most bountiful Lord a crown of 
glory that fadeth not away, for the faithful administration of the 
stewardship committed to him. From the time of Bishop Gregory to 
our own time, no bishop who has been exalted with pontifical power in 
the city of Rome, appears worthy to be compared to him. He gave his 
commands to kings and tyrants, and ruled over them with authority 
as if he were lord of the world; to bishops and religious priests who 
observed the divine commands he appeared humble, mild, piteous 
(pius), and gentle; to the irreligious and those who strayed from the 
right path he was terrible, and full of austerity; so that in him 
another Elias may deservedly be believed to have arisen in our time, 
God raising him up as another Elias. if not in body, yet in spirit and 
power." . . . 

Nicolas may be described as sincerely zealous for the enforcement 
of discipline in the church, and as filled with a conscientious sense of 
the greatness of his position, while he never failed in acting up to 
his conception of it with resolute firmness, and with great political 
skill. And circumstances favored his exertions by offering to him 
opportunities of interfering in the concerns of princes and of churches 
in such a manner that his actions appeared to be in the interests of 
justice, and so carried the opinion of mankind with him, while every 
step which he took was also in effect a step in advance for the Papacy. 
His idea of the rights of his see was such as to lead him to aim at 
making all secular power subject to the church, and reducing all 
national churches into absolute obedience to Rome; and, whether he 
was fully conscious of this ambitious scheme or not, he labored very 
powerfully towards realizing it. — Id., pp. 169-172. 

Papacy, Builders of, Gregory VII. — Hildebrand was the chief rep- 
resentative, the very soul, of a party which had been lately growing 
up in the church. He was filled with the loftiest hierarchical ideas; he 
desired to make the Papacy the supreme governing power of the world, 
not only altogether independent of, but superior to and controlling, 
all secular power. . . . 

For these objects Hildebrand was prepared to labor with thorough 
conviction, with unswerving steadiness, with a far-sighted patience, 
with a deep, subtle, and even unscrupulous policy. In conversations 
at Besangon he persuaded Bruno to forego any claim to the Papacy 
which was derived from the emperor's nomination, and to look only 
to the clergy and people of Rome, whose exclusive privilege it was, 
according to the views of the hierarchical party, to elect the successors 
of St. Peter. Bruno laid aside the ensigns of pontifical dignity, and, 



350 



PAPACY, BUILDERS OF, GREGORY VII. 



taking Hildebrand as his companion, proceeded in the guise of a simple 
pilgrim to Rome, where he declared to the Romans assembled in St. 
Peter's, that it was for them to confirm or to set aside the choice 
which had been made of him. He was hailed with loud acclamations as 
Leo IX, and from that time, under him and his four successors, from 
1049 to 1073, Hildebrand was the real director of the Papacy. . . . 

Let us pass on to the pontificate of Hildebrand himself, who was 
elected in 1073, and assumed the name of Gregory VII. His election 
was made by the cardinals and approved by the acclamations of the 
people, according to the decree of Nicolas II; and, agreeably to the 
same decree, he sent notice to the emperor, and requested him to con- 
firm the choice. This was the last time that the imperial confirmation 
was sought for an election to the Papacy; for Gregory soon carried 
things far beyond the point at which Nicolas had left them. . . . 

Gregory's view of the relations of church and state was, that the 
two powers are irreconcilably hostile to each other, and that the 
spiritual power is vastly above the secular. In the beginning of his 
pontificate, indeed, he spoke of the two powers as being like the two 
eyes in the human body, a comparison which would seem to imply an 
equality between them. But at a later time he likens them to the 
sun and the moon respectively, a comparison by which a great supe- 
riority is given to the priesthood. . . . 

The doctrines here enounced [in the Dictate of Gregory] are far in 
advance of what we have seen in the forged decretals, both as to the 
claims which are asserted for the church against the state, and as to 
the despotism which they would establish for the Papacy over all the 
rest of the church. It is laid down that the Roman Pontiff alone is 
universal bishop. To him alone it belongs to depose or to reconcile 
bishops; and he may depose them either with or without the con- 
currence of a synod. He alone is entitled to frame new laws for the 
church; he alone may use the insignia of empire; all princes are bound 
to kiss his feet; he has the right to depose kings or emperors, and to 
absolve subjects from their allegiance. His power supersedes the 
diocesan authority of bishops, and from his sentence there is no appeal. 
All appeals to him must be respected, and to him the greater causes of 
every church must be referred. No council may be styled general with- 
out his command. The Roman Church never has erred, and, as 
Scripture testifies, never will err; the Pope is above all judgment, and 
by St. Peter's merits is undoubtedly rendered holy. . . . 

Such, then, were some of Gregory's principles; and, although they 
were not so fully realized by him as they were by Innocent III, some- 
what more than a century later, it is, Gregory VII — Hildebrand — that 
must always be regarded as the man from whom, above all others, the 
papal pretensions derived their greatest development. . . . 

On the 25th of May, 1085, he breathed his last at Salerno. His 
latest words are said to have been, " I have loved righteousness and 
hated iniquity; therefore I die in exile." — Id., pp. 196-212. 

When Gregory VII declared that it was sin for the ecclesiastic to 
receive his benefice under conditions from a layman, and so condemned 
the whole system of feudal investitures to the clergy, he aimed a 
deadly blow at all secular authority. Half of the land and wealth of 
Germany was in the hands of bishops and abbots, who would now be 
fre?d from the monarch's control to pass under that of the Pope. In 
such a state of things government itself would be impossible. — " The 
Holy Roman Empire" James Bryce, p. 158. London: Macmillan & Co., 
1892. 



PAPACY, BUILDERS OF, INNOCENT 111. 



351 



Gregory VII did not aim at securing the papal monarchy over the 
church; that had been established since the days of Nicolas I. He 
aimed at asserting the freedom of the church from the worldly in- 
fluences which benumbed it, by setting up the Papacy as a power 
strong enough to restrain church and state alike. In ecclesiastical 
matters Gregory enunciated the infallibility of the Pope, his power of 
deposing bishops and restoring them at his own will, the necessity of his 
consent to give universal validity to synodal decrees, his supreme and 
irresponsible jurisdiction, the precedence of his legates over all bishops. 
In political matters he asserted that the name of Pope was incom- 
parable with any other, that he alone could use the insignia of empire, 
that he could depose emperors, that all princes ought to kiss his feet, 
that he could release from their allegiance the subjects of wicked rulers. 
Such were the magnificent claims which Gregory VII bequeathed to the 
medieval Papacy, and pointed out the way towards their realization. — 
A History of the Papacy" M. Creighton, D. D., Vol. I. pp. 17. 18. Lon- 
don : Longmans, Green & Co., 1899. 

Papacy, Builders of, Innocent III. — In 1198, Innocent III, the 
most powerful of all the popes, was elected at the early age of thirty- 
seven. He was a man of many noble and admirable qualities, but de- 
voted above all things to the aggrandizement of his see; and for this 
object he labored throughout his pontificate of eighteen years with skilful 
and vigorous exertion. Innocent boldly asserted, in a letter to the 
Patriarch of Constantinople, that to St. Peter had been committed, not 
only the whole church, but the whole world. By him that comparison 
of the spiritual and the secular powers to the sun and moon respectively 
which I have mentioned in connection with Gregory VII was elaborated 
and developed more strongly than before. As the moon (he says) 
borrows from the sun a light which is inferior both in amount and in 
quantity, so does the regal power borrow from the pontifical. As the 
light which rules over the day — i. e., over spiritual things — is the 
greater, and as that which rules over the night — i. e., over carnal things 
— is the lesser, so is the difference between pontiffs and kings like that 
between the sun and the moon. 

Innocent's words on this subject were adopted into the decretals 
compiled under the authority of Gregory IX; and a commentator, who 
probably took his measurements from the astronomy of the time, in- 
terprets them very precisely as meaning that the Pope is one thousand 
seven hundred and forty-four times more exalted than emperors and 
all kings. This was certainly no small advance from the original form 
of Hildebrand's illustration, in which the two powers were likened to the 
two eyes in the human head, as if they were equal and co-ordinate with 
each other. And in accordance with such lofty pretensions Innocent 
acted; he declared that the empire had been transferred from the 
Greeks to the Germans by the papal authority, and he claimed for the 
Papacy the right of " principally and finally " disposing of the imperial 
crown. . . . 

Throughout all the other kingdoms of Europe Innocent made him- 
self felt by the vigor and the vigilance of his administration, and not 
only by asserting the loftiest pretensions of the Roman see, but by 
enforcing the obligations of Christian morality. This was indeed (as I 
have already said while speaking of Nicolas I) one of the means 
which, by enlisting popular feeling on his side, as the cause of right 
and justice, by teaching men to regard the Pope as the vindicator of 
innocence against oppression, tended most powerfully to facilitate the 
advance of the Roman Pontiff to that position of supreme arbiter and 



352 



PAPACY, IJt lLDKKS OF, IN MX KM' 111. 



controller which he now attained among the kingdoms of Western 
Christendom. 

In whatever direction we may look, we see Innocent interfering 
with a high hand, and claiming for his office the right of giving laws 
to sovereigns. In France, Philip Augustus, by putting away his wife 
Ingeburga, a Danish princess, and entering into an irregular marriage 
with Agnes of Merania, gave the Pope a pretext for intervention. An 
interdict was pronounced on the whole kingdom; and, although Philip 
for a time endeavored to resist the sentence, and to evade his obliga- 
tions, the terrors of this sentence were so severely felt that he found 
himself compelled to yield to the general voice of his subjects, and to 
submit to the Pope's commands by doing a tardy justice to Ingeburga. 

Still more remarkable was Innocent's triumph as to England, where, 
taking advantage of the contemptible character of the sovereign, John, 
he forced his nominee, Stephen Langton, into the primacy, in disregard 
of the rights of the national church and of the crown, and brought the 
king to submit to resign his crowns into the hands of a legate, and to 
hold the kingdoms of England and Ireland on condition of paying a 
heavy annual tribute to the Papacy. 

In the East, the pontificate of Innocent was marked by an im- 
portant event. A crusading force, which had been gathered for the holy 
war of Palestine, allowed itself to be diverted to Constantinople, where 
it restored a dispossessed emperor to his throne; and after wards, when 
this emperor and his son had been again dethroned by a kinsman — 
when the younger prince had been murdered, and the father had died of 
grief — the crusaders put down the usurper, and established a Latin 
sovereignty in the capital of the Eastern Empire. The Pope had at 
first vehemently denounced the change of purpose from a war against 
the infidels to an attack on a Christian state; but the brilliant success 
of the expedition reconciled him to the irregularity, and he sanctioned 
the establishment of a Latin empire at Constantinople, with a Latin 
patriarch and clergy intruded to the exclusion of the hated native 
hierarchy of Greece. 

In the south of France, this pontificate was disgraced by the begin- 
ning of a war carried on with singular atrocity against the Albigensian 
heretics, which ended in the establishment of orthodoxy by the slaughter 
of multitudes, and in the desolation of the rich and flourishing country. 
It was in this war that the famous Spanish monk Dominic first became 
conspicuous, and to Innocent is to be referred the sanction of the two 
great mendicant orders — the Preaching Friars, founded by Dominic, 
and the Minorites, founded by Francis of Assisi. These orders enjoyed 
the especial favor of the Papacy, and, from the manner in which they 
penetrated, as none had before done, to the humblest classes of society, 
in them the Papacy found its most active and most serviceable agents. 

On the whole, it may be said that Innocent was the greatest and the 
most successful of popes. In him the power of the Roman see attained 
its height; and his successors, by endeavoring to carry it still higher, 
provoked a reaction which was disastrous to it. — " Plain Lectures on the 
Growth of the Papal Power,'" James Graigie Robertson, M. A., pp. 233- 
240. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. 

It was reserved, however, for Innocent III to realize most fully the 
ideas of Hildebrand. If Hildebrand was the Julius, Innocent was the 
Augustus, of the papal empire. He had not the creative genius nor the 
fiery energy of his great forerunner; but his clear intellect never 
missed an opportunity, and his calculating spirit rarely erred from its 
mark. A man of severe and lofty character, which inspired universal 
respect, he possessed all the qualities of an astute political intriguer. 



PAPACY, BUILDERS OF, BONIFACE VIII. 



353 



He was lucky in his opportunities, as he had no formidable antagonist; 
among the rulers of Europe his was the master mind. In every land he 
made the papal power decisively felt. In Germany, France, and 
England, he dictated the conduct of the kings. — "A History of the 
Papacy" M. Creighton, D. D., Vol. I, p. 21. London: Longmans, Green 
& Co., 1899. 

The first step in Innocent's plan was to make himself the political 
head of Europe. In Italy he first made himself absolute sovereign of 
Rome by removing all vestiges of imperial rule. The senators and the 
prefect, who held their commissions from the emperor, were required to 
take oaths to him as their sovereign. • The imperial judges were also 
replaced by his own appointees. By persuasion or tactful diplomacy he 
gained a mastery over the warring Roman nobles. From Rome he grad- 
ually extended his sway over the rest of Italy. He was made regent 
of Frederick II, the youthful son of Henry VI, now king of Sicily. He 
forced the Tuscan cities to recognize his suzerainty instead of that of 
the German emperor, and subdued the march of Ancona and the duchy 
of Spoleto. He posed as the champion of Italian independence and 
liberty against foreign rule. His leadership was generally recognized 
and he was called " The Father of His Country." " Innocent III was the 
first Pope who claimed and exercised the rights of an Italian prince." 
When Emperor Otto IV ceded all the lands claimed by the Papacy under 
grants from former rulers, an indisputable title to the Papal States was 
established. — " The Rise of the Mediwval Church," Alexander Clarence 
Flick, Ph. D., Litt. D., pp. 549, 550. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. 

No other wearer of the papal tiara has left behind him so many 
results pregnant with good and ill for the future of the church. Under 
him [Innocent III] the Papacy reached the culmination of its secular 
power and prerogatives. The principles of sacerdotal government were 
fully and intelligently elaborated. The code of ecclesiastical law was 
completed and enforced. All the Christian princes of Europe were 
brought to recognize the overlordship of the successor of St. Peter. 
All the clergy obeyed his will as the one supreme law. Heresy was 
washed out in blood. The Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals and the dreams 
of Hildebrand had been realized. Yet in this very greatness, wealth, 
and strength, were the germs of weakness and disease which were 
eventually to overthrow the great structure reared by Innocent III and 
his predecessors. — Id.? pp. 566, 567. 

Papacy, Builders of, Boniface VIII, His Quarrel with Philip 
the Fair of France. — The conflict began in 1296, when the Pope issued 
a bull, known from its initial words as Clericis laicos, which pronounced 
the ban on all princes and nobles who under any pretext imposed 
tallages on the church and clergy. Although the bull did not mention 
Philip by name, it was clearly aimed at him; the Pope's object being 
to induce Philip by fear of wanting supplies to refer his dispute with 
the English king Edward I to himself for decision. In this object he 
failed at the time, having entirely misjudged the character of his oppo- 
nent. Philip retaliated by prohibiting the exportation of gold and sil- 
ver out of France, thus depriving Boniface of an important portion of 
his revenues, and Boniface found it best for his own interests to repeal 
the bull with regard to France, and to court the favor of Philip. 
Friendly relations were restored, and Philip agreed to accept the arbi- 
tration of the Pope. Thus by a yielding policy Boniface succeeded in 
obtaining a success which he had been unable to gain by force; but 

23 



354 



PAPACY, BUILDERS OF, BONIFACE VIH. 



whilst the gain was personal, a sacrifice had been made of thi nity 
of his office. 

A year or two later the quarrel broke out afresh; Philip bt g dis- 
satisfied with the Pope's award; Boniface charging Philip with oppress- 
ing the church. Saiset de Pamiers, the papal legate, threatened the 
king with excommunication, his whole kingdom with the interdict. To 
Philip Boniface wrote: "Thou art to know that in things spiritual ->nd 
temporal thou art subject to us. . . . Those who think otherwise we 
hold to be heretics." The French prelates he summoned to Rome to 
confer with him on the abuses in Philip's administration; Philip him- 
self he cited to appear before them, bidding him observe, so the letter 
ran, " what the Lord our God utters through us." The celebrated bull, 
Unam, Sanctam, was put forth, repeating in a still more advanced form 
the principles of Innocent III, declaring that to St. Peter, as the one 
head of the church, and to his successors, two swords had been com- 
mitted, the one temporal, the other spiritual; that the temporal sword 
was to be used for the church, the spiritual oy the church; and con- 
cluding by the assertion that for every human being subjection to the 
Pope was necessary for salvation. To crown the whole, a bull was 
issued on April 13, 1303, pronouncing sentence of excommunication on 
the king. 

To all these menaces Philip replied with equal boldness; Saiset, the 
legate, who was moreover a subject of France, he contemptuously sent 
out of the kingdom unanswered. To Boniface's laconic letter he replied 
by one equally laconic: "Let thy most consummate folly know that in 
temporal things we are subject to no man. . . . Those who think other- 
wise we hold to be foolish or mad." He forbade the prelates to leave 
the kingdom, and sequestrated the goods of those who disobeyed, and 
assembling the States General, to assure himself of the support of his 
subjects, he recounted the attacks which had been made on his sover- 
eignty. The bull, Unam Sanctam,, was publicly burnt, and to the bull 
of excommunication he replied by preferring before the States General 
a list of charges against the Pope, and making a solemn appeal to a 
general council to examine these charges. Thus for the second time 
in Philip's reign an appeal was made from the Pope to a council; the 
sympathies of the States General were enlisted on the side of the king; 
and the weapon which Hildebrand had first employed against the clergy 
was now employed by Philip against Hildebrand's successor. 

The sequel of the struggle is soon told. Boniface had gone too far 
to be able to withdraw, and Philip was not disposed to give way. Whilst 
the Pope thought to celebrate his triumph over France, the handwriting 
was seen on the wall. Before Anagni, his native city, whither he had 
withdrawn with his cardinals from the summer heat of Rome, William 
de Nogaret, Philip's keeper of the seals, appeared on Sept. 7, 1303, at 
the head of a troop of armed men. He entered the city at early dawn, 
and soon the cry resounded: "Death to Pope Boniface! Long live the 
King of France! " The people took part with the soldiers; the car- 
dinals fled. 

Not losing his self-command, but declaring himself ready to die 
like Christ, if like Christ he were betrayed, Boniface put on the stole 
of St. Peter, and with the imperial crown on his head, the keys of St. 
Peter in one hand, the cross in the other, took his seat on the papal 
throne; and, like the Roman senators of old, awaited the approach of 
the Gaul. But he had not been three days in the hands of Nogaret, 
when the citizens of Anagni by a sudden impulse turned round; the 
French were driven from Rome, and Boniface was once more at liberty. 
To Rome he returned; no longer to exercise that sway over men's minds 
which he had wielded in the days of his prosperity, but to find himself 



PAPAL/ SUPREMACY, CLAIMS OF. 



355 



a pi ier, the Sacred College his enemies. In an access of fury, the 
Ghib' me historians relate, brought on by wounded pride and ambi- 
tion, ihe fallen Pontiff sat gnawing the top of his staff, and at length 
beat out his brains against the wall. 

In the fall of Boniface was shadowed forth the fall of the papal 
sur -remacy, which for so long had held dominion over men's minds and 
bo ies. In the bold and unscrupulous use of ecclesiastical power no 
Pcpe had ever been the equal of Boniface; there is nothing in the life 
of the great Innocent III which equals Boniface's crusade against the 
Colonnas, nothing in that of Gregory VII which approaches the series 
of bulls hurled at the head of Philip. Nevertheless, had all other signs 
of 'decline been wanting, and could the last scene of Boniface's life be 
expunged from history, those two appeals to a general council, that 
successful enlistment of the sympathies of the States General against 
Boniface, showed that the papal power had begun to decline. The year 
of Jubilee, with its lavish grant of indulgences, provoked the reaction 
which prepared the way for the era of the Reformation. — " The See of 
Rome in the Middle Ages," Rev. Oswald J. Reichel, B. C. L., M. A., pp. 
272-218. London: Longmans, Careen & Co., 1870. 

Papacy. — See Antichrist; Gregory VII; Holy Roman Empire; Lit- 
tle Horn; Reformation, 411; Sabbath, Change of. 

Papal Supremacy, Rivalry of Rome and Constantinople. — The 
Patriarch of Constantinople, however, remained virtually only primus 
inter pares [first among equals], and has never exercised a papal su- 
premacy over his colleagues in the East, like that of the Pope over 
the metropolitans of the West; still less has he arrogated, like his 
rival in ancient Rome, the sole dominion of the entire church. Toward 
the Bishop of Rome he claimed only equality of rights and co-ordinate 
dignity. 

In this long contest between the two leading patriarchs of Chris- 
tendom, the Patriarch of Rome at last carried the day. The monar- 
chical tendency of the hierarchy was much stronger in the West than in 
the East, and was urging a universal monarchy in the church. — " His- 
tory of the Christian Church" Philip Schaff, (7 vol. edition) Vol. Ill, 
pp. 285, 286. New York: Scribner's Sons, 1889. 

Papal Supremacy, Rome the Historic Seat of World Empire. — 
Then, too, considered even in a political point of view, old Rome had 
a far longer and grander imperial tradition to show, and was identified 
in memory with the bloom of the empire; while I\ew Rome marked the 
beginning of its decline. When the Western Empire fell into the hands 
of the barbarians, the Roman bishop was the only surviving heir of 
this imperial past, or, in the well-known dictum of Hobbes, " the ghost 
of the deceased Roman Empire, sitting crowned upon the grave thereof." 
— Idem, p. 287. 

Papal Supremacy, Advancing Claims. — Let me only add, with refer- 
ence to Pope Symmachus, who held the Pontificate at the opening of the 
sixth century, that a council having been convened at Rome, a. d. 501, 
by King Theodoric s command, to judge of certain charges against him, 
the council demurred on entering on the matter, on the ground of in- 
competency; considering that the person accused was supreme above 
all ecclesiastical jurisdiction. And, a little after (to crown all) another 
Roman synod [a. d. 503], with Symmachus himself presiding and con- 
senting, in the most solemn manner adopted a book written by En- 
nodius, in defense of the resolutions of the former synod: in which 



356 



PAPAL, SUPREMACY — JUSTINIAN. 



book it was asserted, ' • that the Pope was Judge as God's Vicar, and 
could himself be judged by no one." It was just in accordance with 
the previous Roman council, that had shouted in acclamation to Ge- 
lasius, "We behold in thee Christ's Vicar:" a term this sometimes 
incautiously applied before to bishops generally, in their own par- 
ticular restricted spheres of action, and in the character of Christ's 
ambassadors; but now attached to, and assumed by, this one bishop 
distinctively and alone, with the world itself as his sphere, and in 
the character of God's own appointed and supreme administrator and 
judge. It was a step per saltum, mightier than the imagination can 
well follow, by which he vaulted at once from the mere ecclesiastical 
rank of Patriarch, to that of supremacy over all the kings of the earth. 
The haughty assumption was repeated by Pope Boniface. So evi- 
dently, says Mosheim, was the foundation laid even thus early of the 
subsequent papal supremacy; so evidently, I must add, was it laid, 
both before kings and people, in papal pretensions that realized the 
precise predicted character and even appellation of Antichrist. — " Horce 
Apocalyptical," Rev. E. B. Elliott, A. M., part 4, chap. 5; Vol. Ill, pp. 
132-134, 3d edition. London: Seeley, Burnside, and Seeley, 1847. 

Note. — Antichrist means vice-Christ or vicar of Christ, the title formally as 
sumed. See "Antichrist, Vicar of Christ " and " Antichrist, Meaning of." — Eos. 

Papal Supremacy, the Pivotal Age of Justinian. — The sixth cen- 
tury may be called the age of Justinian. ... He may be likened to a 
colossal Janus bestriding the way of passage between the ancient and 
medieval worlds. ... On the one side his face was turned towards the 
past. His ideal, we are told, was to restore the proud aspect of the 
old Roman Empire. . . . Moreover, he represents the last stage in the 
evolution of the Roman Imperium; in him was fulfilled its ultimate 
absolutism. ... On the other hand, he was a great innovator and a 
destroyer of old things. . . . 

His military achievements decided the course of the history of 
Italy, and affected the development of Western Europe; . . . and his 
ecclesiastical authority influenced the distant future of Christendom. 
— "History of the Later Roman Empire," J. B. Bury, Trinity College. 
Dublin, Vol. I, pp. 351-353. Cambridge: Macmillan & Co., 1889. 

Papal Supremacy, Changes of a Generation. — The reign of Jus- 
tinian is more remarkable as a portion of the history of mankind, 
than as a chapter in the annals of the Roman Empire, or of the Greek 
nation. The changes of centuries passed in rapid succession before the 
eyes of one generation. — " Greece under the Romans," George Finlay. 
p. 231. Edinburgh and London: Wm. Blackwood and Sons, 1844. 

Papal Supremacy, Character of Justinian, by a Contemporary. — 
In his zeal to bring all men to agree in one form of Christian doctrine, 
he recklessly murdered all who dissented therefrom, under the pre- 
text of piety, for he did not think that it was murder, if those whom he 
slew were not of the same belief as himself. — " Secret History of the 
Court of Justinian" (attributed to Procopius, but authorship uncertain), 
chap. 13, p. 110. Athens: Athenian Society's Publications, 1896. 

Papal Supremacy, Description of Justinian. — A fair, fierce-look- 
ing, red-cheeked man, with long nose and shaven chin, and curly 
grizzled hair, rather thin about the crown, carrying his shapely figure 
with a fine air of distinction, and although now somewhat past the 
prime of life, still consciously vigorous with the strength of an iron 
constitution inherited from a hardy stock of Dacian peasants. . 



PAPAL SUPREMACY — JUSTINIAN. 



357 



" Of all the princes who reigned at Constantinople," writes Agathias, 
" he was the first to show himself absolute sovereign of the Romans in 
fact as well as in name" (Hist. V. 14). ... He gathered all the wires 
into his hands, and his puppets had to dance as he directed. Nor 
would he ever tolerate the least infraction of obedience, for he himself 
was perfectly persuaded that "nothing was greater, nothing more 
sacred, than the imperial majesty" (Cod. Just. I. xiv. 12). — "Life of 
Gregory the Great," F. H. Dudden, Vol. I, pp. 17-19. 

Papal Supremacy, Justinian's Impeeial Recognition of, in 533. — 
Justinian, victor, pious, fortunate, famous, triumphant, ever Augustus, 
to John, the most holy Archbishop and Patriarch of the noble city of 
Rome. Paying honor to the Apostolic See and to Your Holiness, as 
always has been and is our desire, and honoring your blessedness as 
a father, we hasten to bring to the knowledge of Your Holiness all that 
pertains to the condition of the churches, since it has always been our 
great aim to safeguard the unity of your apostolic 'see and the posi- 
tion of the holy churches of God which now prevails and abides se- 
curely without any disturbing trouble. Therefore we have been sedu- 
lous to subject and unite all the priests of the Orient throughout its 
whole extent to the see of Your Holiness.* Whatever questions happen 
to be mooted at present, we have thought necessary to be brought to 
Your Holiness's knowledge, however clear and unquestionable they may 
be, and though firmly held and taught by all the clergy in accordance 
with the doctrine of your apostolic see; for we do not suffer that any- 
thing which is mooted, however clear and unquestionable, pertaining 
to the state of the churches, should fail to be made known to Your 
Holiness, as being the head of all the churches. For, as we have said 
before, we are zealous for the increase of the honor and authority of 
your see in all respects. — Cod. Justin., lid. 1, title 1; Baronii "Annales 
Ecclesiastici," Tom. YII, an. 533, sec. 12; translation as given in " The 
Petrine Claims," R. F. Littledale, LL. D., D. C. L., p. 293. London: 
Society for Promoting Christian Knoivledge, 1889. 

Note. — The Latin of this letter follows: " Epistula Justinlani ad Joannem 
Rornanum rontiflcem, a. d. 533. — Reddentes honorem Apostolicse Sedi et vestrse 
sanctitati (quod semper nobis in voto et fuit et est) ut decet patrem honorantes 
vestram beatitudinem, omnia quse ad Ecclesiae statum pertinent, festinavimus 
ad notitiam deferre vestrse sanctitatis : quoniam semper nobis fuit magnum 
studium, unitatem vestrse Apostolicse Sedis, et statum sanctarum Dei Ecclesi- 
arum custodire, qui hactenus obtinet et incommote permanet, nulla intercedente 
contrarietate : Ideoque omnes sacerdotes universi Orientalis tractus et subjicere 
at unire vestrse sanctitati properavimus. In prsesenti ergo quse commota sunt, 
quamvis manifesta et indubitata sint, et secundum Apostolicse vestrse Sedis doc- 
trinam ab omnibus semper sacerdotibus firme custodita et prsedicata : necessarium 
duximus. ut ad notitiam vestrse sanctitatis perveniant. Nec enim patimur quic- 
quam quod ad Ecclesiarum statum pertinet. quamvis manifestum et indubitatum 
sit quod movetur, ut non etiam vestrse innotescat, sanctitati, quse caput est 
omnium sanctarum Ecclesiarum. Per omnia enim (ut dictum est) properamus 
honorem et auctoritatem erescere vestrse Sedis." — " Annales Ecclesiastici,'' Ccesare 
Baronio, Tom. VII, under 583, sec. 12, p. 280. Colonim Agrippinw: Joannis Qymnici, 
' and Antonij Hierati, sub Monocerote, 1609. 

Papal Supremacy, Date of Justinian's Lettek. — : The emperor's 
letter must have been sent before the 25th of March, 533. For, in his 
letter of that date to Epiphanius he speaks of its having been already 
dispatched, and repeats his decision, that all affairs touching the 
church shall be referred to the Pope, " Head of all bishops, and the 
true and effective corrector of heretics." [" Vel eo maxime, quod quoties 



1 This incidentally proves that the East had not been hitherto subject to the 
Roman see. — Littledale. 



358 



PAPAL SUPREMACY — JUSTINIAN. 



in his locis hceretici pullularunt, et sententia et recto judicio illius vene- 
rabilis sedis correcti sunt: 1 ] — " The Apocalypse of St. John;' Rev. George 
Croly. A. M.. p. 170. London: G. & J. Rivington, 1828. 

Papal Supremacy, Formally to be Recognized by Civil Authority. 
— The Papacy being a spiritual power within the limits of the Roman 
Empire, Mr. Faber argues, I think rightly, when he says, that the 
giving the saints into the hand of the Papacy must be by some formal 
act of the secular power of that empire constituting the Pope to be 
the head of the church. It is not, in fact, easy to conceive in what 
other mode the saints could be delivered into the hand of a spiritual 
authority, which, in its infancy at least, must have been in a great 
measure dependent upon the secular power for its very existence, and 
much more for every degree of active power which it was permitted to 
assume or exercise. 

Accordingly we are informed, by the unerring testimony of history, 
that an act of the secular government of the empire was issued in 
the reign of Justinian, whereby the Roman Pontiff was solemnly ac- 
knowledged to be the head of the church. . . . 

The epistle which was addressed to the Pope, and another to the 
Patriarch of Constantinople, were inserted in the volume of the civil 
law; thus the sentiments contained in them obtained the sanction of 
the supreme legislative authority of the empire; and in both epistles, 
the above titles were given to the Pope. 

The answer of the Pope to the imperial epistle was also published 
with the other documents; and it is equally important, inasmuch as 
it shows that he understood the reference that had been made to him, 
as being a formal recognition of the supremacy of the see of Rome. 

From the date of the imperial epistle of Justinian to Pope John, 
in March, 533, the saints, and times, and laws of the church, may 
therefore be considered to have been formally delivered into the hand 
of the Papacy, and this is consequently the true era of the 1260 years. 
— "A Dissertation on the Seals and Trumpets of the Apocalypse,'" 
William Guninghame, Esq., pp. 185, 186, 4th edition. London: Thomas 
Cadell, 1843. 

Papal Supremacy, Old Writers on Epoch of Justinian. — This 
epoch has not been fixed on, as a fit commencing epoch to the period of 
Papal supremacy, for the first time by modern commentrtorr:; or with 
a view only to the support of ex-post facto prophetic theories, that re- 
gard the French Revolution as the correspondent terminating epoch. 
It is an epoch noted by Protestant commentators, such as Brightman, 
Cressener, Mann, etc., anterior to the time of the French Revolution. 
Nay, Romanists too have remarked as early on it; for example the 
Jesuit Gordon,i and Gothofred, the learned editor of Justinian's Corpus 
Juris. The latter especially, speaking of Justinian's decretal epistle to 
the Pope, notes it as the first imperial recognition of the primacy of 
Rome over Constantinople; i. e., of the absolute primacy. "It is hence 
evident," he says, " that they who suppose Phocas to have been the 
first that gave imperial recognition to the primacy of the Roman see 
over that of Constantinople are in error; Justinian having acknowl- 
edged it before." 2 — "Hons Apocalypticw" Rev. E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol 
III, p. 253, 3d edition. London: Seeley, Burnside, and Seeley, 1847. 

1 Ad Ann. 533 : " Justinianus ad sum mum Pontificem legatos mittit, et epis- 
tolam de dubiis circa res fidei : in qua egregie Roman! Pontiflcis testatur prima 
turn, et omnium vocat ecclesiarum caput." 

2 " Hinc collige errare eos qui volunt Imperatorem Phocam primum pro Gre- 
gorio Magno Pontifice sententiam tulisse contra Joannem Patriarcham Constan- 
tinopolitanum ; cum ex his verbis constat tempore Justiniani primatum summo 
Pontifici donatum fuisse." So Gothofred. 



PAPAL SUPREMACY, SIEGE OF ROME. 



359 



Papal Supremacy, Justinian, Not Phocas, the Source. — Towards 
the close of tne sixtn century, John of Constantinople, surnamed for 
his pious austerities the Faster, summoned a council and resumed the 
ancient title of the see, " Universal Bishop." The Roman Bishop, 
Gregory the Great, indignant at the usurpation, and either hurried 
away by the violence of controversy, or, in that day of monstrous igno- 
rance, unacquainted with his own distinctions, furiously denounced 
Jonn, calling him a " usurper aiming at supremacy over the wnole 
church," and declaring, with unconscious truth, that whoever claimed 
such supremacy was Antichrist. The accession of Phocas at length 
decided the question. . . . That Phocas repressed the claim of the 
Bishop of Constantinople is beyond a doubt. But the highest au- 
thorities among the civilians and annalists of Rome spurn the idea 
that Phocas was the founder of the supremacy of Rome; they ascend 
to Justinian as the only legitimate source, and rightly date the title 
from the memorable year 533. — " The Apocalypse of St. John" Rev. 
George Croly, A. M., pp. 171-1/3, 2d edition. London: C. & J. Riving- 
ton, 1828. 

Papal Supremacy, Not Conferred by Phocas. — Paulus Diaconus 
and Anastasius,' the only original historians who mention the grant of 
Phocas, do it in such terms as to show that no new title was given by 
this emperor, but that he merely renewed and confirmed the title of 
head of all the churches, which had been granted by Justinian, but 
was afterwards disputed by the see of Constantinople, which wished 
to appropriate the title to itself. Besides, it may be observed, that the 
grant of Phocas has not been preserved, ana it wants the requisite for- 
mality of having been recorded in the volume of the laws of the empire. 
— "A Dissertation on the Seals and Trumpets of the Apocalypse," Wil- 
liam Gunxngname, pp. 187, 188, 4th edition. London: Thomas Gadell, 
1843. 

Papal Supremacy, Justinian's Design to Clear the Arian Power 
from Italy. — When Justinian first meditated the conquest of Italy, 
he sent ambassadors to the kings of the Franks, and adjured them, by 
the common ties of alliance ~ and religion, to join in the holy enter- 
prise against the Arians. — " The History of the Decline and Fall of the 
Roman Empire," Edivard Gibbon, chap. 41, par. 32 (Vol. IV, p. 175). 
New York: Harper & Brothers. 

Papal Supremacy, Belisarius's Army Let into Rome (a. d. 536) 
by the Clergy. — The Goths consented to retreat in the presence of a 
victorious enemy; to delay till the next spring the operations of of- 
fensive war; to summon their scattered forces; to relinquish their 
distant possessions, and to trust even Rome itself to the faith of its 
inhabitants. Leuderis, an ancient warrior, was left in the capital with 
four tnousand soldiers; a feeble garrison, which might have seconded 
the zeal, though it was incapable of opposing the wishes, of the Romans. 
But a momentary enthusiasm of religion and patriotism was kindled 
in their minds. They furiously exclaimed that the apostolic throne 
should no longer be profaned by the triumph or toleration of Arianism; 
that the tombs of the Caesars should no longer be trampled by the 
savages of the North; and, without reflecting that Italy must sink into 
a province of Constantinople, they iondly hailed the restoration of a 
Roman emperor as a new era of freedom and prosperity. The deputies 
of the Pope and clergy, of the senate and people, invited the lieutenant 
of Justinian to accept their voluntary allegiance, and to enter the city, 
whose gates would be thrown open for his reception. — Id., chap. 41, 
par. 22 (Vol. IV, p. 158). 



360 



PAPAL SUPREMACY, SIEGE OP ROME. 



Papal Supremacy, Unsuccessful Siege of Rome by Goths (537- 
538) . — The whole nation of the Ostrogoths had been assembled for the 
attack, and was almost entirely consumed in the siege of Rome. If 
any credit be due to an intelligent spectator, one third at least of their 
enormous host was destroyed in frequent and bloody combats under 
the walls of the city. . . . But every attempt was defeated by the in- 
trepid vigilance of Belisarius and his band of veterans, who, in the 
most perilous moments, did not regret the absence of their compan- 
ions; and the Goths, alike destitute of hope and subsistence, clamor- 
ously urged their departure before the truce should expire, and the 
Roman cavalry should again be united. One year and nine days after 
the commencement of the siege, an army, so lately strong and trium- 
phant, burned their tents, and tumultuously repassed [538] the Milvian 
bridge— Id., chap. 41, par. SO (Vol. IV, pp. 172, 173). 

Papal Supremacy, The Siege of 538 a Turning Point of Histoby. 

— With the conquest of Rome by Belisarius, the history of the ancient 

city may be considered as terminating; and with his defense against 
Witiges [a. d. 538], commences the history of the Middle Ages. — " Greece 
under the Romans," George F inlay, p. 295. Edinburgh and London: 
William Blackwood d Sons, 1844. 

Note. — The period known as the Middle Ages, roughly speaking, the age of 
the Papacy. — Eds. 

Papal Supremacy, Decisive Character of Gothic Defeat of 538. 

— Some of them [the retreating Goths] must have suspected the melan- 
choly truth that they had dug one grave deeper and wider than all, 
the grave of the Gothic monarchy in Italy. — " Italy and Her Invaders,'' 
Thomas Hodgkin, book 5, chap. 9, last par. 

The utter failure of the Gothic enterprise against Rome did not, 
as might have been expected, immediately bring about the fall of Ra- 
venna [the Gothic capital]. Unskilful as was the strategy of the Os- 
trogoths, there was yet far more power of resistance shown by them 
than by the Vandals. In three months the invasion of Africa had been 
brought to a triumphant conclusion. The war in Italy had now lasted 
for three years, two more were still to elapse before the fall of the 
Gothic capital announced even its apparent conclusion. — Id., chap. 10, 
first par. 

Papal Supremacy, The Struggle with the Goths fob Rome. — 
The Gothic war forms an important epoch in the history of the city 
of Rome; for within the space of sixteen years it changed masters five 
times, and suffered three severe sieges. Its population was almost de- 
stroyed. — " Greece under the Romans," George Finlay, p. 294. Edin- 
burgh and London: William Blackwood and Sons, 1844. 

Papal Supremacy, Passing of Old Rome.— It was the last time 
[on Belisarius's entry, in 536] that Imperial Rome — the old imperial 
Rome of Italy as distinguished from the new imperial Rome by the Bos- 
porus, the Rome created by Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Vespasian, 
Domitian, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus, Severus, and Caracalla — was to 
be seen by mankind. . . . Rome when it was entered by Belisarius was 
the Rome that mankind had known for centuries. . . . But this Rome 
was to be seen no more. When eighteen years later the Gothic war 
was ended, a battered ruin was all that remained; classical Rome had 



PAPAL SUPREMACY, NEW ORDER OF POPES. 361 



passed away forever, to be succeeded after a time by the squalid and 
miserable city which is the Rome of the Middle Ages. — "East and 
West Through Fifteen Centuries," C. F. Young, Vol. II, p. 222. 

Papal Supremacy, The Ancient Seat Preserved for the Papacy. — 
When, in 546, Totila, king of the Goths [who was in possession of the 
city], had resolved to make of Rome " pasture land for cattle," Beli- 
sarius wrote to dissuade him from putting such a barbaric idea into 
execution. " Beyond all doubt Rome surpasses all other cities in size 
and in worth. It was not built by the resources of one man, nor did it 
obtain its magnificence in a short time. But emperors and countless 
distinguished men, with time and wealth, brought together to this 
city architects, workmen, and all things needful from the ends of the 
earth; and left as a memorial to posterity of their greatness the glori- 
ous city, built by little and little, which you now behold. If it be in- 
jured, all ages will suffer, for thus would the monuments of the worth 
of the ancients be removed, and posterity would lose the pleasure of 
beholding them " (Be Bello Gothico, Hi, c. 22). — " Lives of the Popes 
in the Early Middle Ages," Rev. H. K. Mann, Vol. I, p. 17. 

Papal Supremacy, Imperial Arms Place Vigilius on Papal Seat, 
a' d. 538. — Vigilius, a pliant creature of Theodora, ascended the papal 
chair under the military protection of Belisarius (538-554). — "History 
of the Christian Church," Philip Schaff, Vol. Ill, p. 327. New York: 
Charles Scrioner's Sons, 1893. 

Papal Supremacy, A New Order of Popes Began a. d. 538. — Down 
to the sixth century all popes are declared saints in the martyrologies. 
Vigilius (537i-555) is the first of a series of popes who no longer bear 
this title, which is henceforth sparingly conferred. From this time on 
the popes, more and more involved in worldly events, no longer belong 
solely to the church; they are men of the state, and then rulers of 
the state. — "Medieval Europe," Bemont and Monod (revised by George 
Burton Adams), p. 120. New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1902. 

Papal Supremacy, Conferred by State, Used by State. — Under 
Vigilius the prestige of the Roman Church suffered most severely. The 
emperor had usurped the place of the Pope, and compelled him to ab- 
ject submission. ... As Rome's ascendancy had been vastly enhanced 
through the fourth ecumenical council (Chalcedon), so it sank to its 
lowest point through the fifth. And yet Vigilius's pontificate con- 
tained the germ of its revival. He it was, who, by a letter dated April, 
550, and by his appeal to the Frankish embassy at Byzantium, first 
pointed out the future alliance with the Frankish king, so pregnant of 
consequences in the future. — "History of All Nations," Vol. VII, "The 
Early Middle Ages," Julius von Pflugk-Harttung, pp. 221, 222. 

Note. — While it is the verdict of history that the prestige of the Papacy 
sank to the lowest point under Vigilius, because of the dominating spirit of 
Justinian, it is to be observed that this very use of the Papacy by Justinian 
established but the more securely the idea that the Pope wa* to command and 
direct in all ecclesiastical affairs. — Eds. 

Papal Supremacy, New Order of Popes Demands Sword. — Pela- 
gius [successor of Vigilius] endeavored to enlist the civil power in 



1 The exact date should be 538, as given in the quotation from Schaff's his- 
tory above. " From the death of Rilverius [June, 538] the Roman Catholic 
writers date the episcopacy of Vigilius."- — " History of the Popes," Archibald 
Bower, under year 538, Vol, II, p. 369. 



362 



PAPAL SUPREMACY, POPE AS KING. 



his aid. He wrote several letters to Narses, who seems to have shrunk 
from using violence, urging him to have no scruples in the matter. 
These letters are an unqualified defense of the principle of persecution. 

—''Dictionary of Christian Biography," art. " Pelagius (Pope)," Smith 
and Wace. 

Be not alarmed at the idle talk of some, crying out against perse- 
cution, and reproaching the church, as if she delighted in cruelty, 
when she punishes evil with wholesome severities, or procures the 
salvation of souls. He alone persecutes who forces to evil: but to 
restrain men from doing evil, or to punish them because they have 
done it, is not persecution or cruelty, but love of mankind. Now 
that schism, or a separation from the apostolic sees, is an evil, no man 
can deny; and that schismatics may and ought to be punished, even 
by the secular power, is manifest both from the canons of the church, 
and the Scripture. — Pope Pelagius to Narses, general of Justinian in 
Italy; cited in " The History of the Popes," Archibald Bower, Vol. I, p. 
372. Philadelphia: Griffith and Simon. 1847. 

Papal Supremacy, Recognized in Age of Persecution. — The reign 
of Justinian was a uniform yet various scene of persecution; and he 
aopears to have surpassed his indolent predecessors, both in the con- 
trivance of his laws and the rieor of their execution. The insufficient 
term of three months was as«igned for the conversion or exile of all 
heretics; and if he still connived at their precarious stay, they were 
deprived, under his iron yoke, not only of the benefits of society, 
but of the common birthright of men and Christians. — " The History of 
the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," Edward Gibbon, chap. 47, 
par. 24 (Vol. IV, pp. 528, 529). New York: Harper & Brothers. 

Papal Supremacy, The Pope Ruling as a King. — Long ages ago, 
when Rome through the neglect of the Western emperors was left to 
the mercy of the barbarous hordes, the Romans turned to one figure for 
aid and protection, and a«ked him to rule them; and thus, in this simple 
manner, the best title of all to kingly right, commenced the temporal sov- 
ereignty of the popes. And meekly stepping to the throne of Caesar, the 
vicar of Christ took up the scepter to which the emperors and kings of 
Europe were to bow in reverence through so many ages. — Rev. James 
P. Gonroy, in American Catholic Quarterly Review, April, 1911. 

Papal Supremacy, Followed by Dark Ages. — It is impossible to 
read the history of the early Middle Aeres without feeling that, for the 
first six centuries after the fall of the Western Empire, there is little or 
no progress. The night grows darker and darker, and we seem to get 
ever deeper into the mire. — ''Italy and Her Invaders," Thomas Hodg- 
Jcin, book 3, chap. 9 (Vol. II, p. 536). 

Papal Supremacy, Sir Isaac Newton on the Prophetic Period or 
Dan. 7:25. — Three times and a half; that is, for 1260 solar years, 
reckoning a time for a calendar year of 360 days, and a day for a solar 
year. After which the judgment is to ,sit, and they shall take away his 
dominion, not at once, but by degrees, to consume, and to destroy it 
unto the end. — '■ Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the 
Apocalypse of St. John," Sir Isaac Newton, part 1, chap 8, p. 114* Lon- 
don: J. Darby and T. Browne, 1733. 

Papal Supremacy, Bishop Newton on Daniel 7: 25. — We must 
therefore compute the time according to the nature and genius of 



PAPAL SUPREMACY, IN FRANCE. 



3 63 



the prophetic language. A time, then, and times, and half a time are 
three years and a half; and the ancient Jewish year consisting of twelve 
months, and each month of thirty days, " a time and times and half a 
time," or three years and a half, are reckoned in the Revelation 11: 2, 
3; 12: 6, 14, as equivalent to "forty and two months," or "a thousand 
two hundred and threescore days: " and a day in the style of the proph- 
ets is a year: " I have appointed thee each day for a year," saith God 
to Ezekiel 4: 6; and it. is confessed that "the seventy weeks" in the 
ninth chapter of Daniel are weeks of years; and consequently 1260 days 
are 1260 years. — " Dissertations on the Prophecies Thomas New- 
ton. D. £>., p. 247. London: William Tegg d- Co., 1849 (Preface dated 
1754). 

Papal Supremacy, Maintained in General till the French Rev- 
olution. — Till the French Revolution, the Papal power, notwithstanding 
the partial resistance which it experienced from some of the sovereigns 
of Europe, continued throughout all the central territories of the Roman 
Empire of the West to hold the saints in subjection. Neither in Italy, 
France, Spain, Portugal, nor Savoy, were the Protestants tolerated; and 
the only part of what may be considered a central part of the Western 
Empire, where toleration existed, was in some of the cantons of Swit- 
zerland. — "A Dissertation on the Seals and Trumpets of the Apocalypse,'' 
William Cuninghame, p. 194. London: Thomas Cadell, 1843. 

Papal Supremacy, The Papal Power in France Before the Revo- 
lution. — The church still enjoyed political power. No one in France 
had a legal right to live outside its pale. It controlled the schools; it 
kept the parish registers, on which a man's title to his property and 
his name depended; for the sake of Catholic truth it burned its adver- 
saries; and, through its censorship of the press, it silenced all assail- 
ing tongues. — " The French Revolution,'" Charles Edward Mallet, p. 15. 
New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 1900. 

Papal Supremacy, Another Pivotal ^ge, 1260 Years After Jus- 
tinian. — There is no period in the history of the world which can be 
compared, in point of interest and importance, to that which embraces 
the progress and termination of the French Revolution. In no former 
age were events of such magnitude crowded together, or interests so 
momentous at issue between contending nations. From the flame which 
was kindled in Europe, the whole world has been involved in conflagra- 
tion; and a new era has dawned upon both hemispheres from the effects 
of its extension. — ''History of Europe,'" Sir Archibald Alison, Bart., 
F. R. S. E., Vol. I, Introduction, p. 1, 9th edition. Edinburgh and Lon- 
don: William Blackwood and Sons, 1853. 

The Revolution had lasted five years. These five years are five 
centuries for France. Never perhaps on this earth, at any period since 
the Christian era, did any country produce, in so short a space of time, 
such an eruption of ideas, men, natures, characters, geniuses, talents, 
catastrophes, crimes, and virtues. — "History of the Girondists," Al- 
phonse de Lamartine, book 61. sec. 16 (Vol. III. p. 544 J. 

Papal Supremacy, End of Political Absolutism, Era of Consti- 
tutionalism. — Absolute monarchy breathed its last without a struggle. 
— Edmund Burke, "On the French Revolution" (of 1789); cited in 
•'Hone Apocalyptical," E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. Ill, pp. 299, 300, 3d 
edition. London : Seeley, Burnside, and Seeley, 1847. 



364 



PAPAL SUPREMACY, FRENCH REVOLUTION. 



Note The Papacy had stood for absolutism, not only in the church, but 

in the state. The terrible excesses of the Revolution constituted the protest of 
despair against an age-long system of which the Papacy had been a supporter. 

Papal Supremacy, The Old Interdict Returned upon the Church. 

On the 23d November [1793] atheism in France reached its extreme 

point, by a decree of the municipality ordering the immediate closing of 
all the churches, and placing the whole priests under surveillance. . . . 

48. The services of religion were now universally abandoned. The 
pulpits were deserted throughout all the revolutionized districts; bap- 
tism ceased; the burial service was no longer heard; the sick received 
no communion, the dying no consolation. A heavier anathema than that 
of papal power pressed upon the peopled realm of France — the anath- 
ema of Heaven, inflicted by the madness of her own inhabitants. — 
"History of Europe" Sir Archibald Alison, Bart., F. R. S. E., Vol III, 
p. 23, 9th edition. Edinburgh and London: William Blackwood and 
Sons, 1854. 

Papal Supremacy, Religion Itself Abolished by Papacy's Chief 
Supporter. — On Nov. 26, 1793, the Convention, of which seventeen bish- 
ops and some clergy were members, decreed the abolition of all religion. 
— "Age of Revolution" W. H. Hutton, p. 156. 

Papal Supremacy, Period Terminating in French Revolution. — 
And as the recognition of the supremacy of the Pope seemed thus to be 
complete in the year 533, on the part of the emperor [Justinian] who 
put the power in his hands, so, in like rapid and yet graduated progress, 
with the same appointed space intervening, the dominion of the Papacy 
was destroyed and disannulled in that kingdom which had been its chief 
stay for ages, in the year 1793, the power was wholly taken out of the 
hands of the Pope, and infidelity, or rather atheism, was proclaimed, 
and popery abolished. 

" The churches were in most districts of France closed against 
priests and worshipers — - the bells were broken, and cast into canon — 
and the whole ecclesiastical establishment destroyed." — ScotVs " Life of 
Napoleon," Vol. II, p. 306; quoted in " The Signs of the Times," Rev. 
Alexander Keith, Vol. II, pp. 93, 94, 3d edition. Edinburgh: William 
Whyte & Co., 1833. 

Papal Supremacy, Retribution: He That Took the Sword Slain 
by the Sword. — It is mentioned by Burke that the ancient chronicles 
were searched and cited by the revolutionary leaders, in exemplification 
of the cruelty of papists in other days against those whom they called 
heretics: and that, more especially, the horrid Huguenot massacre of 
St. Bartholomew's Day was represented in the theater; the Cardinal de 
Lorraine, in his robes of function, being depicted as the chief actor and 
instigator. Nor was it in vain. At Paris (witness especially the Sep- 
tembrist massacres in the prisons), at Lyons, in La Vandee, and else- 
where, the examples thus set before them were copied too faithfully: 
copied by a populace again " drunk with fanaticism; " only not, as 
once, that of popery, but of atheism, — not as once against Protestant 
fellow citizens, but against papists. The shootings, the drownings, the 
roastings of the Roman Catholic loyalists, both priests and nobles (not 
to speak of other injuries great, yet less atrocious), had all their proto- 
types in the barbarities of another age, practised under the direction 
of the Pope and French papists, both priests and nobles, against their 
innocent Huguenot fellow countrymen. — " Horw Apocalypticce," Rev. 
E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. Ill, pp. 321. 322, 3d edition. London: Seeley, 
Burnside, and Seeley, 1847. 



PAPAL, SUPREMACY, RETRIBUTION. 



366 



Papal Supremacy, Reaping What Had Been Sown.— Of the hor- 
rors of the French Revolution it were needless to write. It is enough 
to say, that the blood of the saints began to be avenged. France had 
for ages yielded the neck to the papal yoke, and lent its aid to bind it 
on other nations; but never, even under the dictation of the Abbot of 
Citeaux, did the counts, or knights, and soldiers of France exercise more 
atrocious cruelties against the saints of the Most High, than those of 
which churchmen and loyalists were then the victims. Tithes were abol- 
ished; monasteries suppressed; church lands confiscated; the priests 
despoiled and beggared; and, at a time when every other form of faith 
was tolerated, and atheism itself esteemed rather a virtue than a vice, 
and religious liberty proclaimed, the clergy of France were required to 
abjure all allegiance to the see of Rome, and that church was " deprived 
of its earthly power," or the dominion forcibly taken from its hands. — 
" The Signs of the Times," Rev. Alexander Keith, Vol. II, pp. 114, 115, 
3d edition. Edinburgh: William Whyte & Co., 1833. 

Papal Supremacy, A Stroke of the Swoed at Rome. — Begun in 
France, the spoliation of the . . . church, and of its papal patron and 
head, spread quickly into the other countries of Christendom. A propa- 
gandist spirit, in respect of this as in respect of its other principles, was 
one of the essential characteristics of the Revolution; and the tempests 
of war gave it wings. Its first translation was into Belgium and the 
Rhenish provinces of Germany; the latter the chief seat, as Ranke ob- 
serves, of the ecclesiastical form of government. Thither it brought 
with it ecclesiastical changes analogous to those in France. 

In the years 1796, 1797, French dominion being established by Bona- 
parte's victories in northern Italy, it bore with it thither the similar 
accompaniment, as of French democratism and infidelity, so too of 
French anti-papalism. And then, Rome itself being laid open to Bona- 
parte, and the French armies urging their march onward to the papal 
capital, the Pope only saved himself and it by the formal cession in the 
Treaty of Tolentino of the legations of Ferrara, Bologna, and Romagna 
(Peter's Patrimony), together with the city of Ancona; the payment of 
above £1,500,000 sterling, — a sum multiplied threefold by exactions and 
oppression, — and the surrender of military stores, and of a hundred of 
the finest paintings and statues in the Vatican. The French ambassador 
wrote from Rome to Bonaparte: " The payment stipulated by the treaty 
of Tolentino has totally exhausted this old carcass: we are making it 
consume by a slow fire." It was the very language of an Apocalyptic 
metaphor. The aged Pope himself, now left mere nominal master of 
some few remaining shreds of the Patrimony of Peter, experienced in 
person soon after the bitterness of the prevailing antipapal spirit. In 
the Sistine Chapel of the Vatican, the ante-hall to which is covered with 
frescoes representing the massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day, (was the 
scene ordered as a memento of God's retributive justice?) while seated 
on his throne, and receiving the congratulations of his cardinals on the 
anniversary of his election to the popedom, he was arrested [February, 
1798] by the French military, the ring of his marriage with the Church 
Catholic torn from his finger, his palace rifled, and himself carried pris- 
oner into France, only to die there in exile shortly after. — " Horw Apoca- 
lyptical," Rev. E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. Ill, pp. 351-353, 3d edition. 
London: Seeley, Burnside, and Seeley, 1847. 

Papal Supremacy, French Plans to End the Papacy. — One of the 
first measures of the new government was to dispatch an order to 
Joseph Buonaparte at Rome, to promote, by all the means in his power, 
the approaching revolution in the papal states; and above all things to 



PAPAL SUPREMACY, DEPOSITION OF POPE. 



take care that, at the Pope's death [he was ill, 1797], no successor 
should be elected to the chair of St. Peter.i — "History of Europe;' Sir 
Archibald Alison, Bart., F. R. S. E., Vol. IV, p. 129, 9th edition. Edin- 
burgh: William Blackwood & Sons, 1854. 

Papal Supremacy, Deposition of 1798, Another View. — One day 
[February, 1798] the Pope was sitting on his throne in a chapel of the 
Vatican, surrounded by nis cardinals who had assembled for the pur- 
pose of offering him their congratulations on his elevation to his high 
dignity. On a sudden, the shouts of an angry multitude penetrated to 
the conclave, intermingled with tne strokes of axes and hammers on the 
doors. Very soon a band of soldiers burst into the hall, who tore away 
from his finger his pontifical ring, and hurried him off, a prisoner, 
through a hall, the walls of which were adorned with a fresco, repre- 
senting the armed satellites of the Papacy, on St. Bartholomew's Day, 
as bathing their swords in the blood of unoffending women and helpless 
children. Thus it might seem as if he were to be reminded that the 
same God who visits the iniquities of the fathers upon the children unto 
the third and fourth generation, had made him the victim of his re- 
tributive justice for a deed of atrocity which had long been crying aloud 
to him for vengeance. The Pope, after having been hurried away from 
his territory, and treated with every indignity, at length died at Va- 
lence m Dauphny [France] in 1799.2 — "Epochs of the Papacy," Rev. 
Arthur Robert Pennington. M. A., F. R. Hist. Soc, pp. 449, 450. London: 
George Bell and Sons, 1881. 

Papal Supremacy, the Pope Removed by Force of Arms. — The 
Pope, who had been guarded by five hundred soldiers ever since the 
entry of the Republicans, was directed to retire into Tuscany; his Swiss 
guard relieved by a French one, and he himself ordered to dispossess 
himself of all his temporal authority. He replied, with the firmness of 
a martyr, " I am prepared for every species of disgrace. As supreme 
Pontiff, I am resolved to die in the exercise of all my powers. You may 
employ force — you have the power to do so ; but know that though you 
may be masters of my body, you are not so of my soul. Free in the 
region where it is placed, it fears neither the events nor the sufferings 
of this life. I stand on the threshold of another world; there I shall be 
sheltered alike from the violence and impiety of this." Force was soon 
employed to dispossess him of his authority; he was dragged from the 
altar in his palace, his repositories were all ransacked and plundered, 
the rings even torn from his fingers, the whole effects in the Vatican and 
Quirinal inventoried and seized, and the aged Pontiff conducted, with 
only a few domestics, amidst the brutal jests and sacrilegious songs of 
the French dragoons, into Tuscany. — "History of Europe" Sir Archi- 
bald Alison Bart., F. R. S. E., Vol IV. p. 131, 9th edition. Edinburgh: 
William Blackwood & Sons, 1854. 

Papal Supremacy, Europe Thought Papacy Dead. — When, in 1797, 
Pope Pius VI fell grievously ill, Napoleon gave orders that in the event 
of his death no successor should be elected to his office, and that the 
Papacy should be discontinued. 

But the Pope recovered. The peace was soon broken; Berthier 
entered Rome on the tenth of February, 1798, and proclaimed a republic. 

1 La R6velliere-Lepaux, the president of the Directory, wrote to Napoleon, 
" In regard to Rome, the Directory cordially approve of the instructions you 
have given to your brother, to prevent a successor being appointed to Pius VI. 
We must lay hold of the present favorable circumstances to deliver Europe from 
the pretended papal supremacy." — Corrcsp. Conftd., iv 21& (Oct. 21, 1797). 

2 Botta, lib. xiii. p. 79 : lib. xvi. p. 412. 



PAPAL SUPREMACY, END OF. 



367 



The aged Pontiff refused to violate his oath by recognizing it, and wae 
hurried from prison to prison in France. Broken with fatigue and sor- 
rows, he died on the nineteenth of August, 1799, in the French fortress 
of Valence, aged eighty-two years. No wonder that half Europe thought 
Napoleon's veto would be obeyed, and that with the Pope the Papacy 
was dead. — " The Modern Papacy,'" Rev. Joseph Rickaoy, fif. J. (Jesuit 
Society), p. 1. London: Catholic Truth Society. 

Papal Supremacy, The Papacy Apparently Extinct. — The Papacy 
was extinct: not a vestige of its existence remained; and among all the 
Roman Catholic powers not a finger was stirred in its defense. The 
Eternal City had no longer prince or pontiff; its bishop was a dying 
captive in foreign lands; and the decree was already announced that no 
successor would be allowed in his place. — " Rome and Its Papal Rulers" 
Rev. George Trevor, Canon of York, p. 440. 

Note. — Thus, in a. d. 533 came the notable decree of the Papacy's powerful 
supporter, recognizing its supremacy ; and then the decisive stroke by the sword 
at Rome in a. d. 538, cleaving the way for the new order of popes — the rulers 
of state. 

Exactly 1260 years later, in 1793. came the notable decree of the Papacy's 
once powerful supporter. France, — " the eldest son of the church," — aiming to 
abolish church and religion, followed by a decisive stroke with the sword at Rome 
against the Papacy, in 1798. — Eds. 

Papal Supremacy, End of, Seen as a Fulfilment of Prophecy. — 
The downfall of the papal government, by whatever means effected, excited 
perhaps less sympathy than that of any other in Europe: the errors, the 
oppressions, the tyranny of Rome over the whole Christian world, were 
remembered with bitterness; many rejoiced, through religious antip- 
athy, in the overthrow of a church which they considered as idolatrous, 
though attended with the immediate triumph of infidelity; and many 
saw in these events the accomplishment of prophecies, and the exhibi- 
tion of signs promised in the most mystical parts of the Holy Scriptures. 
— " History of France from 1790," John Leycester Adolphus, Vol. II, p. 
379. London, 1803. 

Papal Supremacy, Clarke on Closing Events of Period. — " Until 
a time and times and the dividing of time." In prophetic language a 
time signifies a year; and a prophetic year has a year for each day. 
Three years and a half (a day standing for a year, as in chap. 9: 24) 
will amount to one thousand two hundred and sixty years, if we reckon 
thirty days to each month, as the Jews do. 

If we knew precisely when the papal power began to exert itself in 
the antichristian way, then we could at once fix the time of its destruc- 
tion. The end is probably not very distant; it has already been griev- 
ously shaken by the French. In 1798 the French republican army under 
General Berthier took possession of the city of Rome, and entirely 
superseded the whole papal power. This was a deadly wound, though 
at present it appears to be healed. — Commentary, Adam Clarke. LL. D.. 
on Dan. 7:25, Vol. IV, p. 597. New York: Phillips and Hunt. 

Papal Supremacy, Supremacy Ended, but Papacy Recovered. — 
Many of the men in those days [of 1798] imagined that the dominion 
of the Pope had come to an end, and that the knell of the temporal 
power was then sounding among the nations. This supposition, how- 
ever, proved to be erroneous. The French republicans were very anx- 
ious that Rome should not have another Pope. But as the reverses of 
the revolutionary armies had left southern Italy to its ancient masters, 
the cardinals were able to proceed to an election at Venice. They elected 



368 



PAPAL SUPREMACY, END OF. 



on March 14, 1800, Barnabas Chiaromonti, who assumed the name of 
Pius VII. 

The first transaction of this Pope was a negotiation with the gov- 
ernment of France, of which Napoleon Buonaparte was the First Con- 
sul, [p. 450] ... He [Napoleon] felt that, as the large majority of the 
inhabitants of France knew no other form of faith than Romanism, it 
must become the established religion of the country. Accordingly we 
find that he now began negotiations with the Pope, which issued in a 
Concordat in July, 1801, whereby the Roman Catholic religion was once 
more established in France. He also left Pius in possession of his 
Italian principality, [p. 452] — "Epochs of the Papacy," Rev. Arthur 
Robert Pennington, M. A., F. R. Hist. Soc., pp. 450, 452. London: 
George Bell & Sons, 1881. 

Papal Supremacy, Pope Again Exiled by the Revolution. — He 
[Pius VII] was assailed with one demand after another, his compliance 
with which would have involved the loss of his temporal power. He was 
firm in his determination not to surrender those which he considered 
to be the inalienable rights of the Papacy. Napoleon hereupon took 
possession of Rome with a large body of troops, and assumed the gov- 
ernment of the papal territory. A decree was passed on May 17, 1809, 
formally annexing che remaining papal territories to the empire. Then 
followed in rapid succession the bull of excommunication against the 
emperor, the seizure of the Pope's person by the French commander on 
account of the strong impression which it made on the public mind in 
Rome, and his imprisonment, first at Grenoble, afterwards at Savona, 
and finally at Fontainbleau [France], where he remained in close con- 
finement till the overthrow of Napoleon in 1814. . . . Then followed his 
[Napoleon's] abdication, after which Pius was at liberty to return to his 
territories. He entered Rome on May 24. 1814, after an absence of five 
years. 

Many even of the devoted adherents of Papal Rome, when they 
witnessed, during the period just described, one judgment after another 
descending upon her, imagined that the time of her long domination 
had come to an end, and that her glory was extinguished forever. 
That supposition proved to be erroneous. The princes restored after 
the fall of Napoleon, convinced that, in their warfare with the Church 
of Rome, they had struck down a power which could aid them in curbing 
the evil spirits of democracy and anarchy, endowed it with a greater 
than its original strength, that it might assist them in subduing the 
domestic enemies who were banded together against them. — Id., pp. 
454-456. 

Papal Supremacy, Revolution Still Pursued the Pope. — From 
that time [late in 1848. — Eds.] law and order disappeared from the holy 
city. The chamber of deputies -vas without power, and became so weak- 
ened by the withdrawal of many members that it was scarcely compe- 
tent to form legal resolutions; the democratic popular club, together 
with the rude mob of Trastevere, controlled matters. Many cardinals 
withdrew; Pius IX was guarded like a prisoner. 

Enraged at these acts and threatened as to his safety, the Pope 
finally [November 24] fled to Gaeta, in disguise, aided by the Bavarian 
ambassador Count Spaur. Here he formed a new ministry and entered 
a protest against all proceedings in Rome. This move procured at first 
the most complete victory for the republican party in the Tiberian city. 
A new constitutional assembly was summoned, which in its first sitting 
deprived the Papacy of its worldly authority, established the Roman 
republic, and resolved to work for the union of Italy under a democratic- 
republican form of rule. A threat of excommunication from the Pope 



PAPAL SUPREMACY, END OF. 



369 



was met with scorn by the popular union/ — " The Historians' History of 
the World," Henry Smith Williams, LL. D., Vol. IX, pp. 596, 597. New 
York: The Outlook Company, 1904. 

The Pope did not return to Rome till the beginning of April, 1850. 
As all the world knows, Louis Napoleon insured his safety from his 
enemies by surrounding him with a guard of his own soldiers. He 
brought back with him the worst abuses of his predecessors. After his 
return, he became the uncompromising champion of absolutism. — 
''Epochs of the Papacy," Rev. Arthur Robert Pennington, M. A., F. R. 
Hist. Soc, p. 463. London: George Bell & Sons, 1881. 

Papal Supremacy, The Decree of Infallibility Followed by Loss 
of Temporal Power. — It is a remarkable coincidence that the promul- 
gation of the dogma of Papal Infallibility [July 18, 1870] was followed 
on the very next day, July 19, by the breaking out of the war between 
France and Germany, and very soon by the defeat of Louis Napoleon, 
the Pope's protector, the recall of the French troops to their native 
country, the entrance of the troops of the king of Italy within the 
walls of Rome on Sept. 20, 1870, and the transfer of the Italian capital 
to Rome by the suffrages of the Romans themselves on July 3, 1871, 
when, amid the acclamations of assembled thousands, Victor Emmanuel 
rode through the streets of the Eternal City. After these events the 
Pope [Pius IX] was left in possession of the Vatican, to which he con- 
fined himself during the last years of his life. — " Epochs of the Papacy" 
Rev. Arthur Robert Pennington, M. A., F. R. Hist. Soc, p. 412. London: 
George Bell & Sons, 1881. 

Papal Supremacy, Rome's History Connecting Past and Present. 
— Rome is the meeting place of all history; the papal succession, oldest 
and newest in Europe, filling the space from Caesar and Constantine 
to this democratic world of the twentieth century, binds all ages into 
one and looks out towards a distant future in many continents. — " The 
Papal Monarchy," William Francis Barry, D. D., p. 428. London: T. 
Fisher Unwin; New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1902. 

Papal Supremacy, Speaking "Great Words" (Dan. 7:25). — See 
Little Horn, 286-289; Pope, Exaltation of, 376-379; Rome, 428. 

Papal Supremacy, Wearing Out Saints (Dan. 7: 25). — See Little 
Horn; Massacre; Persecution. 

Papal Supremacy, Tiiinking to Change Times and Laws. — See 
Little Horn; Sabbath, Change of, 474. 

Papal Supremacy, Prophetic Period of 1260 Years. — See French 
Revolution; Two Witnesses of Revelation 11; Year-Day Principle. 

Papal Supremacy. — See Councils, 123, 124; French Revolution, 
173; Seven Churches, 491. 

Pardon, for Sin. — See Indulgences; Keys, Power of. 

Passover.— See Easter, Seventy Weeks, 523, 524, 525. 

Penance, Defined. — The Latin word poznitentia ( from punire in 
an archaic form pcenire) means sorrow or regret, and answers to the 
Greek ner&voia, change of mind or heart. As a theological term, pen- 
ance is first the name of a virtue which inclines sinners to detest their 
24 



370 



PENANCE. 



sins because they are an offense against God. Then penance came to 
mean the outward acts by which sorrow for sin is shown. . . . 

In a more restricted sense still, penance is used for the penitential 
discipline of the church, or even for the third station of public peni- 
tents (so, e. g., I. Concil. Tolet. canon 2), and again for the satisfaction 
which the priest imposes on the penitent before absolving him from his 
sins. Lastly, penance is a sacrament of the new law instituted by 
Christ for the remission of sin committed after baptism. 

So understood, penance is denned as a " sacrament instituted by 
Christ in the form of a judgment for the remission of sin done after 
baptism, this remission being effected by the absolution of the priest, 
joined to true supernatural sorrow, true purpose of amendment, and 
sincere confession on the part of the sinner." The Council of Trent 
(Sess. XIV) defines that priests have real power to remit and retain 
sins, that persons are bound by the law of God to confess before the 
priest each and every mortal sin committed after baptism, so far as the 
memory can recall it, and also such circumstances as change the nature 
of these sins, and that the sacrament of penance is absolutely necessary 
for the forgiveness of post-baptismal sin. 

It is true that perfect sorrow for sin which has offended so good 
a God at once and without the addition of any external rite blots out 
the stain and restores the peace and love of God in the soul. " There 
is no condemnation to those who are in Christ Jesus, who walk not 
after the flesh, but after the Spirit." But this perfect sorrow involves 
in a well-instructed Catholic the intention of fulfilling Christ's precept 
and receiving the sacrament of penance when opportunity occurs. 

This implicit desire of confession and absolution may exist in many 
Protestants who reject the Catholic doctrine on this point. They desire 
the sacrament of penance in this sufficient sense, that they earnestly 
wish to fulfil Christ's law, so far as they can learn what it is. In this 
sense the sacrament is necessary for the salvation of those who have 
fallen into mortal sin after baptism. They must receive it actually or 
by desire, this desire being either explicit or implicit. This point is of 
capital importance for the apprehension of Catholic doctrine. We in 
no way deny that God is ready to forgive the sins of non-Catholics who 
are in good faith and who turn to him with loving sorrow. — "A Catho- 
lic Dictionary," William E. Addis and Thomas Arnold, M. A., art. " Pen- 
ance," p. 697. New York: Benziger Brothers, 1893. 

Penance, Canon on. — Canon I. If any one saith that in the Cath- 
olic Church penance is not truly and properly a sacrament, instituted 
by Christ our Lord for reconciling the faithful unto God, as often as 
they fall into sin after baptism; let him be anathema. — " Dogmatic 
Canons and Decrees," p. 115. New York: The Devin- Adair Compc 
1912. 

Pepin (Pipin, Pippin). — See Rome, Its Barbarian Invader 453. 
454; Temporal Power of the Pope, 548-550. 

Pergamos, Chaldean College at. — See Babylon, 67. 

Persecution and Punishment, Roman Catholic View of. — Per- 
secution cannot be lawful in favor either of truth or error. I mean 
persecution properly so called, that is to say, violence employed against 
an unoffending religion or error. But if such religion or error becomes, 
on the contrary, turbulent and hurtful, its acts may be reproved like 
any other offense, in which case it suffers punishment, not persecution. 
In the same way, if a member of the church becomes unfaithful, and 



PERSECUTION DEFENDED. 



371 



falls into heresy, or commits some other great crime, such member can 
be punished by the ecclesiastical authority on whom he depends. The 
church [i. e. the Church of Rome] has a right not only to censure her 
subjects, but, if she thinks proper, she can also inflict external penal- 
ties, and have recourse to the secular power. In this case it would 
be punishment and not be persecution that the offender would undergo. 
— "A Course of Religious Instruction." Rev. Father F. X. Schouppe. 
S. J. (R C), p. 74* 

Persecution Justified by St. Thomas Aquinas. — If counterfeiters 
of money or other criminals are justly delivered over to death forth- 
with by the secular authorities, much more can heretics, after they are 
convicted of heresy, be not only forthwith excommunicated, but as surely 
put to death. — " Summa Theologica" St. Thomas Aquinas (R. C), 2a 
2ae, qu. xi, art. Hi ("Moral Theology," Second of the Second, question 
11. article 3). 

Persecution Defined. — There is not complete religious liberty 
where any one sect is favored by the state and given an advantage by 
law over other sects. Whatever establishes a distinction against one 
class or sect is, to the extent to which the distinction operates unfavor- 
ably, a persecution; and if based on religious grounds, a religious per- 
secution. The extent of the discrimination is not material to the prin- 
ciple; it is enough that it creates an inequality of right or privilege. 
— "A Treatise on the Constitutional Limitations" Thomas M. Cooley. 
LL. D., pp. 575, 576 (6th ed.J. Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1890. 

Persecution Defended. — Every part is referred to the whole as 
the imperfect to the perfect; and therefore every part naturally exists 
for the whole. And therefore we see that if it be expedient for the 
welfare of the whole human body that some member should be ampu- 
tated, as being rotten and corrupting the other members, the amputa- 
tion is praiseworthy and wholesome. But every individual stands to 
the whole community as the part to the whole. Therefore, if any man 
be dangerous to the community, and be corrupting it by any sin, the 
killing of him for the common good is praiseworthy and wholesome. 
For " a little leaven corrupteth the whole lump." . . . 

Man by sinning withdraws from the order of reason, and thereby 
falls from human dignity, so far as that consists in man being nat- 
urally free and existent for his own sake; and falls in a manner into 
the state of servitude proper to beasts, according to that of the psalm: 
"Man when he was in honor did not understand: he hath matched 
himself with senseless beasts and become like unto them; " and, "The 
fool shall serve the wise." And therefore, though to kill a man, while 
he abides in his native dignity, be a thing of itself evil, yet to kill a 
man who is a sinner may be good, as to kill a beast. For worse is an 
evil man than a beast, and more noxious, as the philosopher says. — 
"Aquinas Ethicus," Joseph Rickaoy, S. J. (R. C), Vol. II, pp. 40, 41. 
London: Burns and Oates, 1892. 

The church has persecuted. Only a tyro in church history will 
deny that. . . . One hundred and fifty years after Constantine the 
Donatists were persecuted, and sometimes put to death. . . . Protes- 
tants were persecuted in France and Spain with the full approval of 
the church authorities. We have always defended the persecution of 
the Huguenots, and the Spanish Inquisition. Wherever and whenever 
there is honest Catholicity, there will be a clear distinction drawn be- 
tween truth and error, and Catholicity and all forms of heresy. When 



372 



PERSECUTION, RESPONSIBILITY FOB. 



she thinks it good to use physical force, she will use it. . . . But will 
the Catholic Church give bond that she will not persecute at all? 
Will she guarantee absolute freedom and equality of all churches and 
all faiths? The Catholic Church gives no bonds for her good behavior. 

— The Western Watchman (R. C). Dec. 24, 1908. 

The principal teachers of the church held back for centuries from 
accepting in these matters the practice of the civil rulers; they shrank 
particularly from such stern measures against heresy as torture and 
capital punishment, both of which they deemed inconsistent with the 
spirit of Christianity. But, in the Middle Ages, the Catholic faith be- 
came alone dominant, and the welfare of the commonwealth came to be 
closely bound up with the cause of religious unity. King Peter of Ara- 
gon, therefore, but voiced the universal conviction when he said: "The 
enemies of the cross of Christ and violators of the Christian law are 
likewise our enemies and the enemies of our kingdom, and ought there- 
fore to be dealt with as such." — The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. VIII, 
art. " Inquisition" p. 85. 

Persecution, Responsibility foe.—— In the bull Ad Exstirpanda 
(1252) Innocent IV says: "When those adjudged guilty of heresy have 
been given up to the civil power by the bishop or his representative, 
or the Inquisition, the podestd, or chief magistrate, of the city shall 
take them at once, and shall, within five days at the most, execute the 
laws made against them." . . . Nor could any doubt remain as to what 
civil regulations were meant, for the passages which ordered the burn- 
ing of impenitent heretics were inserted in the papal decretals from 
the imperial constitutions Commissis nobis and Inconsutibilem tuni- 
cam. The aforesaid bull Ad Exstirpanda remained thenceforth a fun- 
damental document of the Inquisition, renewed or re-enforced by several 
popes, Alexander IV (1254-61), Clement IV (1265-68), Nicholas IV 
(1288-92), Boniface VIII (1294-1303), and others. The civil authori- 
ties, therefore, were enjoined by the popes, under pain of excommuni- 
cation, to execute the legal sentences that condemned impenitent here- 
tics to the stake. — Id., p. 34. 

Early in the year the most sublime sentence of death was promul 
gated which has ever been pronounced since the creation of the world. 
The Roman tyrant [Nero] wished that his enemies' heads were all 
upon a single neck, that he might strike them off at a blow; the In- 
quisition assisted Philip [II of Spain] to place the heads of all his 
Netherland subjects upon a single neck for the same fell purpose. 
Upon Feb. 16, 1568, a sentence of the Holy Office condemned all the 
inhabitants of the Netherlands to death as heretics. From this uni- 
versal doom only a few persons, especially named, were excepted. A 
proclamation of the king, dated ten days later, confirmed this decree 
of the Inquisition, and ordered it to be carried into instant execution, 
without regard to age, sex, or condition. This is probably the most 
concise death warrant that was ever framed. Three millions of people, 
men, women, and children, were sentenced to the scaffold in three 
lines. — " The Rise of the Dutch Republic" John Lothrop Motley, D. C. L., 
LL. D., part 3, chap. 2, par. 12 (Vol. I, p. 626). New*York: A. L. Burt. 

Therefore by this present apostolical writing we give you a strict 
command that, by whatever means you can, you destroy all these here- 
sies and expel from your diocese all who are polluted with them. You 
shall exercise the rigor of the ecclesiastical power against them and 



PERSECUTION, SUMMARY OP. 



3 73 



all those who have made themselves suspected by associating with 
them. They may not appeal from your judgments, and if necessary, 
you may cause the princes and people to suppress them with the sword. 
— Orders of Pope Innocent III concerning Heretics; quoted from Migne. 
214, col. 71, in "A Source Book for Mediwval History" Oliver J. 
Thatcher, Ph. D., and Edgar H. McNeal Ph. D., p. 210. New York: 
Charles Scribner's Sons, 1905. 

That the Church of Rome has shed more innocent blood than any 
other institution that has ever existed among mankind, will be ques- 
tioned by no Protestant who has a competent knowledge of history. 
The memorials, indeed, of many of her persecutions are now so scanty 
that it is impossible to form a complete conception of the multitude of 
her victims, and it is quite certain that no powers of imagination can 
adequately realize their sufferings. — " History of the Rise and Influence 
of the Spirit of Rationalism in Europe," William Edward Hartpole 
Lecky, Vol. II, p. 82. London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1904. 

Persecution in Southern France. — Then followed such scenes of 
horror as the sun had never looked on before. The army was officered 
by Roman and French prelates; bishops were its generals, an arch- 
deacon its engineer. It was the Abbot Arnold, the legate of the Pope, 
who, at the capture of Beziers, was inquired of by a soldier, more mer- 
ciful or more weary of murder than himself, how he should distinguish 
and save the Catholic from the heretic. " Kill them all," he exclaimed ; 
" God will know his own." At the church of St. Mary Magdalene 
seven thousand persons were massacred, the infuriated crusaders being 
excited to madness by the wicked assertion that these wretches had been 
guilty of the blasphemy of saying, in their merriment, " S. Mariam 
Magdalenam fuisse concubinam Christi." It was of no use for them 
to protest their innocence. In the town twenty thousand were 
slaughtered, and the place then fired, to be left a monument of papal 
vengeance. At the massacre of Lavaur four hundred people were 
burned in one pile; it is remarked that "they made a wonderful blaze, 
and went to burn everlastingly in hell." 

Language has no powers to express the atrocities that took place at 
the capture of the different towns. Ecclesiastical vengeance rioted in 
luxury. The soil was steeped in the blood of men, the air polluted by 
their burning. From the reek of murdered women, mutilated children, 
and ruined cities, the Inquisition, that infernal institution, arose. Its 
projectors intended it not only to put an end to public teaching, but 
even to private thought. In the midst of these awful events, Innocent 
was called to another tribunal to render his account. He died a. d. 
1216. — "History of the Intellectual Development of Europe," John 
William Draper, M. D.. LL. D., Vol. II. p. 62. New York: Harper d- 
Brothers, 1876. 

Persecution, Summary of Roman. — Under these maxims Rome has 
always acted. What a long roll of bloody persecutions is her record! 
The extirpation of the Albigenses, the. massacre of the Waldenses, the 
martyrdoms of the Lollards, the slaughter of the Bohemians, the burn- 
ing of Huss, Jerome, Savonarola, Frith, Tyndale, Ridley, Hooper, Cran- 
mer, Latimer, and thousands of others as godly and faithful as they, 
have been her acts; the demoniacal cruelties of the Inquisition were 
invented by her mind and inflicted by her hand — that Inquisition 
which was for centuries the mighty instrument of her warfare against 
devoted men and women whose crime was only this, that they " kept 
the commandments of God and the faith of Jesus." 



374 



PERSECUTION, A MARK. 



The ferocious cruelties of the Duke of Alva in the Netherlands; 
the bloody martyrdoms of Queen Mary's reign; the extinction by fire 
and sword of the Reformation in Spain and Italy, in Portugal and 
Poland; the Massacre of St. Bartholomew; the long and cruel perse- 
cutions of the Huguenots, and all the infamies and barbarities of the 
revocation of the Edict of Nantes, which flung its refugees on every 
shore of Europe, were perpetrated by papal Rome. Her victims have 
been innumerable. In Spain alone Llorente reckons as the sufferers of 
the Inquisition 31,912 burnt alive, and 291,450 so-called penitents forced 
into submission " by water, weights, fire, pulleys, and screws," and " all 
the apparatus by which the sinews could be strained without cracking, 
and the bones bruised without breaking, and the body racked exquis- 
itely without giving up the ghost." A million perished in the massacre 
of the Albigenses. 

In the thirty years which followed the first institution of the Jes- 
uits nine hundred thousand faithful Christians were slain. Thirty-six 
thousand were dispatched by the common executioner in the Nether- 
lands, by the direction of the Duke of Alva, who boasted of the deed. 
Fifty thousand Flemings and Germans were hanged, burnt, or buried 
alive under Charles V. And when we have added to this the bloodshed 
of the Thirty Years' War in Germany, and the long agony of other 
and repeated massacres of Protestants in England, Ireland, Scotland, 
France, Spain, Italy, and the Netherlands, we have to remember that 
for all this " no word of censure ever issued from the Vatican, except 
in the brief interval when statesmen and soldiers grew weary of blood- 
shed and looked for means to admit the heretics to grace." 

In the light of these facts we maintain that the fulfilment of the 
prophecy uttered of old in Patmos is plainly evident. The prediction 
of the apostle as to its leading features was this: that "a domineering 
power was to be established in the city of Rome, to corrupt the faith, 
to spread that corruption, to be distinguished by the display of gaudy 
splendors, to persecute the professors of the Christian faith, to intoxi- 
cate itself in the blood of persecution, to be supported by subservient 
kings, and to requite them for their homage with larger drafts of her 
cup of abominations." We are justified in maintaining that the history 
of the Church of Rome has fulfilled every detail of the prophecy . — 
•'Key to the Apocalypse'' H. Grattan Guinness, D. D., pp. 91-94. Lon- 
don: Hodder and Stoughton, 1899. 

Persecution a Mark of Papal Rome. — But more than this, more 
than by any other mark, we recognize papal Rome by the last, the most 
marvelous characteristic which is given us in the sacred prediction — 
her strange and terrible inebriation with the blood of saints and mar- 
tyrs! Old heathen Rome persecuted for a brief period the early church, 
but papal Rome through long centuries has held the preeminence as 
the persecutor of those faithful to the teachings of the gospel of Christ. 
She has been all along in her essential and unalterable character a 
persecuting church. Persecution has occupied a prominent place in her 
doctrines, decrees, canons, excommunications, tribunals, trials, condem- 
nations, imprisonments, executions, and exterminating wars. Centuries 
of persecuting action witness against her. Her laws for the persecution 
and extermination of heretics have increased in malignity from their 
first rise down to modern times. Plainly and openly she has declared 
herself to be a persecuting church. She has gloried in her intolerance. 
Her avowed doctrine is " that heretics ought to be visited by the secular 
powers with temporal punishments, and even with death itself." — " Key 
to the Apocalypse," H. Grattan Guinness, D. D., pp. 89, 90. London: 
Hodder and Stoughton, 1899. 



PERSECUTION INDICTMENT FOR. 



375 



Persecution, Indictment of Rome for. — Hear me, though in truth 1 
scarcely know how to speak upon this subject. I am almost dumb with 
horror when I think of it. I have visited the places in Spain, in France, 
in Italy, most deeply stained and dyed with martyr-blood. I have 
visited the valleys of Piedmont. I have stood in the shadow of the 
great cathedral of Seville, on the spot where they burned the martyrs, 
or tore them limb from limb. ... I have waded through many volumes 
of history and of martyrology. I have visited, either in travel or in 
thought, scenes too numerous for me to name, where the saints of God 
have been slaughtered by papal Rome, that great butcher of bodies and 
of souls. I cannot tell you what I have seen, what I have read, what I 
have thought. I cannot tell you what I feel. Oh, it is a bloody tale! 

I have stood in that valley of Lucerna where dwelt the faithful 
Waldenses, those ancient Protestants who held to the pure gospel all 
through the Dark Ages, that lovely valley with its pine-clad slopes 
which Rome converted into a slaughter-house. Oh, horrible massacres 
of gentle, unoffending, noble-minded men! Oh, horrible massacres of 
tender women and helpless children! Yes; ye hated them, ye hunted 
them, ye trapped them, ye tortured them, ye stabbed them, ye stuck 
them on spits, ye impaled them, ye hanged them, ye roasted them, ye 
flayed them, ye cut them in pieces, ye violated them, ye violated the 
women, ye violated the children, ye forced flints into them, and stakes, 
and stuffed them with gunpowder, and blew them up, and tore them 
asunder limb from limb, and tossed them over precipices, and dashed 
them against the rocks; ye cut them up alive, ye dismembered them; 
ye racked, mutilated, burned, tortured, mangled, massacred holy men, 
sainted women, mothers, daughters, tender children, harmless babes, 
hundreds, thousands, thousands upon thousands; ye sacrificed them in 
heaps, in hecatombs, turning all Spain, Italy, France, Europe, Christian 
Europe, into a slaughter-house, a charnel house, an Akeldama. Oh, 
horrible; too horrible to think of! The sight dims, the heart sickens, 
the soul is stunned in the presence of the awful spectacle. 

harlot, gilded harlot, with brazen brow and brazen heart! red are 
thy garments, red thine hands. Thy name is written in this book. 
God has written it. The world has read it. Thou art a murderess, 
Rome. Thou art the murderess Babylon — " Babylon the Great," 
drunken, foully drunken; yea, drunken with the sacred blood which 
thou hast shed in streams and torrents, the blood of saints, the blood of 
the martyrs of Jesus. — "Romanism and the Reformation,'" H. Grattan 
Guinness, D. D., F. R. A. 8., pp. 107, 108. London: J. Nisbet & Co., 1891. 

Persecution, a Catholic Peofessoe on. — The Catholic Church is a 
respecter of conscience and of liberty. . . . She has, and she loudly pro- 
claims that she has, a " horror of blood." Nevertheless, when confronted 
by heresy, she does not content herself with persuasion; arguments of 
an intellectual and moral order appear to her insufficient, and she has 
recourse to force, to corporal punishment, to torture. She creates tri- 
bunals like those of the Inquisition, she calls the laws of the state to 
her aid, if necessary she encourages a crusade, or a religious war, and 
all her " horror of blood " practically culminates into urging the secular 
power to shed it, which proceeding is almost more odious — for it is less 
frank — than shedding it herself. Especially did she act thus in the 
sixteenth century with regard to Protestants. Not content to reform 
morally, to preach by example, to convert people by eloquent and holy 
missionaries, she lit in Italy, in the Low Countries, and above all in 
Spain, the funeral piles of the Inquisition. In France under Francis I 
and Henry II, in England under Mary Tudor, she tortured the heretics, 
whilst both in France and Germany, during the second half of the six- 



376 



POPE, EXALTATION OF, 



teenth and the first half of the seventeenth century, if she did not ac- 
tually begin, at any rate she encouraged and actively aided, the religious 

wars. — " The Catholic Church, the Renaissance, and Protestantism" 
Alfred Baudrillart (R. C), Rector of the Catholic Institute of Paris, pp. 
182, 183. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., 1908. 

Persecution. — See Councils, 122; Inquisition; Jesuits, 272; Massa- 
cre of St. Bartholomew; Religious Liberty; Rome, 446. 

Peter, Primacy of. — See Heresy, 203. 

Phocas.— See Papal Supremacy, 359. 

Photius. — See Greek Church, 194, 195. 

Pilate, Governor of Judea. — See Seventy Weeks, 522, 523. 

Pius IV. — See Creed of Pope Pius IV. 

Pius IX.— See Councils, 121, 123. 

Polygamy. — See Marriage. 

Pope, Exaltation of. — The Pope is of so great dignity and so 
exalted that he is not a mere man, but as it were God, and the vicar 
of God. 

The Pope is of such lofty and supreme dignity that, properly speak- 
ing, he has not been established in any rank of dignity, but rather has 
been placed upon the very summit of all ranks of dignities. 

The Pope is called most holy because he is rightfully presumed to 
be such* 

Nor can emperors and kings be called most holy; for although in 
civil laws the term " most sacred " seems sometimes to have been 
usurped by emperors, yet never that of " most holy." 

The Pope alone is deservedly called by the name " most holy," 
because he alone is the vicar of Christ, who is the fountain and source 
and fulness of all holiness. 

The Pope by reason of the excellence of his supreme dignity is 
called bishop of bishops. 

He is also called ordinary of ordinaries. 

He is likewise bishop of the universal church. 

He is likewise the divine monarch and supreme emperor, and king 
of kings. 

Hence the Pope is crowned with a triple crown, as king of heaven 
and of earth and of the lower regions. 

Moreover the superiority and the power of the Roman Pontiff by 
no means pertain only to heavenly things, . to earthly things, and to 
things under the earth, but are even over angels, than whom he is 
greater. 

So that if it were possible that the angels might err in the faith, 
or might think contrary to the faith, they could be judged and excom- 
municated by the Pope. 

For he is of so great dignity and power that he forms one and the 
same tribunal with Christ. 

So that whatever the Pope does, seems to proceed from the mouth 
of God, as according to most doctors, etc. 

The Pope is as it were God on earth, sole sovereign of the faithful 
of Christ, chief king of kings, having plenitude of power, to whom has 



POPE, EXALTATION OF. 



377 



been intrusted by the omnipotent God direction not only of the earthly 
but also of the heavenly kingdom. 

The Pope is of so great authority and power that he can modify, 
explain, or interpret even divine laws. 

[In proof of this last proposition various quotations are made, 
among them these:] 

The Pope can modify divine law, since his power is not of man 
but of God, and he acts as vicegerent of God upon earth with most 
ample power of binding and loosing his sheep. 

Whatever the Lord God himself, and the Redeemer, is said to do, 
that his vicar does, provided that he does nothing contrary to the faith. 
— Extracts from Ferraris' s Ecclesiastical Dictionary (R. C), article on 
the Pope. 

Note. — The full title of this work is " Prompta Bibliotheca canonica, 
juridica, moralis, theologica nee non ascetica, polemica, rubricistica, historical' 
There have been various editions of this book since the first was published in 
1746, the latest one being issued from Rome in 1899 at the Press of the Propa 
ganda. This shows that this work still has the approval of the Roman Catholic 
heirarchy, and the Catholic Encyclopedia (Vol. VI, p. 48) speaks of it as " a 
veritable encyclopedia of religious knowledge " and " a precious mine of informa- 
tion." It is therefore legitimate to conclude that the statements in this work 
represent the current Roman Catholic view concerning the power and authority 
of the Pope. — Eds. 

One Consistory 

Therefore the decision of the Pope and the decision of God con- 
stitute one [i. e., the same] decision, just as the opinion of the Pope 
and of his disciple are the same. Since, therefore, an appeal is always 
taken from an inferior judge to a superior, as no one is greater than 
himself, so no appeal holds when made from the Pope to God, because 
there is one consistory of the Pope himself and of God himself, of which 
consistory the Pope himself is the key-bearer and the doorkeeper. 
Therefore no one can appeal from the Pope to God, as no one can enter 
into the consistory of God without the mediation of the Pope, who is 
the key-bearer and the doorkeeper of the consistory of eternal life; and 
as no one can appeal to himself, so no one can appeal from the Pope 
to God, because there is one decision and one court [curia] of God and 
of the Pope. — From the writings of Augustinus de Ancona (R. C.J. 
printed without title-page or pagination, commencing, " Incipit summa 
Catholici doctoris Augustini de Ancona potestate ecclesiastical Questio 
VI, " De Papalis Sententiw Appellatione " (On an Appeal from a Decision 
of the Pope). (British Museum, London.) 

We hold upon this earth' the place of God Almighty. — Pope Leo 
XIII, in an encyclical letter dated June 20, 1894, " The Great Encyclical 
Letters of Leo XIII,'* p. 304. New York: Benziger Brothers. 

" Another God on Earth " 

For thou art the shepherd, thou art the physician, thou art the 
director, thou art the husbandman; finally, thou art another God on 
earth. — From the Oration of Christopher Marcellus (R. C.) in the fourth 
session of the Fifth Lateran Council, 1512 (an address to the Pope); 
" History of the Councils," Laooe and Cossart, Vol. XIV, col. 109. 

Note. — In several editions of the Roman Canon Law printed previously to 
1632, there is found in a gloss (note) upon the word Declaramus in the Extrava- 
gantes of Pope John XXII, title XIII1, chap. 4, the expression Dominum Deum 
nostrum Papam (Our Lord God the Pope). In the edition of the Extravagantes 
printed at Lyons in 1556 these words are found in column 140. In later editions 
of the Canon Law the word Deum (God) has been omitted, and Roman Catholic 
writers claim that it was inserted in some of the earlier editions by a mistake 



378 



POPE, EXALTATION OF. 



of the copyist. It is asserted by one writer, who affirms that he examined the 
original manuscript of the commentator Zenzelinus, in the Vatican library, that 
the word Deum did not appear in it. Under these circumstances Protestants do 
not seem to be warranted in using this particular expression as evidence against 
the Papacy. — Eds. 

AH Power 

Christ intrusted his office to the chief Pontiff; . . . but all power 
in heaven and in earth had been given to Christ; . . . therefore the 
chief Pontiff, who is his vicar, will have this power. — Gloss on the 

" Extravagantes Communes" i book 1, " On Authority and Obedience " 
chap. 1, on the words Porro Subesse Rom. Pontiff. (See the collection of 
Canon Laws, published in 1556, "Extravagantes Communes,'" col. 29.) 

Called God 

It is shown with sufficient clearness that by the secular power the 
Pope cannot in any way be bound or loosed, who it is certain was called 
God by the pious leader Constantine, and it is clear that God cannot 
be judged by man. — Decree of Gratian, part 1, div. 96, chap. 7. 

Note. — While this is one of the interesting perversions of fact so common 
in the Decree of Gratian, yet it shows the extravagant teaching of the time con- 
cerning the person of the Pope. What Constantine actually said was quite dif- 
ferent from what Gratian makes him say. — Eds. 

Christ and the Pope 

All names which in the Scriptures are applied to Christ, by virtue 
of which it is established that he is over the church, all the same 
names are applied to the Pope. — " On the Authority of Councils," Bellar- 
mine (R. C), book 2, chap. 17 (Vol. II, p. 266), ed. 1619. 

The Pope's Power to Pardon Sin and to Annul the Canons of the Church 

Peter and his successors have power to impose laws both preceptive 
and prohibitive, power likewise to grant dispensation from these laws, 
and, when needful, to annul them. It is theirs to judge offenses again-t 
the laws, to impose and to remit penalties. This judicial authority will 
even include the power to pardon sin. For sin is a breach of the laws 
of the supernatural kingdom, and falls under the cognizance of its 
constituted judges. — The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. XII, art. " Pope," 
p. 265. 

He [the Pope] is not subject to them [the canons of the church], 
because he is competent to modify or to annul them when he holds this 
to be best for the church. — Id., p. 268. 

The Pope is the vicar of Christ, or the visible head of the church 
on earth. The claims of the Pope are the same as the claims of Christ. 
Christ wanted all souls saved. So does the Pope. Christ can forgive 
all sin. So can the Pope. The Pope is the only man who claims the 
vicarage of Christ. His claim is not seriously opposed, and this estab- 
lishes his authority. 

The powers given the Pope by Christ were given him not as a mere 
man, but as the representative of Christ. The Pope is more than the 
representative of Christ, for he is the fruit of his divinity and of the 
divine institution of the church. — Extract from a Sermon by Rev. Jere- 
miah Prendergast, S. J. (R. C), preached in the Church of St. John the 
Baptist, Syracuse, N. Y., Wednesday evening, March 13, 1912, as reported 
in the Syracuse Post-Standard, March 14, 1912. 



1 A division of the Corpus Juris Ganonici, or Roman Canon Law. 



POPE, ADORATION OF. 



379 



For not man, but God separates those whom the Roman Pontiff 
(who exercises the functions, not of mere man, but of the true God), 
aaving weighed the necessity or utility of the churches, dissolves, not by 
human but rather by divine authority. — " Decretals of Gregory " (R. C), 
book 1, title 7, chapter 3, on the Transfer of Bishops. 

In 1335 Bishop Alvarez Pelayo lays down the doctrine that as Christ 
partook of the nature of God and man, so the Pope, as his vicar, partici- 
pates with him in the divine nature as to spiritual things and in the 
nature of man as to temporals, so that he is not simply a man, but 
rather a God on earth. These extravagances are perpetuated to modern 
times. During the sessions of the Vatican Council, on Jan. 9, 1870. 
Mermeillod, bishop of Hebron and coadjutor of Geneva, in a sermon 
preached in the church of San Andrea delle Valle, described three incar- 
nations of Christ, — the first in Judea for the atonement, the next in 
the sacrifice of the eucharist, and now " the Saviour is once more on 
earth (he is in the Vatican in the person of an aged man)," and the 
promotion with which the preacher was rewarded showed that such adu- 
lation was duly appreciated. Scarcely less blasphemous were the ex- 
pressions used by the Irish Church at the triduum, or celebration of 
papal infallibility in Dublin, in September, 1870: "The Pope is Christ 
in office, Christ in jurisdiction and power ... we bow down before thy 
voice, Pius, as before the voice of Christ, the God of truth ... in 
clinging to thee, we cling to Christ." — " Studies in Church History." 
Henry C. Lea, p. 389. Philadelphia: Henry G. Lea's Sons d- Co.. 1883. 

Pope, Position of, Defined by the Council of Trent. — We define 
that the Holy Apostolic See and the Roman Pontiff holds the primacy 
over the whole world, and that the Roman Pontiff himself is the suc- 
cessor of the blessed Peter, prince of the apostles, and the true vicar of 
Christ, the head of the whole church, the father and doctor of all 
Christians; and that to him, in the person of blessed Peter, was given, 
by our Lord Jesus Christ, full power to feed, rule, and govern "the uni- 
versal church, as is contained also in the acts of the ecumenical councils, 
and in the sacred canons. — " The Most Holy Councils.'" Labbe and Cos- 
sart (R. CJ, Vol. XIII, col. 1167. 

Pope, Adoration of. — After his election and proclamation, the 
Pope, attired in the pontifical dress, is borne on the pontifical chair to 
the church of St. Peter, and is placed upon the high altar, where he is 
saluted for the third time by the cardinals, kissing his feet, hands, and 
mouth. In the meantime the Te Deum is sung; and. when the adora- 
tion and the hymn is over, the dean of the Sacred College chants some 
versicles and a prayer, then the Pontiff descends from the altar, and 
is carried to the Vatican; and after some days he is crowned in the 
church of St. Peter by the senior cardinal deacon. — Quoted from Notitia 
Congregationum et Tribunalium Curia? Romano? (Standing Orders of the 
Court of Rome); cited in "Letters to M. Gondon," Chr. Wordsworth, 
D. D., pp. 310, 311. London: Francis d- John Rivington. 1848. 

St. Paul predicted the appearance of a power, which he calls " mys- 
tery," claiming adoration in the Christian temple, taking his seat in the 
sanctuary of the church of God, showing himself that he is God. Let 
us also remember that Daniel's word " abomination," which describes 
an object of idolatrous worship, is adopted by the Apocalypse; and that, 
in like manner, St. Paul's word " mystery " is adopted in the Apoca- 
lypse; and that both these words are combined in this book, in the name 
of the woman, whose attire is descrioed minutely by St. John, and whose 



380 



POPE, ADORATION OF. 



name on her forehead is " Mystery, Babylon the Great, mother of abom- 
inations of the earth." 

Is this description applicable to the Church of Rome? 

For an answer to this question, let us refer, not to any private 
sources, but to the official " Book of Sacred Ceremonies " of the Church 
of Rome. 

This book, sometimes called " Ceremoniale Romanum" is written 
in Latin, and was compiled three hundred and forty years ago, by Mar- 
cellus, a Roman Catholic archbishop, and is dedicated to a pope, Leo X. 
Let us turn to that portion of this volume which describes the first 
public appearance of the Pope at Rome, on his election to the pontificate. 

We there read the following order of proceeding: " The Pontiff elect 
is conducted to the sacrarium, and divested of his ordinary attire, and 
is clad in the papal robes." The color of these is then minutely de- 
scribed. Suffice it to say, that five different articles of dress, in which 
he is then arrayed, are scarlet. Another vest is specified, and this is 
covered with pearls. His miter is then mentioned; and this is adorned 
with gold and precious stones. 

Such, then, is the attire in which the Pope is arrayed, and in which 
he first appears to the world as Pope. Refer now to the Apocalypse. 
We have seen that scarlet, pearls, gold, and precious stones are thrice 
specified by St. John as characterizing the mysterious power portrayed 
by himself. 

But we may not pause here. Turn again to the " Ceremoniale Ro- 
w.anum." The Pontiff elect, arrayed as has been described, is conducted 
to the cathedral of Rome, the basilica, or church, of St. Peter. He is 
led to the altar; he first prostrates himself before it, and prays. Thus 
he declares the sanctity of the altar. He kneels at it, and prays before 
it, as the seat of God. 

What a contrast then ensues! We read thus: 

" The Pope rises, and, wearing his miter, is lifted up by the car- 
dinals, and is placed by them upon the altar — to sit there. One of the 
bishops kneels, and begins the ' Te Deum.' In the meantime the car- 
dinals kiss the feet and hands and face of the Pope." 

Such is the first appearance of the Pope in the face of the church 
and the world. 

This ceremony has been observed for many centuries; and it was 
performed at the inauguration of the present Pontiff, Pius IX; and it 
4s commonly called by Roman writers the " Adoration." It is repre- 
sented on a coin, struck in the papal mint with the legend, " Quem 
creant, adorant" (Whom they create [Pope], they adore)." . . . What 
a wonderful avowal! 

The following language was addressed to Pope Innocent X, and 
may serve as a specimen of the feelings with which the Adoration is 
performed: 

" Most Holy and Blessed Father, head of the church, ruler of the 
world, to whom the keys of the kingdom of heaven are committed, 
whom the angels in heaven revere, and whom the gates of hell fear, 
and whom all the world adores, we specially venerate, worship, and 
adore thee, and commit ourselves, and all that belongs to us, to thy 
paternal and more than divine disposal." 

What more could be said to Almighty God himself? — " Union with 
Rome" Chr. Wordsworth, D. D., pp. 52-55. London: Longmans, Green 
& Co., 1909. 

Pope, Power of.— The kingly power is not superior to the pontifi- 
cal, but is subject to it, and is bound to obey it. — " Decret. Greg. ZX," 
lib. i. tit. xxxiii. cap. 6 ( u Decretals of Gregory IX" (R. C), book 1, 
title S3, chapter 6), 



POPE, POWER OF. 



381 



Pope, Opposite Views Concerning Powek of. — Now [in the four- 
teenth century], as at all times, the strongest partisans of the supremacy 
both of the Papacy and of the church were found among the monks or 
"regulars" (churchmen who lived under a "rule"). In a. d. 1328 
the monk Augustinus Triumphus, in his book, " Surnma de Potestate 
Ecclesiastica (Of Church Power), maintained, with regard to the 
Pope's position in the church, that he is universal bishop; that he can 
bind and loose in every part of the church; that while other bishops 
have a place, it is under his authority, and he can, when occasion 
calls for it, pass them by; that from the sentence of the Pope there is 
no appeal, not even to God; and that the honor due to saints and 
angels, and in a certain sense the honor due to God, is thus rightly 
given to the vicar of Christ on earth. Five centuries were yet to run 
before the proclamation by the Pope of his official infallibility. But 
most of the other powers to be attributed to him by the Vatican Council 
in the nineteenth century are already conceded by these partisans in 
the fourteenth; and Triumphus goes on to use those attributions in the 
conflict with the emperor. He argued that the only power held im- 
mediately of God is that of the Pope; that the power of sovereigns, is 
a subdelegated power; that the Pope, being the vicar of Christ, is, of 
course, to be obeyed rather than the emperor; and that he can, in 
virtue of the same powers, choose an emperor or a dynasty and 
depose them, and can choose and depose kings of any realm in 
Christendom. 

In a. d. 1330 Alvarus Pelagius followed with his book, "De Planctu 
Ecclesice" (Of the Church's Complaint), and from the same premises 
drew like conclusions. He held " that the Pope is the sole authority 
of Christ upon earth; that from him general councils derive their power; 
that he is not bound even by his own laws, for he may dispense with 
them as and when he pleases; and that he has a universal jurisdiction 
in spiritual and in temporal things." 

On the imperial side, on the other hand, arose thinkers who, for the 
first time, were prepared not only to refuse the powers claimed for the 
Bishop of Rome in later centuries over the universal church, but, also 
in defense of the civil power, to limit or deny that original independ- 
ence which the church itself now so grievously misused. The most 
remarkable book of this nature was the " Defensor Pads," the com- 
position of Marsilius of Padua, now the emperor's physician, but 
formerly rector of the great University of Paris, aided by John of 
Jandun, one of the imperial secretaries. In this work, published about 
a. d. 1325, it was argued in detail on the internal church question, that 
all presbyters or bishops were equal in the primitive church, greater 
authority being gradually given to one of them in each district only as 
a matter of convenience; that as Peter had no authority over the 
other apostles, so no one succeeding bishop had authority over others 
ruling elsewhere; and that the habit which other bishops and churches 
had got into, of consulting the pastor of the central church of the 
world, had gradually come to be considered a duty on their part, and had 
now led to an unfounded claim of authority by Rome over the churches 
and bishops, and even the princes of Christendom. The universal 
powers of the church, thus denied to any local bishop, were by this 
book assigned to a general council; and Scripture, interpreted when 
need is by the definitions of such a council, is held by it to be the sole 
guide to blessedness. 

These principles, anticipating many results of historical criticism in 
modern times, had already been prepared for by the investigations of 
the universities, and were now spread through Europe by the in- 
cessant labors of William of Occam and others. But the Reformation 



382 



POPE, DEPOSING POWER OF. 



was still two centuries distant, and they took little hold of the hearts 
of men. — "Church and State: A Historical Handbook," A. Taylor Jnnes, 
2d ed., pp. 97, 98. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark. 

Pope, Deposing Power of, Defined. — The deposing power of the 
Pope, — what was it but that supreme arbitration whereby the highest 
power in the world, the vicar of the incarnate Son of God, anointed 
high priest, and supreme temporal ruler, sat in his tribunal, impartially 
to judge between nation and nation, between people and prince, between 
sovereign and subject? The deposing power grew up by the providen- 
tial action of God in the world; to subjects obedience, and princes 
clemency. — " The Temporal Power of the Vicar of Jesus Christ," Henry 
Edward Manning, D. D. (R. C), p. 46. London: Burns and Lambert. 
1862. 

Pope, Deposing Power of. — I am aware of the fact that by many 
this power of the Roman Pontiff to depose apostate rulers is either 
denied, or at all events rendered doubtful; but how this can be done 
in good faith, we do not easily see, especially since it pertains to a most 
solemn matter, intimately connected with purity of the faith, concern- 
ing which unquestionable testimonies occur in history. Particularly 
should be noted the words which St. Gregory VII used: "Holding to 
the decrees of our holy predecessors, we, by our apostolic authority, 
absolve from their oath those who are bound by allegiance or oath to 
excommunicated persons, and we prohibit them from keeping faith with 
them in any way, until they make amends." 

Moreover, it will be worth our while to quote here the very famous 
words with which Boniface VIII [in the bull ZJnam Sanctam] set forth 
the superiority of the ecclesiastical power over the civil: 

" In this church and in its power are two swords, to wit, a spiritual 
and a temporal, and this we are taught by the words of the gospel; for 
when the apostles said, 4 Behold, here are two swords' (in the church, 
namely, since the apostles were speaking), the Lord did not reply that 
it was too many, but enough. And surely he who claims that the tem- 
poral sword is not in the power of Peter has but ill understood the 
word of our Lord when he said, ' Put up again thy sword into his place.' 
Both the spiritual and the material sword, therefore, are in the power 
of the church, the latter indeed to be used for the church, the former 
by the church, the one by the hand of the priest, the other by the hand 
of kings and soldiers, but by the will and sufferance of the priest. 

" It is fitting, moreover, that one sword should be under the other, 
and the temporal authority subject to the spiritual power. • For when 
the apostle said, 'There is no power but of God: the powers that be 
are ordained of God,' they would not be ordained unless one sword were 
under the other, and one, as inferior, was brought back by the other 
to the highest place. . . . For as the truth testifies, the spiritual power 
has to regulate the temporal power, and judge it if it takes a wrong 
course; thus with reference to the church and the ecclesiastical power, 
is fulfilled the prophecy of Jeremiah : ' Behold, I have appointed thee 
today over nations and kingdoms.' . . . We, moreover, proclaim, de- 
clare, define, and pronounce that it is altogether necessary to salvation 
for every human being to be subject to the Roman Pontiff." 

Neither can I refrain from quoting also the striking words, possibly 
not sufficiently well known, by which the angelic doctor [St. Thomas 
Aquinas], with his customary keenness of intellect, proves in a very 
clear argument the preeminence of the chief Pontiff over all kings, by 
maintaining a distinction between the new law and the old. — " De Sta- 
bilitate et Progressu Dogmatis," Alexius M. Lepicier (R. C), pp. 211, 
212; officially printed at Rome, 1910. 



POPE, DEPOSING POWER OF. 



383 



The common opinion teaches that the Pope has power over two 
swords, namely, the spiritual and temporal, which jurisdiction and 
power Christ himself gave to Peter and his successors (Matt. 16:19), say- 
ing, " I will give unto thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven : and what- 
soever thou shalt bind on earth shall be bound in heaven: and what- 
soever thou shalt loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven," concerning 
which the doctors remark that he did not say " key " but " keys," 
including both the temporal and the spiritual power. 

This opinion is most widely confirmed by the authority of the holy 
Fathers, by the teaching of the canon and civil law, and by the apos- 
tolic constitutions. — " Prompta Bibliotheca" (Ecclesiastical Dictionary), 
Rev. P. F. Lucii Ferraris (R. G.), art. "Papa" (the Pope). 

Unbelieving princes and kings by the decision of the Pope can be 
deprived in certain cases of the dominion which they have over the 
faithful, — as, if they have taken possession of the lands of Christians by 
force, or if they compel the faithful whom they have conquered to turn 
from the faith, and so on, — as is clearly shown by Cardinal Bellar- 
mine in his " Apology Against the King of England," chapter 4. 

And hence the Pope grants the provinces which formerly belonged 
to Christians, but which have been seized by unbelievers, to be acquired 
by any of the Christian princes. — Ibid. 

It is not to be wondered at if to the Roman Pontiff, as to the vicar 
of Him whose is the earth and the fulness thereof, the world and all 
who dwell therein, etc., there have been granted, when just cause de 
mands, the most complete authority and power of transferring king 
doms, of dashing in pieces scepters, of taking away crowns, not only 
unsheathing the spiritual but also the material sword. Which power 
in its fulness, not once but frequently, the Roman pontiffs have used, 
as occasion required, by girding the sword upon the thigh most effec- 
tively, as is perfectly well known; and to this not only do theologians 
give most complete testimony, but also the professors of pontifical and 
imperial law, and many historians of undoubted credibility, both pro- 
fane and sacred, both Greek and Latin. — Ibid. 

The authority of princes and the allegiance of subjects in the civil 
state of nature is of divine ordinance; and therefore, so long as princes 
and their laws are in conformity to the law of God, the church has no 
power or jurisdiction against them, nor over them. If princes and their 
laws deviate from the law of God, the church has authority from God 
to judge of that deviation, and to oblige to its correction. — " The Vati- 
can Decrees," Henry Edward (R. C), p. 54. London: Longmans, Green 
d Co., 1875. 

Even after the Reformation, Simancas, bishop of Badajoz, declared 
that the popes have power to dethrone kings who are useless to their 
subjects and who adopt laws adverse to the interests of religion. — 
"Studies in Church History," Henry G. Lea, p. 386. Philadelphia: 
Henry G. Lea's Sons & Go., 1883. 

Before me is an edition of the Bullarium Romanum, printed at 
Rome, " facultate et privilegio Sanctis simi." In it I find the bull by 
which Gregory VII (Hildebrand) deposed the emperor Henry the Fourth, 
and absolved his subjects from their allegiance. I see the same act 
repeated in another document in the same collection. Passing over the 
bulls in which Pope Gregory IX excommunicated the emperor Fred- 
erick II, and in which Pope Innocent IV deposed the same sovereign, I 
see there the bull in which Paul III, in 1535, excommunicated King 



384 



POPE, DEPOSING POWER OP. 



Henry the Eighth of England, and ordered his nobles to rebel against 
him: I proceed further, and find another similar document in which 
Pius V (now canonized as a saint of the Church of Rome) pretended to 
depose Queen Elizabeth, and to deprive her of what he called " prwtenso 
regni jure" [her pretended right to the kingdom], and to declare her 
subjects " forever absolved from any oath, and all manner of duty, 
allegiance, and obedience to her; " and commanded them, on pain of 
excommunication, " not to presume to obey her monitions, mandates, 
and laws." In the year 1640, Paul V, and in 1671 Clement X, anathe- 
matized all Protestant princes and subjects as heretics. — "Letters to 
M. Gondon," Ghr. Wordsworth. D. D., pp. 294, 295. London: Francis d 
John Rivington, 1848. 

But let the Papacy be reminded that in former times for six cen- 
turies it used its spiritual weapons in order to deprive others of their 
temporalities. Pope Gregory VII used them to dethrone the emperor 
of Germany, Henry IV; Pope Innocent III used them to dethrone the 
emperor Otho and King John of England. Popes Honorius III, Greg- 
ory IX, and Innocent IV used them to deprive Frederick II of his 
dominions. Pope Paul III used them to dethrone our Henry VIII. Pope 
Pius V (canonized as a saint) and Gregory XIII used them to depose 
Queen Elizabeth. Pope Urban VIII used them against our King 
Charles I. And even at the present day, the Church of Rome eulo- 
gizes Pope Gregory VII in her Breviary, whom she has canonized as 
a saint, because he " deprived the emperor Henry IV of his kingdom, 
and released his subjects from their oaths of allegiance to him." — 
" Union with Rome" Ghr, Wordsworth. D. D., p. 100. London: Long- 
mans, Green & Go., 1909. 

[The following extracts are taken from the bull of Pope Pius V, de- 
posing Queen Elizabeth of England in 1570. — Editors.] 

" He that reigneth on high, to whom all power in heaven and earth 
is given, has with all fulness of power delivered the rule of the one 
holy catholic and apostolic church, outside of which there is no salva 
tion, to one sole [ruler] upon earth, to wit, to Peter, the prince of the 
apostles, and to the Roman Pontiff, the successor of Peter. Him alone 
he hath set as prince over all nations and all kingdoms, to pull up, to 
destroy, to overthrow, and to break down, to plant, and to build, that 
he may keep the people faithful, bound with the bond of mutual love, 
and in the unity of the Spirit, and present them unhurt and safe to his 
Saviour." 

The document then goes on to speak of " Elizabeth, the pretended 
queen of England, the slave of vices," and concludes thus: 

" Article 4. Moreover she herself is deprived of her pretended right 
to the aforesaid kingdom, and also of all dominion, dignity, and privi- 
lege whatsoever. 

" Art. 5. And so we absolve the nobles, subjects, and peoples of the 
said kingdom, and all others who have taken any oath to her, from the 
obligation of their oath and besides from all duty of dominion, fidelity, 
and obedience: and we deprive the said Elizabeth of her pretended right 
to the kingdom and of all other things as is aforesaid: and we charge 
and order all and every the nobles, subjects, and peoples, and others 
aforesaid, not to venture to obey her monitions, commands, and laws. 
And we attach the like sentence of anathema to those who shall act 
otherwise. . . . 

" Given at St. Peter's at Rome 25th February, 1570, in the fifth year 
of our pontificate." — *' Our Brief Against Rome," Rev. Charles Stuteville 
Isaacson, M. A., Appenaix B, p. 268. London: The Religious Tract 
Society, 1905.. 



POPE, AUTHORITY OF. 



Pope, Deposing Powek Exercised by Gregory VII. — O blessed 
Peter, prince of the apostles, bend down to us, we beseech thee, thine 
ear; hear me, me thy servant, whom thou hast sustained from infancy 
and preserved till this day from the hands of the wicked, who hate me 
because I am faithful to thee. 

And thou, my lady, mother of God, with blessed Peter, thy brother, 
among the saints, art my witness that the Holy Roman Church placed 
me, in spite of myself, at its helm, and that I sought not to raise myself 
to thy see, but would rather have ended my life in exile than to have 
taken thy place by considerations of worldly glory or in a secular spirit.. 
Therefore it is, as I believe, by thy grace, holy apostle, and not 
because of my works, that it has pleased thee, and that it pleases thee 
still, that the Christian people committed specially to thy care should 
obey me; for thy life has entered into me, and the power that God has 
given me to bind and to loose in heaven and on earth is thy grace. 

So then, strong in this confidence, for the honor and safety of thy 
church, in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, I 
depose King Henry [IV], son of the emperor Henry, who, by insolence 
unparalleled, has risen up against thy church, the governments of the 
Teutonic kingdom and of Italy. I loose all Christians from the oaths 
they have taken or may take to him, and I forbid all persons to obey 
him as king; for it is just that he who strives to diminish the honor 
of thy church should lose the honor he himself appears to possess. And 
as he has refused to obey as a Christian, and has not returned to the 
Lord he had forsaken, communicating with those that were excom- 
municated, committing many iniquities, despising the counsels I gave 
him for his salvation, as thou knowest, and separating himself from thy 
church, in which he has put division, I bind him, in thy name, with the 
bond of the anathema; I bind him, relying on thy power, so that 
the nations may know and prove the truth of these words: "Thou 
art Peter, and on this stone the living God has built his church, and 
the gates of hell shall not prevail against it." — " Life of Gregory the 
Seventh," M. Abel Francois Villemain, Vol. II, pp. 48, 49. London: 
Richard Bentley & Son, 1874. 

In the second sentence of excommunication which Gregory [VII] 
passed upon Henry the Fourth are these words: " Come now, I beseech 
you, O most holy and blessed fathers and princes, Peter and Paul, that 
all the world may understand and know that if ye are able to bind and 
to loose in heaven, ye are likewise able on earth, according to the merits 
of each man, to give and to take away empires, kingdoms, princedoms, 
marquisates, duchies, countships, and the possessions of all men. For 
if ye judge spiritual things, what must we believe to be your power over 
worldly things? and if ye judge the angels who rule over all proud 
princes, what can ye not do to their slaves? " — " The Holy Roman Em- 
pire" James Bryce, D. G. L., p. 161. London: Macmillan & Co., 1892. 

Pope, Authority of, Now and in Ancient Church. — A Roman 
Catholic bishop derives all his authority from the Pope. No Romanist 
archbishop can consecrate a church, or confirm a child, without receiv- 
ing the pallium from Rome. All Romanist prelates are what they are, 
not by divine providence or permission, but by the grace of the papal 
see! All this is in direct defiance of the laws and practice of the 
ancient church. It is notorious that " most princes in the West, as in 
Germany, France, and England, did invest bishops till the time of 
Gregory VII." It is certain, also, that the popes of Rome, who now 
claim a right to ordain and place bishops throughout the world, were 
themselves appointed by the emperor till the ninth century. — " Letters 
26 



386 



POPE, MEDIATION OF. 



to M. Gondon," Ghr. Wordsworth, D. D„ pp. 326, 327. London: Francis 
d John Rivington, 1848. 

Pope, Power of, over Ecclesiastical Law. — Hence he [the Pope] 
is said to have a heavenly power, and hence changes even the nature of 
things, applying the substantial of one thing to another — can make 
something out of nothing — a judgment which is null he makes to be 
real, since in the things which he wills, his will is taken for a reason. 
Nor is there any one to say to him, Why dost thou do this? For he 
can dispense with the law, he can turn injustice into justice by cor- 
recting and changing the law, and he has the fulness of power. — " De- 
cretals of Gregory " (R. G.J, book 1, title 7, chap. 3, gloss on the Transfer 
of Bishops. 

Pope, " Vicar of the Son of God." — " Beatus Petrus in terris vica- 
rius filii Dei videtur esse constitutus [Blessed Peter seems to have 
been appointed the vicar of the Son of God on earth]." — " Decretum 
Gratiani," prima pars, dist. xcvi (" Decree of Gratian " (R. C.J, part 1, 
division 96J. 

Pope, Mediation of, in National Affairs. — Here is the history of 
the Pope's success as arbitrator, as furnished these days by the Bollet- 
tino Salesiano: 

440-461 — St. Leo I: With Attila, king of the Huns, in favor of Italy 
590-604 — St. Gregory I: With Agitulfo, king of the Lombards, in favor 
of the Romans. 

590-604 — St. Gregory I: Between the emperors of the Orient and the 
Lombards. 

715-731 — St. Gregory II: With Luitprandus, king of the Lombards, in 

favor of the Romans. 
741-752 — St. Gregory II: With Luitprandus, king of the Lombards, in 

favor of the Romans. 
1094-1654 — St. Leo IX: Between Emperor Henry III and King Andrew 
of Hungary. 

1055-1057 — Victor II: Between Emperor Henry III, Baldwin of Flan- 
ders, and Geoffrey of Lorene. 

1198-1215 — Innocent III: Between John of England and Philip Augus- 
tus of France. 

1216-1227 — Honorius III: Between Louis VIII of France and Henry III 
of England. 

1243-1254 — Innocent IV: Between the king of Portugal and his people. 

1277-1280 — Nicholas III: Mediator several times between Emperor Ru- 
dolf of the Hapsburgs and Charles of Anjou, king of Naples. 

1316-1334 — John XXII: Between King Edward of England and Robert 
of Scotland. 

1334-1342 — Benedict XII: Between Edward Plantagenet of England and 

Philip of Valois, king of France. 
1370-1378 — Gregory XI: Between the king of Portugal and the king of 

Castille. 

1447-1455 — Nicholas V: Mediations in Germany, Hungary, and Italy. 
1484-1492 — Innocent VIII: Mediations in Moscow, Austria, and Eng- 
land. 

1492-1503 — Alexander VI: Between Spain and Portugal. 

1623-1644 — Urban VIII: Mediations to aliay the dissensions provoked 

by the succession to the duchies of Mantua and Monferrato. 
1572-1585 — Gregory XIII: Between the king of Poland and the czar of 

Moscow. 



POPE, TITLES OF. 



387 



1878-1903 — Leo XIII: Between Germany and Spain. 

1878-1903 — Leo XIII: Between the republics of Haiti and San Domingo. 

1915- — Benedict XV: Mediations between Germany, Austria, and 
Russia on tbe one part, and England, Prance, Belgium, 
Serbia, and Montenegro on the other, for the exchange of 
disabled prisoners and of interned civilians. — Baltimore 
Catholic Review (R. C). June 5, 1915. 

Pope, Superior to a Council. — It is clear, in the first place, that 
the Pope does not hold his authority from a council, but from God, or 
at all events chiefly from God, and secondarily from councils by the 
command or authority of God. . . . Therefore, neither the council nor 
the church ought to have it in its power to take away or remove this 
authority from him, and, consequently, neither to depose him nor to 
dismiss him. — " Jacooatius (R. G.) on the Councils," p. 412. 

Pope, Dispensing Power or. — 2. A legislator can dispense in his 
own laws, in those of his predecessors, and in those of his subordinates 
by his ordinary jurisdiction; he cannot dispense in the laws of his 
superior unless he has received delegated authority for the purpose. 

a. The Pope, then, can dispense in all ecclesiastical laws, even in 
those which have been made in a general council. He cannot dispense 
in the natural or divine law; but in vows, oaths, and in marriage which 
has not been consummated, the Pope can for good cause dispense in the 
name of God, or at least declare that in certain circumstances they have 
ceased to exist; for whether he then in the strict sense dispenses, or 
only declares the sense of the divine law, is a disputed point. In prac- 
tice there is" little difference between the two views. — " A Manual of 
Moral Theology" Rev. Thomas Slater, S. J. (R. C.J, Vol. I, p. 112. New 
York: Benziger Brothers, 1908 * 

Pope, Bellarmine on Fifteen Titles of. — Argumentum postremum 
sumitur ex nominibus Eoiscopi Romani, qua? sunt quindecim, [1] Papa, 
[2] Pater Patrum, [3] Christianorum Pontifex, [4] summus sacerdos, 
[5] Princeps sacerdotum, [6] Vicarius Christi, [7] Caput corporis Eccle- 
siae, [8] Fundamentum sedificii Ecclesiae, [9] Pastor ovilis Domini, [10] 
Pater et Doctor omnium fidelium, [11] Rector domus Dei, [12] Custos 
viness Dei, [13] Sponsus Ecclesiae, [14] Apostolical sedis Presul, [15] 
Episcopus universalis. — " Be Romano Pontifice," Bellarmine, lib. ii, c. 
31. Colonial Agrippinw: Antonius and Arnoldus Hierati Fratres, 1628. 

(Translation:) The last argument [of the previous chapter] is 
maintained from the names of the Roman bishop, which are fifteen: [1] 
Pope, [2] father of fathers, [3] the Pontiff of Christians, [4] high priest, 
[5] chief of the priests, [6] the vicar of Christ, [7] the head of the 
body of the church, [8] the foundation of the building of the church, 
[9] pastor of the Lord's sheep; [10] the father and doctor of all 
the faithful, [11] the ruler of the house of God, [12] the Keeper of God's 
vineyard, [13] the bridegroom of the church, [14] the ruler of the apos- 
tolic see, [15] the universal bishop. — Eds. 

Pope, Election of. — See Conclave. 

Popes, Many Have Been Heretics. — Pope Adrian VI, in his Quws- 
tiones de Sacramentis in quartum Sententiarum librum (fol. xxvi. coll. 
iii., iv.), when treating of the minister of confirmation, discusses the 
question, " Utrum papa possit err are in his quae tangunt fldem "t 
[Whether the Pope can err in those things which touch faith?] He 



388 



POPERY, PAGANISM OF. 



replies, " Dico primo quod si per ecclesiam Romanam intelligat caput 
ejus, puta pontifex, certum est quod possit errare, etiam in Us quae 
tangunt fidem, hceresim per suam determinationem aut decretalem asse- 
rendo. Plures enim fuerunt pontifices Romani hwretici." [I say firstly, 
if by the church one understands its head, namely, the Pope, it is 
certain that he can err even in those matters which touch faith, by 
asserting heresy through his definition or decretal. For many Roman 
pontiffs have been heretics.] I quote from the edition published by 
Pope Adrian in 1522 during his pontificate, under his own eye at Rome. 
— 44 The Primitive Saints and the See of Rome," F. W. Puller, pp. 398, 
399, Note 2. London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1900. 

Popery, a Usurpation of All Authority. — It is to be remarked 
further, that a religious establishment is not to be estimated merely 
by what it is in itself, but also by what it is in comparison with those 
of other nations; . . . and what is still more material, the value of our 
own ought to be very much heightened in our esteem, by considering 
what it is a security from, I mean that great corruption of Christian- 
ity, — popery, which is ever hard at work, to bring us again under its 
yoke. Whoever will consider the popish claims to the disposal of 
the whole earth, as of divine right; to dispense with the most sacred 
engagements; the claims to supreme absolute authority in religion; 
in short, the general claims which the canonists express by the terms 
" plenitude " of " power," — whoever, I say, will consider popery as it 
is professed at Rome, may see that it is manifest open usurpation of all 
divine and human authority. — Bishop Butler, Sermon before the 
House of Lords in Westminster Abbey, on the King's Accession, June 
11, 1747; quoted in "Letters to M. Gondon," Chr. Wordsworth, D. D., 
p. 320. London: Francis & John Rivington, 1848. 

Popery and Christianity, Wylie on. — We are accustomed to speak 
of popery as a corrupt form of Christianity. We concede too much. 
The Church of Rome bears the same relation to the Church of Christ 
which the hierarchy of Baal bore to the institute of Moses; and popery 
stands related to Christianity only in the same way in which paganism 
stood related to primeval revelation. Popery is not a corruption simply, 
but a transformation. It may be difficult to fix the time when it passed 
from the one into the other; but the change is incontestable. Popery is 
the gospel transubstantiated into the flesh and blood of paganism, under 
a few of the accidents of Christianity. — 44 The Papacy," Rev. J. A. Wylie, 
p. 14. Edinburgh: Johnstone and Hunter, 1851. 

Popery, Paganism of. — I am afraid that, after all that has been 
said, not a few will revolt from the above comparative estimate of 
popery and undisguised paganism. Let me, therefore, fortify my opin- 
ion by the testimonies of two distinguished writers, well qualified to 
pronounce on .this subject. They will, at least, show that I am not 
singular in the estimate which I have formed. The writers to whom I 
refer, are Sir George Sinclair of Ulbster, and Dr. Bonar of Kelso. Few 
men have studied the system of Rome more thoroughly than Sir George, 
and in his " Letters to the Protestants of Scotland " he has brought all 
the fertility of his genius, the curiosa felicitas of his style, and the 
stores of his highly cultivated mind, to bear upon the elucidation of his 
theme. Now, the testimony of Sir George is this: 44 Romanism is a 
refined system of Christianized heathenism, and chiefly differs from its 
prototype in being more treacherous, more cruel, more dangerous, more 
intolerant." The mature opinion of Dr. Bonar is the very same, and 
that, too, expressed with the Cawnpore massacre particularly in view: 



PRIESTHOOD, 



389 



" We are doing for popery at home," says he, " what we have done for 
idolaters abroad, and in the end the results will be the same; nay, 
worse; for popish cruelty, and thirst for the blood of the innocent, 
have been the most savage and merciless that the earth has seen. 
Cawnpore, Delhi, and Bareilly are but dust in comparison with the 
demoniacal brutalities perpetrated by the Inquisition, and by the 
armies of popish fanaticism." These are the words of truth and 
soberness, that no man acquainted with the history of modern Europe 
can dispute. There is great danger of their being overlooked at this 
moment. It will be a fatal error if they be. Let not the pregnant 
fact be overlooked, that, while the Apocalyptic history runs down to 
the consummation of all things, in that divine foreshadowing all the 
other paganisms of the world are in a manner cast into the shade by 
the paganism of papal Rome. It is against Babylon that sits on the 
seven hills that the saints are forewarned; it is for worshiping the 
beast and his image preeminently, that " the vials of the wrath of God, 
that liveth and abideth forever," are destined to be outpoured upon the 
nations. — " The Two Babylons," Rev. Alexander Hislop, p. 285. London: 
S. W. Partridge & Co., 1907. 

Porphyry.— See Daniel, 129, 133, 134. 

Preaching Friars. — See Papacy, 352. 

Preble, T. M. — See Advent Message, 23, 24. 

Preston, Rachel D. — See Advent Message, 23. 

Priesthood. — Sacrifice and priesthood are, by the ordinance of 
God, in such wise conjoined, as that both have existed in every law. 
Whereas, therefore, in the New Testament, the Catholic Church has re- 
ceived, from the institution of Christ, the holy visible sacrifice of the 
eucharist; it must needs also be confessed that there is, in that church, 
a new, visible, and external priesthood (can. i), into which the old has 
been translated. And the Sacred Scriptures show, and the tradition of 
the Catholic Church has always taught, that this priesthood was insti- 
tuted by the same Lord our Saviour (can. iii), and that to the apostles 
and their successors in the priesthood was the power delivered of con- 
secrating, offering, and administering his body and blood, as also of 
forgiving and retaining sins (Canon l 1 ). — "Dogmatic Canons and De- 
crees,'" pp. 150, 151. New York: The Devin- Adair Company, 1912. 

Priesthood, Priests Called Gods.-— As bishops and priests are as 
certain interpreters and heralds of God, who in his name teach men the 
divine law and the precepts of life, and are the representatives on earth 
of God himself, it is clear that their function is such, that none greater 
can be conceived; wherefore they are justly called not only "angels" 
(Mai. 2: 7), but also "gods" (Ps. 81: 6), holding as they do amongst 
us the power and authority of the immortal God. But although they 
at all times held a most exalted dignity, yet the priests of the new tes- 
tament far excel all the others in honor; for the power of consecrating 
and offering the body and blood of our Lord, and of remitting sins, 
which has been conferred on them, transcends human reason and in- 
telligence, still less can there be found on earth anything equal and 
like to it. — " Catechism of the Council of Trent," translated by J. Dono- 
van, D. D. (R. C.J, p. 275. Dublin: James Duffy, Sons d Co. 



1 See Canon 1, under " Order," p. 322. 



390 



PRIESTHOOD. 



Priesthood, The Priest " Another Christ." — The priest is the 
man of God, the minister of God, the portion of God. the man called of 
God, consecrated to God, wholly occupied with the interests of God; he 
that despiseth him, despiseth God; he that hears him hears God: he 
remits sins as God, and that which he calls his body at the altar is 
adored as God by himself and by the congregation [italics his]. This 
shows Jesus Christ as God-man! . . . The priest is not vested with the 
functions and powers of the priesthood except by a holy anointing, 
whence comes the name of Christ (anointed) given him in the Scrip- 
tures. This shows that the incarnation was for the Saviour an anoint- 
ing altogether divine, celebrated by the prophets, which causes the name 
of Christ to be added to his name Jesus. . . . The priest daily offers a 
great sacrifice; and the victim which he immolates is the Lamb of God, 
bearing the sins of the world; and by continence, by apostolic self- 
devotion, he ought daily to associate himself with this great immola- 
tion. This shows Jesus Christ content to offer himself as a holocaust 
upon the altar of the cenacle and on that of the cross, for the salvation 
of the whole world. . . . From the virtue of this sacrifice, which he 
offers daily, the priest derives the power and the right to teach the 
faith, to administer the sacraments, to govern souls. It is because Jesus 
Christ, becoming our Redeemer, by the sovereign efficacy of his sacrifice, 
is thereby also teacher, pattern, pastor, legislator, supreme judge of all 
men, the eternal glory of the saints. In one word, the priest, such as 
he is in the Christian system, that is to say, the Catholic priest, pre- 
supposes, represents, shows forth Jesus Christ, the God-man, Jesus 
Christ as he is known and adored by the whole of Christendom. — " Cath- 
olic Doctrine as Defined by the Council of Trent," Rev. A. Nampon, 8. J. 
(R. C), pp. 543, 544. Philadelphia: Peter F. Cunningham, 1869. 

Priesthood, The Priest the Creator of the Creator. — With regard 
to the power of priests over the real body of Jesus Christ, it is of faith 
that when they pronounce the words of consecration, the Incarnate 
Word has obliged himself to obey and to come into their hands under 
the sacramental SDecies. . . . We are struck with wonder when we . . . 
find that in obedience to the words of his priests — Hoc est corpus 
meum [This is my body] — God himself descends on the altar, that he 
comes wherever they call him, and as often as they call him, and places 
himself in their hands, even though they should be his enemies. And 
after having come, he remains, entirely at their disposal; and they move 
him as they please, from one place to another; they may, if they wish, 
shut him up in the tabernacle, or expose him on the altar, or carry him 
outside the church; they may, if they choose, eat his flesh, and give 
him for the food of others. . . . Besides, the power of the priest sur- 
passes that of the Blessed Virgin Mary; for, although this divine mother 
can pray for us, and by her prayers obtain whatever she wishes, yet 
she cannot absolve a Christian from even the smallest sin. . . . 

Thus the priest may, in a certain manner, be called the creator of 
his Creator, since by saying the words of consecration, he creates, as it 
were, Jesus in the sacrament, by giving him a sacramental existence, 
and produces him as a victim to be offered to the eternal Father. As 
in creating the world it was sufficient for God to have said, Let it be 
made, and it was created, — He spoke, and they were made, — so it is 
sufficient for the priest to say, "Hoc est corpus meum," and, behold, 
the bread is no longer bread, but the body of Jesus Christ. " The power 
of the priest," says St. Bernardine of Sienna, " is the power of the 
divine person; for the transubstantiation of the bread requires as much 
power as the creation of the world." And St. Augustine has written: 
" O the venerable sanctity of the hands! O happy function of the priest! 



PRIESTHOOD. 



391 



he that created (if I may say so) gave me the power to create him; 
and he that created me without me is himself created by me! " As the 
word of God created heaven and earth, so, says St. Jerome, the words 
of the priest create Jesus Christ. . . . When he ascended into heaven, 
Jesus Christ left his priests after him to hold on earth his place of 
mediator between God and men, particularly on the altar. — "Dignity 
and Duties of the Priest; or Selva" St. Alphonsus Liguori (R. C.J, pp. 
£6-34. New York: Benziger Brothers, 1889. 

Priesthood, The Roman, of Heathen Origin. — The title of the 
Pope, " Pontifex Maximus," is entirely pagan. In all pagan countries, 
Babylon, Egypt, Rome, Peru, etc., the king or emperor was the chief 
priest, or Pontifex Maximus. Just also as the Pope is called " Vice- 
Deo " and " Vicar of Christ," so was the pagan pontiff regarded as 
" the representative of the Divinity on earth," and " a partaker of the 
divine nature." This is also the case with the Grand Lama of Thibet, 
and the king and high priest of the Incas had similar attributes. Just 
also as the Pope is declared to be infallible, so was the Egyptian pontiff 
believed to be " incapable of error; " a characteristic which also applies 
to the Grand Lama. Like the Pope also, they were worshiped by the 
people. Just also as kings and ambassadors used to kiss the slippers 
of the Pope, so likewise the pontiff kings of Chaldea wore slippers for 
subject kings to kiss. 

The Roman emperors, as high pontiffs, were paid divine honors; 
hence the alternative offered to the early Christians, " Sacrifice to Caesar, 
or death." But the homage paid to the pagan pontiff in every country 
did not exceed that demanded and received by the popes in the pleni- 
tude of their power. Such titles as " Our Most Holy Lord," *' Our Lord 
God the Pope," " His Divine Majesty," " Vice-God," and the ordinary 
title of " Your Holiness," which was also the ordinary title of the pagan 
pontiff, as well as the claim to infallibility, gave him of necessity all 
the attributes, and consequent position, of God to the peoples who were 
professedly the Christian church, "the temple of God; " "so that he as 
God sitteth in the temple of God, showing himself that he is God." 

The miter worn by the Pope, cardinals, and bishops, with a slit 
down the middle, is not the Jewish miter, which was a turban, but the 
pagan miter. It is exactly the same as that worn by the Grand Lama, 
and the same as that worn by the emperor of China when, as high 
pontiff, he blesses the people. This miter is the representation of a 
fish's head, and it is the same as that worn by the Egyptian high pontiff 
as the representative of the pagan god, who in one of his principal 
aspects was Cannes, the fish god, who was called " the Teacher of Man- 
kind," " the Lord of Understanding," etc. It was in short the symbol 
of the pontiff's claim to be infallible or " the Lord of Understanding." 

The crosier of the Pope and Roman Catholic bishops is the lituus 
of the pagan augurs, and was called the lituus by Roman Catholic 
writers previous to the Reformation. 

The keys carried by the Pope are a resuscitation of the keys carried 
by the pontiff of pagan Rome as high priest of Janus and Cybele, each 
of whom bore a key, and the pontiff was attired in a similar way as 
their representative on earth. . . . 

The priesthood of Rome claim to be the successors of the apostles, 
but they have been the chief opposers of the truth taught by the apos- 
tles and the chief agents in resuscitating the idolatry which Christ 
came to destroy. On the other hand they have a true and just claim to 
be the successors of the pagan priesthood. For not only are the title 
and office of Pontifex Maximus, and the orders, offices, sacerdotal 
dresses, symbols, doctrines, sorceries, and idolatries of the priesthood 



392 



PRIESTHOOIX 



of Rome directly derived from the priesthood of paganism, but they are 
the rightful and direct successors of the supreme pontiffs and priest- 
hood of ancient Babylon and pagan Rome. — " The True Christ and the 
False Christ," J. Gamier, Vol. II, pp. 89-92. London: George Allen, 1900. 

Note. — In an editorial in the Tablet (Roman Catholic) of June 13, 1914, 
Italy is mentioned as that nation " whose capital is also the center of Christen- 
dom, and against the spoliation of which as the seat of his necessary temporal 
dominion Christendom's head, in the person of our High Priest [italics ours], 
still makes his dignified protest.*' It is thus made clear that Roman Catholics 
regard the Pope as " our High Priest." — Eds. 

Priesthood, The Jewish and Roman Systems. — It is only neces- 
sary to run over the books of the Old Testament, especially Exodus, 
Leviticus, and Deuteronomy, to establish the fact that the Jewish 
church, called by the evangelists and the apostles the shadow and the 
figure of the Christian society, can in fact be the shadow and figure of 
the Catholic Church alone. In the Jewish system there is one visible 
head, Moses, continuing to live on in the sovereign pontiffs, the suc- 
cessive high priests, who sat in his chair. This head presides over a 
complete hierarchy, to which entire obedience is due under the severest 
penalties. These priests teach with authority, explain the law, preserve 
the traditions, maintain the practice of morality, pray, and offer sacri- 
fices, — in a word, govern the religious society. In these features who 
cannot recognize Jesus Christ still living for the government of the 
Catholic Church in Peter and his successors, the Roman pontiffs presid- 
ing over the whole ecclesiastical hierarchy, over the authority, the con- 
secration, and the functions of the priests of the new law? If Christ 
is come " not to destroy the law, but to carry it to perfection," all that 
is imperfect in the synagogue ought to be perfect in the church: high 
priesthood, sacraments, sacrifice, etc., etc. This perfection of the law 
we perceive throughout the Catholic system; Protestants can find in 
theirs only the law destroyed. — " Catholic Doctrine as Defined by the 
Council of Trent," Rev. A. Nampon, 8. J. (R. C), p. 62. Philadelphia: 
Peter F. Cunningham, 1869. 

Priesthood, Canons on. — Canon IX. If any one saith that the sac- 
ramental absolution of the priest is not a judicial act, but a bare min- 
istry of pronouncing and declaring sins to be forgiven to him who 
confesses; provided only he believe himself to be absolved, or (even 
though) the priest absolve not in earnest, but in joke; or saith that the 
confession of the penitent is not required in order that the priest may 
be able to absolve him; let him be anathema. 

Canon X. If any one saith that priests who are in mortal sin have 
not the power of binding and of loosing; or that not priests alone are 
the ministers of absolution, but that to all and each of the faithful of 
Christ is it said : " Whatsoever you shall bind upon earth shall be bound 
also in heaven; and whatsoever you shall loose upon earth shall be 
loosed also in heaven;" and, "Whose sins you shall forgive, they are 
forgiven them; and whose sins you shall retain, they are retained;" 
by virtue of which words every one is able to absolve from sins, to 
wit, from public sins by reproof only, provided he who is reproved yield 
thereto, and from secret sins by a voluntary confession; let him be 
anathema. — "Dogmatic Canons and Decrees," pp. 118, 119. New York: 
The Devin-Adair Company, 1912. 

Priesthood, Medieval Belief Concerning. — The requirements of 
the practical religion of everyday life were also believed to be in the 
possession of this ecclesiastical monarchy to give and to withhold. For 



PRIESTHOOD. 



393 



it was the almost universal belief of medieval piety that the mediation 
of a priest was essential to salvation; and the priesthood was an inte- 
gral part of this monarchy, and did not exist outside its boundaries. 
" No good Catholic Christian doubted that in spiritual things the clergy 
were the divinely appointed superiors of the laity, that this power pro- 
ceeded from the right of the priests to celebrate the sacraments, that 
the Pope was the real possessor of this power, and was far superior to 
all secular authority." 

In the decades immediately preceding the Reformation, many an 
educated man might have doubts about this power of the clergy over 
the spiritual and eternal welfare of men and women; but when it came 
to the point, almost no one could venture to say that there was nothing 
in it. And so long as the feeling remained that there might be some- 
thing in it, the anxieties, to say the least, which Christian men and 
women could not help having when they looked forward to an unknown 
future, made kings and peoples hesitate before they offered defiance to 
the Pope and the clergy. The spiritual powers which were believed to 
come from the exclusive possession of priesthood and sacraments went 
for much in increasing the authority of the papal empire and in bind- 
ing it together in one compact whole. — " A History of the Reformation" 
T. M. Lindsay ', M. A., D. D.. pp. 8, 4. New York: Charles Scribner's 
Sons, 1906. 

Priesthood, New Testament Doctrine of. — In ancient times it was 
held that men in general could not have direct access to God, that any 
approach to him must be mediated by some member of the class of 
priests, who alone could approach God, and who must accordingly be 
employed by other men to represent them before him. This whole con- 
ception vanishes in the light of Christianity. By virtue of their relation 
to Christ all believers have direct approach to God, and consequently, 
as this right of approach was formerly a priestly privilege, priesthood 
may now be predicated of every Christian. That none needs another to 
intervene between his soul and God; that none can thus intervene for 
another; that every soul may and must stand for itself in personal re- 
lation with God — such are the simple elements of the New Testament 
doctrine of the priesthood of all believers. — The International Standard 
Bible Encyclopedia, Vol. IV, art. "Priesthood in the New Testament" 
p. 2446. Chicago: The Howard-Severance Company, 1915. 

Priesthood, The Heavenly Sanctuary. — Heaven is the sphere of 
his [Christ's] ministry. When God said to Moses, to make all according 
to the pattern showed him in the mount, to serve as a shadow of the 
heavenly things; in the very appointment of the tabernacle, there was 
the indication that it was but a copy and promise of the true tabernacle, 
with its heavenly sanctuary. . . . All the ministry or service of the 
priests in the tabernacle had its fulfilment in him. The priests served 
in the tabernacle day by day, ordered everything for the service of God 
according to his will; as representatives of the people they received the 
assurance of God's favor, and brought them out God's blessing. Jesus 
is the minister of the heavenly sanctuary. He represents us there. . . . 

A priest must have a sanctuary in which he dwells, to receive all 
who come to seek his God. Our great High Priest has his sanctuary 
in the heavens; there he dwells, there we find him; there he receives 
us, there he introduces us to meet God; there he proves that he is a 
priest who abides continually, and who gives those who come to God 
through him the power to do it too — to abide continually in his pres- 
ence. — " The Holiest of All" Rev. Andrew Murray, pp. 264, 265. Lon- 
don: James Nisbet & Co.. 1895, 



394 



PRIVATE JUDGMENT. 



Private Judgment, From a Speech on, in the House of Commons, 
1530. — Because each man is created by God a free citizen of the world, 
and obliged to nothing so much as the inquiry of these means by which 
he may attain his everlasting happiness, it will be fit to examine to 
whose tuition and conduct he commits himself. . . . Shall each man, 
without more examination, believe his priests, in what religion soever, 
and call their doctrine his faith? . . . Must he take all that each priest 
upon pretense of inspiration would teach him, because it might be so? 
Or, may he leave all, because it might be otherwise? Certainly, to em- 
brace all religions, according to their various and repugnant rites, 
tenets, traditions, and faiths, is impossible. ... On the other side, to 
reject all religions indifferently is as impious; ... so that there is a 
necessity to distinguish. . . . Neither shall he fly thus to particular 
reason, which may soon lead him to heresy; but, after a due separa- 
tion of the more doubtful and controverted parts, shall hold himself 
to common, authentic, and universal truths. ... It will be worth the 
labor, assuredly, to inquire how far these universal notions will guide 
us, before we commit ourselves to any of their abstruse and scholastic 
mysteries, or supernatural and private revelations. 

These, therefore, as universal and undoubted truths, should in my 
opinion be first received; they will at least keep us from impiety and 
atheism, and together lay a foundation for God's service and the hope 
of a better life. . . . That will dispose us to a general concord and 
peace; for, when we are agreed concerning these eternal causes and 
means of our salvation, why should we so much differ for the rest? 
. . . The common truths of religion, being firmer bonds of unity than 
that anything emergent out of traditions should dissolve them, let us 
establish and fix these catholic or universal notions ... so that 
whether my Lord Bishop of Rochester, Luther, Zwinglius, Erasmus, or 
Melanchthon, etc., be in the right, we laics may so build upon these 
catholic and infallible grounds of religion, as whatsoever structure of 
faith be raised, these foundations yet may support them. — " Parlia- 
mentary History," Hansard, Vol. I, p. 506; cited in "British History and 
Papal Claims," James Parton. B. A., Vol. I, pp. 48, 49. London: Hodder 
and Stoughton, 1893. 

Probabilism. — See Jesuits, 268, 269. 

Prophecies, Maxims in the Interpretation of. — Ever since the 
time of the Reformation, the following maxims in the interpretation of 
the sacred prophecies have been generally received by the Protestant 
churches : 

1. That the visions of Daniel commence with the times of the 
prophet. 

2. That the events predicted in the Apocalypse begin from the time 
of [the] prophecy, or within the first century. 

3. That the fourth beast denotes the Roman Empire. 

4. That Babylon in the Apocalypse denotes Rome. 

5. That the little horn in Daniel 7 denotes the Papacy. 

6. That the man of sin relates to the same power. 

7. That the prophecy in 1 Timothy 4 is fulfilled in past events. 

8. That Babylon denotes, at least inclusively, Rome papal. — "First 
Elements of Sacred Prophecy," Rev. T. R. Birks, p. 1. London: William 
Edward Painter, 1843. 

Prophecies, Protestant Interpretation of. — The writers of the 
primitive church almost unanimously contradict the futurists, and agree 
with the Protestant interpreters, on the following points: 



PKOPHJKCY, OBJECT OF. 



395 



h That the head of gold denotes the Babylonian Empire, not the 
person of Nebuchadnezzar, or Babylon and Persia in one. 

2. That the silver denotes the Medo-Persian Empire. 

3. That the brass denotes the Greek Empire. 

4. That the iron denotes the Roman Empire. 

5. That the clay mingled with the iron denotes the intermixture of 
barbarous nations in the Roman Empire. 

6. That the mingling with the seed of men relates to intermarriages 
among the kings of the divided empire. 

7. That the lion denotes the Babylonian Empire. 

8. That the eagle wings relate to Nebuchadnezzar's ambition. 

9. That the bear denotes the Medo-Persian Empire. 

10. That the rising on one side signifies the later supremacy of the 
Persians. 

11. That the leopard relates to the Macedonian Empire. 

12. That the four wings denote the rapidity of Alexander's conquests. 

13. That the fourth beast is the Roman Empire. 

14. That the ten horns denote a tenfold division of that empire, 
which was then future. 

15. That the division began in the fourth and fifth centuries. 

16. That the rise of the ten horns is later than the rise of the 
beast. 

17. That the vision of the ram and he goat begins from the time of 
the prophecy. 

18. That the higher horn of the ram denotes the Persian dynasty, 
beginning with Cyrus. 

19. That the first horn of the he goat is Alexander the Great. 

20. That the breaking of the horn, when strong, relates to the sud- 
den death of Alexander in the height of his power. 

21. That the four horns denote four main kingdoms, into which the 
Macedonian Empire was divided. — Id., pp. 40, 41. 

Prophecy, Nature and Object of. — The gradual progress of Chris- 
tianity in the world, in the face of all opposition, the various persecu- 
tions with which the church of Christ was to be afflicted, its successes 
and reverses, its joys and its trials, its approximation to extinction, 
and its final and lasting triumph, are all the subject of express prophe- 
cies uttered by our Lord ana his apostles. — " Fulfilled Prophecy," Rev. 
W. Goode, D. D., F. 8. A., p. 9. London: James Nisbet & Go., 1891. 

There is unity in these prophecies with respect to the source from 
which they profess to be derived. All were uttered by individuals be- 
tween whom, as a body, there could be no mutual intercommunication; 
but all were worshipers of the same God, and professed to derive their 
inspiration from the same source. And all these various prophecies 
are connected together and interwoven with each other. We must, there- 
fore, receive the whole as a divine revelation, or reject the whole as a 
human fabrication. And if we reject it, we must suppose that a series 
of prophecies was uttered at various times, during a period of four 
thousand years, by men separated from each other by long intervals of 
time, — prophecies differing from one another in circumstantials, but 
relating mostly to the same events, and all accomplished in those events, 
— without any interposition of more than human intelligence. — Id., 
p. 12. 

We must remember, further, the great end of prophecy. It was 
not written to enable those who lived before the period of its fulfilment 
to know precisely what was about to happen. This was well understood 



396 



PROTESTANT. 



by the ancient prophets; to whom it was revealed, says St. Peter, that 
not unto themselves, but unto us, they did minister the things which, 
by the aid of the Holy Spirit, they delivered to mankind. 1 Peter 
i: 12. Hence it was veiled in language to a certain extent dark and 
obscure, but which was exactly applicable to the events that fulfilled 
it, and became by them clear and plain. It was not ambiguous, or ca- 
pable of various meanings, like the heathen oracles, so as to be adapted 
to almost anything that might happen, but had one definite signification, 
to which the event exactly answered, and thus proved the foreknowledge 
of it by him from whom the prophecy emanated. Thus it answered 
the purpose for which it was given, which was not to enable man to 
discern the exact course of future events, but that on its fulfilment we 
might see in it the proofs of a superintending divine agency in the 
affairs of men. To man the precise knowledge of future events would 
be anything but a blessing. It would produce a moral paralysis unfit- 
ting him for action. Prophecy, therefore, is, by the mercy of God, in 
consideration of our imperfection, clothed in language which, while it 
shadows forth the future with sufficient plainness for the purpose of 
warning or encouragement, awaits for its full interpretation the event 
of which it speaks. — Id., p. 15. 

Thus the great object of prophecy is accomplished. That object 
appears to have been, so far to unveil the future as to reveal to man 
the prominent outlines of God's subsequent providential dealings with 
mankind, and especially those events that were to have a decisive influ- 
ence upon his present position or future hopes as a being destined for 
translation to another and an eternal world; but at the same time to 
reveal these things in terms which, until their accomplishment, should 
leave men unacquainted with the precise time and manner in which 
they were to be fulfilled. — Id., p. 20. 

Prophecy. — See Advent, Second, 15, 16, 17, 21, 22-25; French Revo- 
lution, 173; Increase of Knowledge, 221-223; Little Horn; Mass, 300; 
Papacy, 327, 328; Papal Supremacy, 362, 363, 367; Ptolemy's Canon, 403 r 
404; Reformation, 411; Rome, 431, 439; Sabbath, Change of, 474; Spirit- 
ualism, 532; Year-Day Principle. 

Protest of the Princes. — See Bible, 78, 79; Idolatry, 217; Justifica- 
tion, 278; Reformation, 408, 409; Religious Liberty, 418. 

Protestant, Origin of the Name. — The name " Protestant " orig- 
inated from the " protestation " in which the leading German princes 
friendly to the Reformation united with fourteen cities of Germany on 
April 25, 1529, against the decree of the Roman majority of the second 
Diet of Speyer. It was a designation quite colorless from the religious 
point of view, and was first used as a political epithet by the opponents 
of those who signed the protest. — The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia 
of Religious Knowledge, Vol. IX, art. " Protestantism," p. 290, 291. New 
York: Funk and Wagnalls Company. 

Protestants, Religion of, Chillingworth's Statement. — By the 
" religion of Protestants," I do not understand the doctrine of Luther 
or Calvin or Melanchthon, or the Confession of Augsburg or Geneva, 
or the Catechism of Heidelberg, or the Articles of the Church of Eng- 
land, no, nor the harmony of Protestant confessions, but that wherein 
they all agree, and to which they all subscribe with a greater harmony, 
as a perfect rule of their faith and actions; that is, the Bible. The 
Bible, I say, the Bible only, is the religion of Protestants! Whatsoever 
else they believe besides it, and the plain, irrefragable, indubitable 



PROTESTANTISM, DOCTRINES OF. 



397 



consequences of it, well may they hold -it as a matter of opinion; but 
as matter of faith and religion, neither can they with coherence to 
their own grounds believe it themselves, nor require the belief of it 
of others, without most high and most schismatical presumption. I for 
my part, after a long and (as I verily believe and hope) impartial - 
search of " the true way to eternal happiness," do profess plainly that 
I cannot find any rest for the sole of my foot but upon this Rock only. 
— Works of Wm. Chilling worth, M. A., Vol. II, pp. 409-411. Oxford 
University Press, 1838. 

Protestants. — See Bible, 79; Church of Rome, 114; Heretics, 203, 
204, 206, 209, 210; Reformation, 408, 409; Religious Liberty, 413; Tra- 
dition, 562, 563, 564. 

Protestantism, Defined. — Protestantism is a principle which has 
its origin outside human society: it is a divine graft on the intellectual 
and moral nature of man, whereby new vitalities and forces are intro- 
duced into it, and the human stem yields henceforth a nobler fruit. It 
is the descent of a heaven-born influence which allies itself with all the 
instincts and powers of the individual, with all the laws and cravings 
of society, and which, quickening both the individual and the social 
being into a new life, and directing their efforts to nobler objects, per- 
mits the highest development of which humanity is capable, and the 
fullest possible accomplishment of all its grand ends. In a word, 
Protestantism is revived Christianity. — " The History of Protestant- 
ism," Rev. J. A. Wylie, LL. D., Vol. I, chap. 1, last par. London: Gassell 
and Company. 

Protestantism, Beliefs of. — It is important that we should know 
why we call ourselves Protestants. It is because we believe in the 
great principles of the Reformation. 

1. We believe that we are justified by faith in Christ alone, and 
not by any works of ours. Good works are the fruits of faith and the 
proof of its sincerity. 

2. We believe in the sufficiency of the Holy Scriptures — that we 
need not go beyond them to learn how we should live and what doc- 
trines we should hold. 

3. We believe in the priesthood of all believers — that sinful men 
can approach God directly without any mediation save that of Jesus 
Christ. 

4. We believe in an open Bible so that all men may learn for them- 
selves what is the will of God for their salvation. 

5. We believe that all should be encouraged to search Scripture at 
first hand and not be afraid of differing from " infallible " interpreters. 

6. We believe in full liberty of conscience, and in the responsibility 
of each man to God for his faith and conduct. — Rev. J. M. Kyle, D. D., 
in Protestant Magazine, August, 1915. 

Protestantism, Three Fundamental Docteines of. — The Protes- 
tant goes directly to the Word of God for instruction, and to the throne 
of grace in his devotions; while the pious Roman Catholic consults the 
teaching of his church, and prefers to offer his prayers through the 
medium of the Virgin Mary and the saints. 

From this general principle of evangelical freedom, and direct in- 
dividual relationship of the believer to Christ, proceed the three fun- 
damental doctrines of Protestantism — the absolute supremacy of (1) 
the Word, and of (2) the grace of Christ, and (3) the general priest- 
hood of believers. The first is called the formal, or, better, the objective 
principle; the second, the material, or, better, the subjective principle; 



398 



PROTESTANTISM, FOUNDATION OF. 



the third may be called the social, or ecclesiastical principle. German 
writers emphasize the first two, hut often overlook the third, which is 
of equal importance. — The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Reli- 
gious Knowledge, Vol. IX, art. " Reformation," p. 419. 

Protestantism, The Center of. — The center of Protestantism is 
not a principle, not a power, not a doctrine, but a Person. In its inner- 
most essence Protestantism is witness for Christ. Let this never be 
forgotten, let it be taken close to our hearts and held there forever. 
We are witnesses for Christ, for the power of Christ, for the love of 
Christ, for the sole claim of Christ upon our obedience, our allegiance, 
and our love. No one — no thing — shall stand between us and him 

— no person, however venerated; no system, however splendid; no 
organization, however ancient or imposing. Especially we are witnesses 
for the finished work of Christ as our only Saviour. We know that 
what is usually considered the cardinal doctrine of Protestantism is 
the doctrine of justification by faith. It was of this Luther became the 
champion, and it was this he called " the article of a standing or a 
falling church." But what does it mean? We are saved by faith indeed, 
but faith in itself has no power to save. It is only a link uniting us 
to Him who saves. Justification by faith means justification by Christ 

— by trusting him, following him, having him. Faith in itself is noth- 
ing — Christ is all. That is what Protestantism means — Christ is all. 
As one of our martyrs said in the fire, crying it out again and again 
in his dying agonies: "None but Christ! None but Christ! " That is 
the center word of Protestantism — " None but Christ." As long as we 
hold to that, we live, we grow, we triumph. Once let that go, and all 
goes. — " The Romance of Protestantism," D. Alcock, pp. 10-72. New 
York: Eaton and Mains, 1908. 

Protestantism, Test of Doctrines of. — Protestantism, as we have 
seen, was a resolve to let no church and no ceremony and no official 
stand between the sinner and his Saviour. This central doctrine of 
Protestantism, justification by faith alone, forbids any rite and any ex- 
perience to come between us and Christ. Baptism, when used as a 
rite with independent power located mysteriously in " holy water," by 
which regeneration and justification are supposed to be produced, is a 
rival of Christ and not a help towards him. And infused or inherent 
righteousness, when regarded as the sandy foundation of justification 
before God, only leads us away from the rock of his righteousness on 
which justification should be built. We object to " baptismal justifica- 
tion," and we object to " justification through inherent righteousness," 
on the same clear ground that they lead us away from Christ instead 
of leading us to him. Whatever interposes itself between us and him, 
so as to detract from his unique relation to us as Saviour and Lord, 
must be rejected. We need no other test than this regarding any doc- 
trine. Does it detract from the Saviour's rightful honor as Saviour of 
the world? If it does, it is to be in the name of Protestantism rejected, 
no matter what names can be quoted in its favor or what temporary 
purpose it may be supposed to serve. — " The Genius of Protestantism," 
Rev. R. M'Cheyne Edgar, M. A., D. D., p. 162. Edinburgh: Oliphant, 
Anderson, and Ferrier, 1900. 

Protestantism, First Foundation Stone of. — The righteousness of 
Christ instead of man's righteousness is the first foundation stone upon 
which Protestantism was built. — " Modernism and the Reformation" 
John Benjamin Rust, Ph. D., D. D., p. 71. New York: Fleming H. Re- 
vell Company. 



PROTESTANTISM, TRIUMPHS OF. 



S99 



Protestantism, A Difference. — Calvin presupposes that in God 
alone certainty of salvation is to be found, and that the deepest differ- 
ence between Catholicism and Protestantism lies in the fact that the 
former makes the certainty of salvation depend upon the priestly me- 
diation of the church, and the latter builds it upon the immediate 
fellowship of God. — Id., p. 72. 

Protestantism, What It Stood for. — Protestantism was actuated 
by zeal for the glory of God, the mediatorial work of Jesus Christ, 
and the divine authority of the Bible. The Protestants insisted upon 
the supreme authority of Scripture, and its sufficiency, over against the 
traditional interpretations which seemed to them to make void the 
Word of God, and to substitute human fallible authority for divine 
infallible authority. They urged the sovereign right of God to forgive 
sin, and were zealous against any kind of barter or purchase in eccle- 
siastical works. They knew that salvation was by divine grace alone, 
and they would not allow any place in it for human merit, or an opus 
operatum in the sacraments. Jesus Christ, to them, was their mediator, 
sacrifice, and priest, and they would not recognize any other sacrifice, 
any other mediators, or any other priests that in any way depreciated 
their Saviour's mediatorial work. They worshiped God alone, and it 
was to them simply idolatry to worship, even in a secondary sense, 
Virgin and saints, relics, images, and pictures. They had such an ex- 
alted conception of the two sacraments, baptism and the Lord's Supper, 
that they were unwilling to classify with them any, even the most 
sacred, Christian institutions. They were so filled with the gospel of 
Jesus Christ that the preaching of that gospel seemed to them such a 
great function of the Christian ministry that everything else fell into 
its shadow. — Prof. Charles Augustus Briggs, D. D., Litt. D., Union 
Theological Seminary (New York), in the Homiletic Review, March, 1912. 

Protestantism, The Final Court of Appeal for. — We firmly be- 
lieve, on what we consider very rational grounds, that the Bible is the 
final court of appeal in matters of faith and practice. The Bible self- 
interpreting and self-correcting — the Bible in its self-harmonized whole 
— the Bible studied, obeyed, illumined by the Holy Spirit, by whom it 
exists — the Bible, the tested, the proved, the ever new, the inexhaust- 
ible. — The Biole Record, March, 1911. 

Protestantism, Triumphs of. — Within fifty years from the day on 
which Luther publicly denounced communion with the Papacy, and 
burned the bull of Leo before the gates of Wittenberg, Protestantism 
attained its highest ascendancy, an ascendancy which it soon lost, and 
which it has never regained. Hundreds, who could well remember 
Brother Martin, a devout Catholic, lived to see the revolution, of which 
he was the chief author, victorious in half the states in Europe. In 
England, Scotland, Denmark, Sweden, Livonia, Prussia, Saxony, Hesse, 
Wurtemburg, the Palatinate, in several cantons of Switzerland, in the 
northern Netherlands, the Reformation had completely triumphed; and 
in all the other countries on this side of the Alps and the Pyrenees, 
it seemed on the point of triumphing. — Lord Macaulay, in his Essay 
on Ranke's " History of the Popes of Rome." 

Protestantism, Losses of. — The history of the two succeeding 
generations [after the Reformation] is the history of the struggle be- 
tween Protestantism possessed of the north of Europe, and Catholi- 
cism possessed of the south, for the doubtful territory which lay be- 
tween. All the weapons of carnal and of spiritual warfare were em- 



400 



PTOLEMY'S 44 ALMAGEST." 



ployed. Both sides may boast of great talents and of great virtues 
Both have to blush for many follies and crimes. At first the chances 
seemed to be decidedly in favor of Protestantism; but the victory re- 
mained with the Church of Rome. On every point she was successful. 
If we overleap another half century, we find her victorious and domi- 
nant in France, Belgium, Bavaria, Bohemia, Austria, Poland, and Hun- 
gary. Nor has Protestantism, in the course of two hundred years, been 
able to reconquer any portion of what was then lost. — Lord Macaulay. 
in his Essay on Ranke's " History of the Popes of Rome.*' 

Protestantism, Not a Schism. — Those who know the story of the 
strivings and yearnings of the centuries which preceded the Reforma- 
tion know well that the Reformed Church is the church reformed, and 
that it is not to be viewed as if it were either a new communion or a 
mere secession from the Catholic Church. There never was a time, 
even when the mystery of iniquity was most potent, when there were 
not purity and piety and faith, or when there were not protests and 
attempts at reform. In the best sense Protestantism is not a breaking 
away from the undivided Church of the West, but is the evangelicalism 
of that church — that in virtue of which it survived and was a church, 
purified, strengthened, and, above all, made explicit. — " The Arrested 
Reformation" Rev. William Muir, M. A., B. D., B. L., pp. 48, 49. Lon- 
don: Morgan & Scott, 1912. 

Protestantism, Meaning of. — The secret of the strength of Prot- 
estantism lies in its name. Luther, Calvin, the Reformers everywhere, 
protested against the imposition upon them, in the name of religion, of 
things which were not true. They protested against papal indulgences, 
pretensions of priests to pardon sin, lying miracles, conscious false- 
hoods, and childish superstitions. Against these they fought, and died 
as martyrs, as the early Christians died for refusing to acknowledge 
the divinity of the emperor. They were required to say that they 
believed what they knew they did not believe, and they gave their lives 
rather than lie against their own souls. — "Lectures on the Council of 
Trent," James Anthony Froude, p. 206. London: Longmans, Green & 
Co., 1896. 

Protestantism, Foundation Stone of. — His [Martin Luther's] fa- 
vorite book even now, however, was the Bible, an entire copy of which^ 
he found in the library of the convent also: it was the treasure from" 
which he nevermore parted; it, the sacred thing into whose spirit he 
sought to press further and further; it, that higher wisdom, the mean- 
ing and consistent tenor of which he strove to realize more and more 
fully in his life. And thus it became also the foundation stone of 
Protestantism!—" His tory of the Reformation in Germany and Switzer- 
land Chiefly" Dr. E. R. Hagenbach, Vol. I, p. 84. Edinburgh: T. & T. 
Clark, 1878. 

Protestantism. — See Council of Trent, 118; Jesuits, 275; Mass, 297; 
Religious Liberty, 413; Sacraments, 478. 

Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals.— See Forgeries; Papacy, 332, 341, 350, 

353. 

Ptolemy.— See Greece, 189-194. 

Ptolemy's 44 Almagest."— The same divine care which raised up 
Herodotus and other Greek historians to carry on the records of the 
past from the point to which they had been brought by the writings of 



PTOLEMY'S CANON. 



401 



the prophets at the close of the Babylonish captivity; the Providence 
which raised up Josephus, the Jewish historian, at the termination of 
New Testament history, to record the fulfilment of prophecy in the 
destruction of Jerusalem, — raised up also Ptolemy in the important 
interval which extended from Titus to Hadrian, that of the completion 
of Jewish desolation, to record the chronology of the nine previous cen- 
turies, and to associate it in such a way with the revolutions of the 
solar system as to permit of the most searching demonstration of its 
truth. 

Ptolemy's great work, the " Almagest," is a treatise on astronomy, 
setting forth the researches of ancient observers and mathematicians 
with reference to the position of the stars, the exact length of the 
year, and the elements of the orbits of the sun, moon, and planets. This 
work was written in Greek, and subsequently translated into Arabic, 
Persian, Hebrew, and Latin, etc.; it became the textbook of astronomic 
knowledge both in the East and in Europe, and retained that high posi- 
tion for about fourteen centuries, or till the time of Copernicus, the 
birth of modern astronomy, three centuries ago. 

The chronological value of the " Almagest " is owing to the fact 
that it interweaves a series of ancient dates with a series of celestial 
positions. It contains a complete catalogue of the succession of Baby- 
lonian, Persian, Grecian, and Roman monarchs, from Nabonassar to 
Hadrian and Antoninus, together with the dates of their accession and 
the duration of their reigns. Its astronomic events are referred to 
definite historic dates, and by this connection there is conferred on the 
latter the character of scientific certainty. — " Light for the Last Days" 
Mr. and Mrs. H. Grattan Guinness, Appendix A, pp. 395, 396. London : 
Rodder and Stoughton, 1893. 



Ptolemy's Canon. 






Beginning 
of Reigns 
Julian Time 


KINGS OF 


THE ASSYRIANS AND 


MEDES 




Each 


Sum 


B. C. 


1. Nabonassar 


14 


14 


Feb. 26, 747 


2. Nadius 


2 


16 


23, 733 


3. Khozirus and Porus . . 


5 


21 


22, 731 




5 


26 


21, 726 


5. Mardocempadus 


12 


38 


20, 721 


6. Archianus 


5 


43 


17, 709 


7. First Interregnum 


2 


45 


15, 704 




3 


48 


15, 702 




6 


54 


14, 699 




1 


55 


13, 693 


11. Mesesimordachus 


4 


59 


12, 692 


12. Second Interregnum . . 


8 


67 


11, 688 


13. Asaridinus 


13 


80 


9, 680 


14. Saosduchinus 


20 


100 


6, 667 


15. Rhuniladanus 


22 


122 


1, 647 




21 


143 


Jan. 27, 625 


17. Nabokolassar 


43 


186 


21, 604 




2 


188 


11, 561 


19. Nerikassolasar 


4 


192 


10, 559 


20. Nabonadius 


17 

PEESIAN KINGS 


209 


9, 555 




9 


218 


Jan. 5, 538 




8 


226 


3, 530 




36 


262 


1, 522 




21 


283 


Dec. 23, 486 


26 









402 



PTOLEMY'S CANON, 



9K IrtuvprYPS T 


41 


324 


17 46^ 

XI) TOO 


OR Tio t»i ti o TT 


19 


343 


7 49A 
( , tat 




, , 46 


389 


2, 405 


28. Ochus 


21 


410 


Nov. 21, 359 




, . 2 


412 


16, 338 


30. Darius III 


4 


416 


15, 336 




8 


424 


14, 332 



YEARS OF THE KINGS AFTER THE DEATH OF KING ALEXANDER 

1. Philip, after Alexander the Founder 7 

2. Alexander yEgus 12 

KINGS OF THE GREEKS IN EGYPT 

3. Ptolemy Lagus 20 

4. Ptolemy Philadelphus 38 

5. Ptolemy Euergetes I 25 

6. Ptolemy Philopator 17 

7. Ptolemy Epiphanes 24 

8. Ptolemy Philometor 35 

9. Ptolemy Euergetes II 29 

10. Ptolemy Soter 36 

11. Ptolemy Dionysius 29 

12. Cleopatra 22 



KINGS OF THE ROMANS 



13. Augustus 



43 



14. Tiberius 22 

15. Caius 4 

16. Claudius 14 

17. Nero 14 

18. Vespasian 10 

19. Titus 3 

20. Domitian 15 

21. Nerva 1 

22. Trajan 19 

23. Adrian 21 

24. Antoninus 23 

— " Light for the Last Days" Mr. and Mrs. H. Grattan Chiinness, pp. 402, 
403. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1893. 

Note. — Only the two columns " Each " and " Sum " are Ptolemy's, the 
former showing the years that he gives each king, the latter the sum of the 
years from the starting point at the close of each reign. The last column shows 
the date, Julian time, when the year of the reigns begins in the canon. The 
calculation is on the authority of Henry Browne, M. A. (England), as printed 
in the Morning Watch, New York, March 6. 1845. 



7 


12, 324 


1 Q 


10, 611 


39 


7 ao^ 


77 


9 98^ 

£i t tlOO 


102 


Opt 94. 247 


119 


IS 222 


143 


1 3 20^ 


178 


7, 181 


207 


Sprit 9Q 14fi 


243 


21, 117 


272 


12* 81 


294 


5' 52 


337 


Aug. 29, 30 




A. D. 


359 


20, 14 


363 


15, 36 


377 


14, 40 


391 


10, 54 


401 


7, 68 


404 


5, 78 


419 


4, 81 


420 


July 31, 96 


439 


31, 97 


460 


26, 116 


483 


21, 137 



Ptolemy's Canon, Principles on Which Constructed. — The prin- 
ciples upon which this truly scientific canon was constructed are next to 
be explained. 

Rule 1. The reigns consist of full or complete years. . . . 

Rule 2. Each king's reign begins at the Thoth, cr New Year's Day, 
before his accession, and all the odd months of his last year are included 
in the first year of his successor. 

Thus, the actual accession of Alexander the Great, was at the de- 
cisive victory of Arbela, Oct. 1. b. c. 331, but his reign in the canon 
began the preceding New Year's Day of the same current Nabonassarean 
year, Nov. 14. b. c. 332, which ended soon after the battle, Nov. 14. b. c, 
331. rSeePig. 1.1 



PTOU^MY'S CANON. 



403 



The death of Alexander the Great was in the 114th Olympiad, ac- 
cording to Josephus, May 22, b. c. 323; but the era of his successor, 
Philip Aridseus, began in the canon the preceding New Year's Day, 
Nov. 12, b. c. 324, as confirmed by Censorinus, who reckons from thence 
294 years to the accession of Augustus, b. c. 30. But b. c. 324 — 294 — 
b. c. 30. [See Fig. 2.] 

Tiberius died March 16, a. d. 37, but the reign of his successor, 
Caius Caligula, began in the canon from the preceding New Year's Day, 
Aug. 14, a. d. 36. LSee Fig. 3.] 

From these two rules, it follows, that the last year of any reign 
belongs thereto wholly, or exclusively, and that the beginning of a reign 



Years of | 




! Years of J 




i Years of ! 




Canon i 


B.C. 


; Canon i 
i 


B.C. 


j Canon ; 


A.D. 


416 | 


332 


! 424 ; 


324 


! 783 ! 


36 


NOV. 14 » 




< In Canon !- - N -°- v ; L 2 -j 




. „ r Aug. r 

< In Canon i 
















i 
i 




Actual Time ! 




417 ; 


331 


Actual Time J 425 f 


323 


< MAY 23 j j 


37 


NOV. 14 j 




( OCT. 1 J_NOV.I2 |_ 




! A 1)6.14 "I 
















418 ! 


330 


i 426 ! 


322 


! 785 ! 


38 



< In Canon 



Actual Time 

< MAR. 16 



Fig. 1. Alexander's 
Succession 



Fig. 2. Aridseus' 
Succession 



Fig. 3. Caligula's 
Succession 



is sometimes dated in the canon near a full year before the actual acces- 
sion. — "A New Analysis of Chronology and Geography" Rev. William 
Hales, D. D., Vol. I, pp. 170, 171. London: C. J. G. d F. Rivington, 1830. 

Note. — Inasmuch as the canon shows only that Artaxerxes began his reign 
sometime in the Nabonassarean year beginning Dec. 17, 465 B. c, and ending 
Dec. 17, 464 (see Fig. 1), the question is, At what time of the year did he come 
to the throne? Here Inspiration itself gives the answer. The record of Ezra 
and Nehemiah fully establishes the fact that Artaxerxes began his reign at the 
end of the summer, or in the autumn (Neh. 1:1; 2:1; Ezra 7 : 7-9), which shows 
that the king came to the throne at such a season that the ninth month Chisleu 
(November-December) came in order before Nisan, the first ( March- April ) , while 
the fifth month (July-August) was also in the same year of the king. Thus he 
came to the throne somewhere between the latter part of August and the latter 
part of November. His first year, therefore, was from the very late summer 
or autumn of 464 b. c. to the autumn of 463 b. c, and his seventh year was from 
the autumn of 458 B. c. to the autumn of 457 b. c. (Fig. 2). — Eds. 

Ptolemy's Canon, Authority of. — From its great use as an astro- 
nomical era, confirmed by unerring characters of eclipses, this canon 
justly obtained the highest authority among historians also. It has 
most deservedly been esteemed an invaluable treasure, omni auro pretio* 
sior, as Calvisius says, and of the greatest use in chronology, without 
which, as Marsham observes, there could scarcely be any transition from 
sacred to profane history. — "A New Analysis of Chronology and Geog- 
raphy, History and Prophecy," Rev. Wm. Hales, Vol. I, p. 166. London: 
C. J. G. <& F. Rivington, 1830. 

The most valuable record of this period, independent of Scripture, 
is the Canon of Ptolemy. The length of each reign is there given, 
expressed in Egyptian years, and dated from the era of Nabonassar, 
a. c. 747. The Egyptian year consisted of 365 days, without intercala- 
tion; and its Thoth, or commencement, will thus fall later in the Julian 
year the higher we ascend. The accession of each monarch, in the 



404 



PURGATORY DEFINED. 



canon, is referred to the beginning of the year in which his reign began. 

— " The Four Prophetic Empires, and the Kingdom of Messiah; The 
First Two Visions of Daniel" Rev. T. R. Birks, M. A., p. 24. London: 
Seeley, Burnside, and Seeley, 1845. 

Ptolemy's Canon, Application of, in Prophecy. — It is a deeply 
interesting fact that these four empires are similarly presented as 
successive in the celebrated astronomical Canon of Ptolemy, which 
traces the course of imperial rule from the era of Nabonassar, king of 
Babylon, to the reign of the Roman Emperor Antoninus. Between the 
historical and chronological outline given in the Canon of Ptolemy, and 
that set forth in the fourfold image of Nebuchadnezzar's vision, there 
is the most striking and complete agreement. " As the good Spirit of 
God," says Faber [" Sacred Calendar of Prophecy," Vol. II, p. 7], 
"employs the four successive empires of Babylon, Persia, Greece, and 
Rome, in the capacity of the Grand Calendar of Prophecy, so Ptolemy 
has employed the very same four empires in the construction of his 
invaluable canon; because the several lines of their sovereigns so begin 
and end, when the one line is engrafted upon the other line, as to 
form a single unbroken series from Nabonassar to Augustus Caesar. 

In each case the principle of continuous arrangement is identical. 
Where Ptolemy makes the Persian Cyrus the immediate successor of 
the Babylonic Nabonadius, or Belshazzar, without taking into account 
the preceding kings of Persia or of Media, there, in the image, the 
silver joins itself to the gold; where Ptolemy makes the Grecian 
Alexander the immediate successor of the Persian Darius, without tak- 
ing into account the preceding kings of Macedon, there, in the image, 
the brass joins itself to the silver; and where Ptolemy makes the 
Roman Augustus the immediate successor of the Grecian Cleopatra, 
without taking into account the long preceding roll of the Consular 
Fasti and the primitive Roman monarchy, there, in the image, the 
iron joins itself to the brass. In short, the Canon of Ptolemy may well 
be deemed a running comment upon the altitudinal line of the great 
metallic image." — " Creation Centred in Christ," H. Orattan Guinness, 
D. D., pp. 236, 237. London: H odder and Stoughton, 1896. 

Note. — While it is true that the Grecian royal line did not become extinct 
until the death of Cleopatra, b. c. 30, authorities are quite generally agreed that 
world dominance passed from Greece to Rome at the battle of Pydna, b. c. 168. — 
Eds. 

Ptolemy's Canon. — See Artaxerxes, 41, 42; Daniel, 132. 

Purgatory Defined. — It is a place in which the souls of the right- 
eous dead, subject to temporal punishment, suffer enough [or make 
satisfaction]. — " Theologia," Dens (R. C), Tom. VII, Tractatus de Qua- 
tuor Novissimis, N. 25, " De Purgatorio " (Dens' Theology, Vol. VII, 
Treatise on The Four Last Things, No. 25, " On Purgatory "). 

Purgatory, Decree Concerning. — Whereas the Catholic Church, 
instructed by the Holy Ghost, has, from the Sacred Writings and the 
ancient tradition of the Fathers, taught in sacred councils, and very 
recently in this ecumenical synod, that there is a purgatory, and that 
the souls there detained are helped by the suffrages of the faithful, but 
principally by the acceptable sacrifice of the altar; the holy synod en- 
joins on bishops that they diligently endeavor that the sound doctrine 
concerning purgatory, transmitted by the holy Fathers and sacred coun- 
cils, be believed, maintained, taught, and everywhere proclaimed by the 
faithful of Christ. — Decree Concerning Purgatory, published in the 
Twenty-Fifth Session of the Council of Trent; "Dogmatic Canons and 
Decrees," p. 165. New York: The Devin- Adair Company, 1912. 



PURGATORY, FROM PAGANISM. 



405 



Purgatory, Its Place. — The ordinary place of purgatory, which 
is appropriately and generally understood by the name purgatory, is 
under the earth, near to hell. — " Theologia," Dens (R. C), Tom. VII. 
Tractatus de Quatuor Novissimis, N. 27, " De Loco Purgatorii" (Dens' 
Theology, Vol. VII, Treatise on The Four Last Things, No. 27, " On the 
Place of Purgatory "). 

Purgatory, Pretended Scripture Proof for. — Holy Scripture does 
not mention the word " purgatory," but the idea is conveyed of a place 
of expiation after death. This is neither heaven nor hell. From the 
Old Testament we infer the existence of purgatory, as a belief of the 
Jews, from the passage telling the action of Judas Maccabeus regarding 
the dead. He made a collection and sent to Jerusalem 2,000 drachms 
of silver, that sacrifice might be offered for the sins of those who had 
died. 2 Mac. 12: 43-45. 

In the New Testament, reference is generally made to the words of 
our divine Lord in Matt. 12 : 32 : " He that shall speak against the Holy 
Ghost, it shall not be forgiven him, neither in this world, nor in the 
world to come." St. Augustine and St. Gregory, among many others, 
have gathered from these words that some sins may be remitted in the 
world to come, and that, consequently, there is a purgatory. 

The passage of St. Paul, 1 Cor. 3: 11-15, is taken in its concluding 
words, "But he himself shall be saved, yet so as by fire," to refer to 
the cleansing fire of purgatory. — The Catholic Citizen, May 1, 1915. 

Purgatory Adopted from Paganism. — Go wherever we may, in an- 
cient or modern times, we shall find that paganism leaves hope after 
death for sinners who, at the time of their departure, were consciously 
unfit for the abodes of the blest. For this purpose a middle state has 
been feigned, in which, by means of purgatorial pains, guilt unremoved 
in time may in a future world be purged away, and the soul be made 
meet for final beatitude. In Greece the doctrine of a purgatory was 
inculcated by the very chief of the philosophers. Thus Plato, speaking 
of the future judgment of the dead, holds out the hope of final deliver- 
ance for all, but maintains that, of "those who are judged," "some" 
must first "proceed to a subterranean place of judgment, where they 
shall sustain the punishment they have deserved; " while others, in 
consequence of a favorable judgment, being elevated at once into a 
certain celestial place, " shall pass their time in a manner becoming the 
life they have lived in a human shape." In pagan Rome, purgatory was 
equally held up before the minds of men; but there, there seems to have 
been no hope held out to any of exemption from its pains. . . . 

In Egypt, substantially the same doctrine of purgatory was incul- 
cated. But when once this doctrine of purgatory was admitted into the 
popular mind, then the door was opened for all manner of priestly ex- 
tortions. Prayers for the dead ever go hand in hand with purgatory; 
but no prayers can be completely efficacious without the interposition 
of the priests; and no priestly functions can be rendered unless there 
be special pay for them. Therefore, in every land we find the pagan 
priesthood " devouring widows' houses," and making merchandise of 
the tender feelings of sorrowing relatives, sensitively alive to the im- 
mortal happiness of the beloved dead. — " The Two Babylons" Rev. 
Alexander Hislop, pp. 167, 168. London: 8. W. Partridge & Co., 1907. 

Purgatory. — See Indulgences, 237. 

Pythagorean Doctrine. — See Galileo, 181. 



Quadi.— See Rome, 438, 455. 



406 REFORMATION , PREPARATION FOR. 



Reformation, The, Its Importance.— The Reformation of the six- 
teenth century is, next to the introduction of Christianity, the greatest 
event in history. It was no sudden revolution; for what has no roots 
in the past can have no permanent effect upon the future. It was pre- 
pared by the deeper tendencies and aspirations of previous centuries, 
and, when finally matured, it burst forth almost simultaneously in all 
parts of Western Christendom. It was not a superficial amendment, 
not a mere restoration, but a regeneration; not a return to the Augus- 
tinian, or Nicene, or ante-Nicene age, but a vast progress beyond any 
previous age or condition of the church since the death of St. John. It 
went, through the intervening ages of ecclesiasticism, back to the foun- 
tain-head of Christianity itself, as it came from the lips of the Son of 
God and his inspired apostles. ... It brought out from this fountain 
a new phase and type of Christianity, which had never as yet been fully 
understood and appreciated in the church at large. It was, in fact, a 
new proclamation of the free gospel of St. Paul, as laid down in the 
Epistles to the Romans and Galatians. It was a grand act of emanci- 
pation from the bondage of the medieval hierarchy, and an assertion of 
that freedom wherewith Christ has made us free. It inaugurated the 
era of manhood and the general priesthood of believers. It taught the 
direct communion of the believing soul with Christ. It removed the 
obstructions of legalism, sacerdotalism, and ceremonialism, which, like 
the traditions of the Pharisees of old, had obscured the genuine Gospel 
and made void the Word of God. — "A History of the Greeds of Christen- 
dom" Philip Schaff, D. D., pp. 204, 205. New York: Harper & Brothers, 
1877. 

Reformation, The, Preparation for. — It [the Reformation] was 
not an abrupt revolution, but had its roots in the Middle Ages. There 
were many " Reformers before the Reformation," and almost every doc- 
trine of Luther and Calvin had its advocates long before them. The 
whole struggling of medieval Catholicism toward reform and liberty; the 
long conflict between the German emperors and the popes; the reform- 
atory councils of Pisa, Constance, and Basel; the Waldenses and Albi- 
genses in France and northern Italy; Wiclif and the Lollards in Eng- 
land; Hus and the Hussites in Bohemia; Arnold of Brescia, and Savona- 
rola, in Italy; the spiritualistic piety and theology of the mystics of the 
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries; the theological writings of Wesel, 
Goch, and Wesel, in Germany and the Netherlands; the rise of the na- 
tional languages and letters in connection with the feeling of national 
independence; the invention of the printing press; the revival of let- 
ters and classical learning under the direction of Agricola, Reuchlin, 
and Erasmus, — all these, and similar movements, were preparations for 
the Reformation. The evangelical churches claim a share in the inherit- 
ance of all preceding history, and own their indebtedness to the mis- 
sionaries, schoolmen, Fathers, confessors, and martyrs of former ages, 
but acknowledge no higher authority than Christ and his inspired or- 
gans. — Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, Vol. Ill, 
art. "Reformation" subtitle, "Preparation for the Reformation," p. 
2004, revised and enlarged. 

Reformation, The, God's Instrument in Its Accomplishment. — 
God who prepares his work through ages, accomplishes it by the weak- 
est instruments, when his time is come. — "history of the Reformation," 
J. H. Merle. D'Aubigne, D. D., book 2, chap. 1, par. 1. 

Reformation, The, Its Beginnings in the Struggles of a Humble 
Spirit. — The Reformation, commenced by the struggles of a humble 



REFORMATION — LUTHER. 



407 



spirit in the cell of a cloister at Erfurt, had continually increased. . . . 
A final struggle remained to be undergone. The Word was destined to 
triumph over the emperor of the West, over the kings and princes of 
the earth; and then, victorious over all the powers of the world, to 
uprise in the church, and reign as the very Word of God. — " History of 
the Reformation," J. H. Merle D'Aubigne, D. D., book 7, chap. 1, par. 1. 

Reformation, The, Luther's Early Work. — Martin Luther, the son 
of a German peasant, was horn in 1483. In his twenty-second year he 
left the study of law and entered the Augustinian convent at Erfurt. 
His legal studies had prepared him to sympathize with the German 
Church and the German Empire against the aggressions of Rome; but 
now for some years these external questions were forgotten, in a pro- 
found and passionate desire to solve, chiefly in the study of the Holy 
Scriptures, the question how the individual man may be just with God. 
He visited Rome in 1511, and on his return to the University of Witten- 
berg, in which he had for some years been professor of philosophy, he 
became doctor of Biblical theology, and his preaching of justification of 
a sinner by faith became a most powerful influence through the whole 
of Saxony. The inevitable collision between this and the church sys- 
tem came when Tetzel, a Dominican monk, was authorized by Pope 
Leo X to go through Germany selling pardons or indulgences in the form 
of stamped tickets, at the rate of a few ducats for the graver sins. — 
" Church and State," A. Taylor Innes, pp. Ill, 112. Edinburgh: T. & T. 
Clark. 

Reformation, The, Luther's Experience on Pilate's Staircase. — 
One day, among others, wishing to obtain an indulgence promised by the 
Pope to all who should ascend on their knees what is called Pilate's 
staircase, the poor Saxon monk [Luther] was humbly creeping up those 
steps, which he was told had been miraculously transported from Jeru- 
salem to Rome. But while he was performing this meritorious act, he 
thought he heard a voice of thunder crying from the bottom of his heart, 
as at Wittemberg and Bologna, " The just shall live by faith." These 
words, that twice before had struck him like the voice of an angel from 
God, resounded unceasingly and powerfully within him. He rises in 
amazement from the steps up which he was dragging his body; he shud- 
ders at himself; he is ashamed of seeing to what a depth superstition 
had plunged him. He flies far from the scene of his folly. — " History of 
the Reformation," J. H. Merle D'Aubigne, D. D., book 2, chap. 6, par. 19. 

Reformation, The, Eck's Appeal to Prejudice Against Luther. — ■ 
Eck: " I am surprised at the humility and modesty with which the rev- 
erend doctor [Luther] undertakes to oppose, alone, so many illustrious 
Fathers, and pretends to know more than the sovereign pontiffs, the 
councils, the doctors, and the universities! ... It would be surprising, 
no doubt, if God had hidden the truth from so many saints and martyrs 
— until the advent of the reverend father! " — Id., book 5, chap. 5, par. 24. 

Reformation, The, Luther's Reply to Spalatin. — But Luther, un- 
dismayed, turned his eyes on the messenger, and replied: "Go and tell 
your master [Spalatin, chaplain to the Elector Frederick], that even 
should there be as many devils in Worms as tiles on the housetops, 
still I would enter it!" — Id., book 7, chap. 7, last par. 

Reformation, The, "Here I stand; I can do no other." — "Since 
your most serene majesty and your high mightiness require from me a 
clear, simple, and precise answer, I will give you one. and it. is this: T 



408 REFORMATION, LUTHER'S PROTEST. 



cannot submit my faith either to the Pope or to the councils, because 
it is clear as the day that they have frequently erred and contradicted 
each other. Unless therefore I am convinced by the testimony of Scrip- 
ture, or by the clearest reasoning, — unless I am persuaded by means of 
the passages I have quoted, — and unless they thus render my conscience 
bound by the Word of God, I cannot and I will not retract, for it is 
unsafe for a Christian to speak against his conscience." And then, 
looking round on this assembly before which he stood, and which held 
his life in its hands, he said: "Here I stand, I can do no other; may 
God help me! Amen! " — Id., hook 7, chap. 8, par. 54. 

Reformation, The, Luther's Protest Repeated by the Princes.— 
At Worms, Luther stood alone; at Spires, the one man has grown into 
a host. The " No " so courageously uttered by the monk in 1521 is now 
in 1529 taken up and repeated by princes, cities, and nations. Its echoes 
travel onwards, till at last their murmurs are heard in the palaces of 
Barcelona and the basilicas of Rome. Eight years ago the Reformation 
was simply a doctrine, now it is an organization, a church. This little 
seed, which on its first germination appeared the smallest of all seeds, 
and which popes, doctors, and princes beheld with contempt, is a tree, 
whose boughs, stretched wide in air, cover nations with their shadow 

In that document they recite all that had passed at the Diet, and 
they protest against its decree, for themselves, their subjects, and all 
who receive or shall hereafter receive the gospel, and appeal to the 
emperor, and to a free and general council of Christendom. On the 
morning after their appeal, the 26th, the princes left Spires. This sud- 
den departure was significant. It proclaimed to all men the firmness of 
their resolve. Ferdinand had spoken his last word and was gone. They, 
too, had spoken theirs, and were gone also. Rome hoists her flag; over 
against hers the Protestants display theirs; henceforward there are two 
camps in Christendom. 

Even Luther did not perceive the importance of what had been done. 
The Diet he thought had ended in nothing. It often happens that the 
greatest events wear the guise of insignificance, and that grand eras 
are ushered in with silence. Than the principle put forth in the 
Protest of the 19th April, 1529, it is impossible to imagine one that 
could more completely shield all rights, and afford a wider scope for 
development. Its legitimate fruit must necessarily be liberty, civil and 
religious. What was that principle? This Protest overthrew the lord- 
ship of man in religious affairs, and substituted the authority of God. 
But it did this in so simple and natural a way, and with such an avoid- 
ance of all high-sounding phraseology, that men could not see the gran- 
deur of what was done, nor the potency of the principle. The protest- 
ers assumed the Bible to be the Word of God, and that every man ought 
to be left at liberty to obey it. This modest affirmation falls on our ear 
as an almost insipidity. Compared with some modern charters of rights, 
and recent declarations of independence, how poor does it look! Yet let 
us see how much is in it. "The Word," say the protesters, "is the 
only truth; it is the sure rule of all doctrine and of all life; " and " each 
text of the Holy Scriptures ought to be explained bv other and clearer 
texts." Then what becomes of the pretended infallibility of Rome, in 
virtue of which she claims the exclusive right of interpreting the Scrip- 
tures, and binding down the understanding of man to believe whatever 
she teaches? It is utterly exploded and overthrown. And what be- 
comes of the emperor's right to compel men with his sword to practise 
whatever faith the church enjoins, assuming it to be the true faith, 
simply because the church has enjoined it? It too is exploded and 



REFORMATION , PROTEST OF THE PRINCES. 409 



overthrown. The principle, then, so quietly lodged in the Protest, lays 
this twofold tyranny in the dust. The chair of the Pontiff and the sword 
of the emperor pass away, and conscience comes in their room. But. 
the Protest does not leave conscience her own mistress; conscience is 
not a law to herself. That were anarchy — rebellion against Him who 
is her Lord. The Protest proclaims that the Bible is the law of con- 
science, and that its Author is her alone Lord. Thus steering its course 
between the two opposite dangers, avoiding on this hand anarchy, and 
on that tyranny, Protestantism comes forth unfurling to the eyes of the 
nations the flag of true liberty. Around that flag must all gather who 
would be free. — " The History of Protestantism" Rev. J. A. Wylie, 
LL. D., Vol. I, book 9, chap. 15, pp. 551-553. London : Cassell & Company. 

Reformation, The, Protest of the Princes. — Thus, in presence of 
the diet, spoke out those courageous men whom Christendom will hence- 
forward denominate The Protestants. . . . 

The principles contained in this celebrated protest of the 19th April, 
1529, constitute the very essence of Protestantism. Now this protest 
opposes two abuses of man in matters of faith: the first is the intrusion 
of the civil magistrate, and the second the arbitrary authority of the 
church. Instead of these abuses, Protestantism sets the power of con- 
science above the magistrate; and the authority of the Word of God 
above the visible church. In the first place, it rejects the civil power 
in divine things, and says with the prophets and apostles: "We must 
obey God rather than man." In presence of the crown of Charles the 
Fifth, it uplifts the crown of Jesus Christ. But it goes farther: it lays 
down the principle that all human teaching should be subordinate to 
the oracles of God. Even the primitive church, by recognizing the writ- 
ings of the apostles, had performed an act of submission to this supreme 
authority, and not an act of authority, as Rome maintains; and the 
establishment of a tribunal charged with the interpretation of the Bible, 
had terminated only in slavishly subjecting man to man in what should 
be most unfettered — conscience and faith. In this celebrated act of 
Spires, no doctor appears, and the Word of God reigns alone. Never 
has man exalted himself like the Pope; never have men kept in the 
background like the Reformers. — "History of the Reformation" J. H. 
Merle D'Aubigne, D. D., booh 13, chap. 6, pars. 16, 18. 

Reformation, The, Real Strength of. — The real strength of the 
Reformation movement did not lie in statesmen or even Reformers, but 
in the loyal, earnest men and women, in all the nations, who in their 
SQnse of sin and their yearning for reconciliation to God had gone di- 
rectly to him, as the Reformers did, and had found pardon and peace 
in his free saving grace. At its best it was a great revival of heart 
religion, the greatest since apostolic days; and wherever that side of it 
predominated, it not only overcame all opposition, but spread in spite 
of the most cunning and cruel devices of the foe. — " The Arrested Ref- 
ormation," Rev. William Muir, M. A., B. D., B. L., pp. 7, 8. London: 
Morgan & Scott, 1912. 

Reformation, The, A Return to the Living God. — But it was not 
restored learning, it was not rekindled genius, it was not reinvigorated 
reason, it was not the newborn power of the press, it was not its own 
accumulated vices and consummated corruptions before which the Pa- 
pacy went down over half Christendom, which constituted the great 
assailing force which dealt the crushing and confounding stroke. These 
all came up at the right time, and did good service as auxiliaries in 



410 



REFORMATION, MILTON ON. 



the great battle. The onslaught was more mightily made; the stroke 
was more divinely dealt. The victorious and irresistible assailant was 
a soul deeply stirred and divinely inspired, possessed by an intense 
yearning and filled with a quickening truth, eager to be rid of the 
crushing burden of sin, and finding only full deliverance in the free 
grace of God. 

The Reformation has been spoken of not altogether wrongly as the 
insurrection of reason against authority, as the assertion of the right 
of private judgment in matters of religion, as the general emancipation 
of the intellect: the Reformation was all this, and something likewise 
far diviner. It was the re-enthronement of God's truth; it was the 
reproduction of a vital principle of Christianity long hidden and buried 
under a heap of false dogmas and idle observances; it was the resto- 
ration of the soul to its right place in things spiritual, the renewal of 
direct communication between the spirit of man and the Spirit of God. 
The Reformation brought with it the negation of much, but it began 
with the most positive, profound, and glorious of all conceivable affirma- 
tions, that salvation is from the Lord, that divine life flows down into 
our hearts directly from the Divine Being. It brought low the Church of 
Rome by magnifying the Word; it deposed the Pope over the half of 
Christendom by re-enthroning faith in the living God. Luther was no 
subversive speculator, no discontented priest, but a sin-stricken soul, 
who weary of dead works had turned to living faith, and after trial of 
man's absolution had won healing from God's grace. He never sought 
directly to emancipate the intellect; he did not at first seek to over- 
throw the Papacy, but he sought to bring Christendom back into personal 
and living contact with the living God, and to pour into other souls the 
fire of that potent truth which had kindled his own. The Reformation 
was in truth a baptism of fire, a coming down of the Holy Ghost upon 
Christendom. — " The Papal Drama," Thomas H. Gill, pp. 182, 183. Lon- 
don: Longmans, Green & Co., 1866. 

Reformation, The, Milton on. — When I recall to mind at last, 
after so many dark ages, wherein the huge overshadowing train of error 
had almost swept all the stars out of the firmament of the church; how 
the bright and blessful Reformation (by divine power) struck through 
the black and settled night of ignorance and anti-Christian tyranny, 
methinks a sovereign and reviving joy must needs rush into the bosom 
of him that reads and hears; and the sweet odor of the returning gos- 
pel imbathe his soul with the fragrancy of heaven. Then was the sacred 
Bible sought out of the dusty corners where profane falsehood and 
neglect had thrown it, the schools opened, divine and human learning 
raked out of the embers of forgotten tongues, the princes and citiSs 
trooping apace to the new erected banner of salvation; the martyrs, 
with the unresistible might of weakness, shaking the powers of dark- 
ness, and scorning the fiery rage of the old red dragon. — " The Refor- 
mation in England," John Milton, book 1; "Prose Works of Milton" 
Vol. II, pp. 366-368. London: Bohn's Library edition. 

Reformation, The, Lines Drawn by. — After the first shock of bat- 
tle was over, and the counter-Reformation had done its work, it was 
found that Protestantism and the Evangel had triumphed among the 
Germanic or Teutonic peoples, whereas Rome had kept the great Latin 
or Romance nations. On the one side of the line were the North Ger- 
mans and the Swiss, the Scandinavians and the English, the Scots and 
the Dutch. On the other were the Austrians and the Italians, the Span- 
ish and the French. And as it was then, so it is now. From the first 
the victory of the Reformation was swift and decisive among the peoples 



REFORMATION AND PROPHECY. 



411 



of Northern Europe, and they have never gone back on the choice which 
they made in the sixteenth century. — " The Arrested Reformation," Rev. 
William Muir, M. A., B. D., B. L.. pp. 3, 4. London: Morgan & Scott, 
1912. 

Reformation, The, Relation of Prophecy to. — I do not say that 
the teachings of Scripture prophecy form the sole foundation of the 
Reformation. The doctrinal and practical truths of Scripture guided 
the action of the Reformers as well as the prophetic. They opposed the 
Church of Rome, as condemned alike by the doctrines, the precepts, and 
the prophecies of the Word of God. It might be difficult to say which 
of tne three weighed with them most. On each they were clear and 
emphatic. These three elements cannot be separated in estimating the 
springs of the Reformation. From the first, and throughout, that move- 
ment was energized and guided by the prophetic word. Luther never 
felt strong and free to war against the papal apostasy till he recog- 
nized the Pope as Antichrist. It was then he burned the papal bull. 
Knox's first sermon, the sermon which launched him on his mission as 
a Reformer, was on the prophecies concerning the Papacy. The Reform- 
ers embodied their interpretations of prophecy in their confessions of 
faith, and Calvin in his " Institutes." All the Reformers were unani- 
mous in the matter; even the mild and cautious Melanchthon was as 
assured of the antipapal meaning of these prophecies as was Luther 
himself. And their interpretation of these prophecies determined their 
reforming action. It led them to protest against Rome with extraor- 
dinary strength and undaunted courage. It nerved them to resist the 
claims of that apostate church to the uttermost. It made them martyrs; 
it sustained them at the stake. And the views of the Reformers were 
shared by thousands, by hundreds of thousands. They were adopted by 
princes and peoples. Under their influence nations abjured their alle- 
giance to the false priest of Rome. In the reaction which followed, all 
the powers of hell seemed to be let loose upon the adherents of the 
Reformation. War followed war: tortures, burnings, and massacres 
were multiplied. Yet the Reformation stood undefeated and unconquer- 
able. God's Word upheld it, and the energies of his almighty Spirit. 
It was the work of Christ as truly as the founding of the church eight- 
een centuries ago; and the revelation of the future which he gave from 
heaven — that prophetic book with which the Scripture closes — was one 
of the mightiest instruments employed in its accomplishment. — "Ro- 
manism and the Reformation," H. Orattan Guinness, D. D., F. R. A. S., 
pp. 153, 154. London: J. Nisbet & Co., 1891. 

Reformation, The, Its Fundamental Doctrine the One Mediator. 
— The church had fallen, because the great doctrine of justification by 
faith in the Saviour had been taken away from her. It was necessary, 
therefore, before she could rise again, that this doctrine should be re- 
stored to her. As soon as this fundamental truth should be re-estab- 
lished in Christendom, all the errors and observances that had taken 
its place — all that multitude of saints, of works, penances, masses, in- 
dulgences, etc., would disappear. As soon as the one only Mediator and 
his only sacrifice were acknowledged, all other mediators and sacrifices 
would vanish. — "History of the Reformation," J. H. Merle D'Aubigne, 
D. D., book 1, chap. 6, par. 6. 

Reformation, The, Not Yet Completed. — The present situation 
[the incompleted work of reform] is not only sad but intolerable, and 
prayer should be offered continually that it may soon come to an end. 
Those who love our Lord can never look with complacency on the per- 



412 



RELIGIOUS LIBERTY. 



slstence of a great unreformed system which in so many respects is a 
menace to the spirituality of the kingdom of God; and what does the 
prayer, " Thy Kingdom come," mean if it does not involve the endeavor 

to complete the Reformers' work? — " The Arrested Reformation," Rev. 
William Muir, M. A., B. D., B. L., p. 23. London: Morgan & Scott, 1912. 

Reformation. — See Councils, 121; Creed of Pope Pius IV; Justifi- 
cation, 276, 277; Papacy, 340-343; Protestantism. 

Reformed Church. — See Protestantism, 400. 

Reformers. — See Idolatry, 217; Religious Liberty, 413; Sacraments, 
478, 480. 

Religions Liberty, Defined by the Dictionary. — Religious liberty, 
the right of freely adopting and professing opinions on religious sub- 
jects, and of worshiping or refraining from worship according to the 
dictates of conscience, without external control. — The Century Diction- 
ary and Cyclopedia, art. " Liberty," subtitle " Religious Liberty." 

Religious Liberty, View of, in Early Church. — It is a fundamen- 
tal human right, a privilege of nature, that every man should worship 
according to his convictions. It is assuredly no part of religion to com- 
pel religion. It must be embraced freely and not forced. — Tertullian, 
Ad. Scap. cap. ii; cited in " The Inquisition: A Critical and Historical 
Study of the Coercive Power of the Church," E. Vacaudard (translation 
by Bertrand L. Conway, C. S. P.), p. 3. Imprimatur, John M. Farley, 
D. D., Arch, of New York; N. Y., June 24, 1907. New York: Longmans, 
Green & Co., 1908. 

Christians cannot slay their enemies, or condemn, as Moses com- 
manded the contemners of the law to be put to death. — " The Inquisi- 
tion" E. Vacaudard, p. 3. 

I ask you bishops to tell me, whose favor did the apostles seek in 
preaching the gospel, and on whose power did they rely to preach Jesus 
Christ? Today, alas! while the power of the state enforces divine faith, 
men say that Christ is powerless. The church threatens exile and im- 
prisonment; she in wnom men formerly believed while in exile and 
prison, now wishes to make men believe her by force. . . . What a strik- 
ing contrast between the church of the past and the church or today! ■ — 
St. Hilary of Poitiers, Contra Auxentium,, cap. iv (when Arian bishops 
used the power of the state against Catholics, A. D. 363); cited in " The 
Inquisition," E. Vacaudard, p. 6. 

To sum up: As late as the middle of the fourth century and even 
later, all the Fathers and ecclesiastical writers who discuss the question 
of toleration are opposed to the use of force.— Id., p. 7. 

Religious Liberty, When the Church Seized the Sword. — When 
the Christian church became the Roman Church, and the Roman Church, 
by the might of its unconquerable spirit and its indestructible faith, 
became the Roman Empire, . . . the church, instead of giving both hands 
to the Bible, gave one hand to the sword, and that not the left hand; 
and wickedly grasping a power under whose blows it had many times 
fallen prostrate and bleeding in the dust, the persecuted then became 
the persecutors, the sufferers became the avengers, only the victims 
were not their former enemies, but members of their own household of 



RELIGIOUS LIBERTY — ROGER WILLIAMS. 413 



faith. — " Religious Liberty" Henry M. King, pp. 4, 5. Providence: Pres- 
ton and Rounds. 

Religious Liberty, a Hakd Lesson for the Reformers to Learn. — 
The principles which had led the Protestants to sever themselves from 
the Roman Church, should have taught them to bear with the opinions 
of others, and warned them from the attempt to connect agreement in 
doctrine or manner of worship with the necessary forms of civil govern- 
ment. Still less ought they to have enforced that agreement by civil 
penalties; for faith, upon their own showing, had no value save when 
it was freely given. . . . But whether it was that men only half saw 
what they had done, or that finding it hard enough to unrivet priestly 
fetters, they welcomed all the aid a temporal prince could give, the 
result was that religion, or rather religious creeds, began to be involved 
with politics more closely than had ever been the case before. Through 
the greater part of Christendom wars of religion raged for a century or 
more. ... In almost every country the form of doctrine which tri- 
umphed associated itself with the state, and maintained the despotic 
system of the Middle Ages, while it forsook the grounds on which that 
system had been based. — " The Holy Roman Empire," James Bryce, pp. 
332, 333. London: Macmillan and Company, 1892. 

Religious Liberty, Protestantism Rejects Civil Authority in Di- 
vine Things. — The principles contained in this celebrated Protest of 
the 19th April, 1529, constitute the very essence of Protestantism. Now 
this Protest opposes two abuses of man in matters of faith: the first is 
the intrusion of the civil magistrate, and the second the arbitrary au- 
thority of the church. Instead of these abuses, Protestantism sets the 
power of conscience above the magistrate; and the authority of the Word 
of God above the visible church. In the first place, it rejects the civil 
power in divine things, and says with the prophets and apostles: We 
must obey God rather than man. In presence of the crown of Charles 
the Fifth, it uplifts the crown of Jesus Christ. But it goes farther: it 
lays down the principle that all human teaching should be subordinate 
to the oracles of God. — "History of the Reformation," J. H. Merle 
D'Aubigne, D. D., book 13, chap. 6, par. 19. 

Religious Liberty, First Clear Pronouncement on, in Church 
Articles. — There was, however, one body or band of Separatists in 
James's reign who had pushed farther ahead, and grasped the idea of 
liberty of conscience at its very utmost. . . . They were the poor and 
despised Anglo-Dutch Anabaptists who called John Smyth their leader. 
In a Confession, or Declaration of Faith, put forth in 1611 by the English 
Baptists in Amsterdam, just after the death of Smyth, this article oc- 
curs: " The magistrate is not to meddle with religion, or matters of con- 
science, nor compel men to this or that form of religion; because Christ 
is the King and Lawgiver of the church and conscience." It is believed 
that this is the first expression of the absolute principle of liberty of 
conscience in the public articles of any body of Christians. — " The Life 
of John Milton," David Masson, Vol. Ill, p. 101. 

Religious Liberty, Roger Williams the Pioneer of, in the New 
World. — It is a monstrous paradox that God's children should persecute 
God's children, and that they that hope to live eternally with Christ 
Jesus in the heavens, should not suffer each other to live in this common 
air together. I am informed it was a speech of an honorable knight of 
the Parliament: "What! Christ persecute Christ in New England! " — 
" Bloudy Tenent of Persecution," Roger Williams; cited in "Religious 
Liberty in America" G. M. Snow, p. 133, 



414 



RELIGIOUS LIBERTY, MEMORIAL ON. 



At a time when Germany was desolated by the implacable wars of 
religion; when even Holland could not pacify vengeful sects; when 
France was still to go through the fearful struggle with bigotry; when 
England was gasping under the despotism of intolerance; almost half a 
century before William Penn became an American proprietary; and 
while Descartes was constructing modern philosophy on the method of 
free reflection — Roger Williams asserted the great doctrine of intel- 
lectual liberty, and made it the corner-stone of a political constitution. 
It became his glory to found a state upon that principle. ... He was the 
first person in modern Christendom to establish civil government on the 
doctrine of the liberty of conscience, the equality of opinions before the 
law. — " History of the United States of America" George Bancroft, Vol. 
I, part 1, chap. 15, pp. 254, 255. New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1888. 

Religious Liberty, Famous Preacher on, at Time of Rise of Meth- 
odism. — It highly becomes those who are the advocates for the interfer- 
ence of government to restrain the efforts of Methodists and dissenters 
to diffuse the principles of knowledge and piety, to advert to the con- 
sequences which must result. 

Those who are conscientious will feel it their duty, in opposition to 
the mandates of authority, to proceed patiently, enduring whatever pun- 
ishment the legislature may think proper to inflict. The government, 
irritated at their supposed criminal obstinacy, will be tempted to enact 
severer laws, accompanied with severer penalties, which the truly con- 
scientious will still think it their duty to brave, imitating the example 
of the early teachers of Christianity, who departed from the presence of 
the council " rejoicing that they were thought worthy to suffer for the 
name of Christ." 

Thus will commence a struggle betwixt the ruling powers and the 
most upright part of the subjects, which shall first wear each other out, 
the one by infliction, or the other by endurance; prisons will be crowded, 
cruel punishments will become familiar, and blood probably will be 
spilt. The nation will be afflicted with the frightful spectacle of inno- 
cent and exemplary characters suffering the utmost vengeance of the 
law for crimes which the sufferers glory in having committed. 

It is an inherent and inseparable inconvenience in persecution that 
it knows not where to stop. It only aims at first to crush the obnoxious 
sect; it meets with a sturdy resistance; it then punishes the supposed 
crime of obstinacy, till at length the original magnitude of the error is 
little thought of in the solicitude to maintain the rights of authority. 
This is illustrated in the letter of Pliny to Trajan, treating of the perse- 
cution of the Christians. — " The Works of Robert Hall, A. M." Vol. Ill, 
pp. 402, 403. London: Holdsworth and Ball, 1833. 

Religious Liberty, Provision of United States Constitution. — 
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or 
prohibiting the free exercise thereof. — Article I of Amendments to the 
Federal Constitution of the United States of America. 

Religious Liberty, A Virginia Presbytery's Memorial on. — Every 
argument for civil liberty gains additional strength when applied to lib- 
erty in the concerns of religion; and there is no argument in favor of 
establishing the Christian religion but what may be pleaded with equal 
propriety for establishing the tenets of Mahomet by those who believe 
the Alcoran; or, if this be not true, it is at least impossible for the magis- 
trate to adjudge the right of preference among the various sects which 
profess the Christian faith, without erecting a chair of infallibility, 



RELIGIOUS LIBERTY, CONSTITUTION ON. 415 



which would lead us back to the Church of Rome .— Extract from the 
Memorial of the Presbytery of Hanover to the General Assembly of Vir- 
ginia, " Journal of the House of Delegates of Virginia'' Oct. 24, 1776. 

Religious Liberty, Bancroft on the United States Constitution. 
No one thought of vindicating liberty of religion for the conscience of 
the individual, till a voice in Judea, breaking day for the greatest epoch 
in the life of humanity by establishing for all mankind a pure, spir- 
itual, and universal religion, enjoined to render to Caesar only that 
which is Caesar's. The rule was upheld during the infancy of this 
gospel for all men. No sooner was the religion of freedom adopted by 
the chief of the Roman Empire, than it was shorn of its character of 
universality, and enthralled by an unholy connection with the unholy 
state; and so it continued till the new nation, — the least defiled with 
the barren scoffings of the eighteenth century, the most sincere believer 
in Christianity of any people of that age, the chief heir of the Refor- 
mation in its purest form, — when it came to establish a government 
for the United States, refused to treat faith as a matter to be regulated 
by a corporate body, or having a headship in a monarch or a state. 

Vindicating the right of individuality even in religion and in religion 
above all, the new nation dared to set the example of accepting in its 
relations to God the principle first divinely ordained in Judea. It left 
the management of temporal things to the temporal power; but the 
American Constitution, in harmony with the people of the several States, 
withheld from the Federal government the power to invade the home of 
reason, the citadel of conscience, the sanctuary of the soul; and not 
from indifference, but that the infinite Spirit of eternal truth might 
move in its freedom and purity and power. — " History of the United 
States of America," George Bancroft, Vol. VI, book 5, chap. 1, p. 444. 
New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1888. 

Religious Liberty, First Amendment Dictated by Regard for Re- 
ligion. — It was under a solemn consciousness of the dangers from 
ecclesiastical ambition, the bigotry of spiritual pride, and the intoler- 
ance of sects thus exemplified in our domestic as well as in foreign 
annals, that it was deemed advisable to exclude from the national gov- 
ernment all power to act upon the subject. — " Commentaries on the Con- 
stitution" Joseph Story, p. 702, sec. 992 (1 vol. edition), 1833. 

By the First Amendment to the Constitution of the United States, 
it is provided that " Congress shall make no law respecting the estab- 
lishment of a religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof," and the 
States of the American Union have, in their various constitutions, placed 
the same restriction upon their legislatures. The amendment of the 
Constitution and the like provisions in State constitutions were not dic- 
tated by indifference or hostility to the principles of the Christian reli- 
gion, but aimed to prevent not merely the establishment of any one form 
of religion, however widely spread, but to establish upon a firm footing 
the right before the law of every religious sect. — Solicitor for the De- 
partment of State (Washington, D. C), in Statement presented to Edin- 
burgh World Missionary Conference, 1910, in " Missions and Govern- 
ments," p. 124; Vol. VII of Report of Commission. Edinburgh: Oliphant, 
Anderson & Ferrier. 

The framers of the Constitution recognized the eternal principle 
that man's relation with his God is above human legislation, and his 
rights of conscience inalienable. Reasoning was not necessary to estab- 
lish this truth; we are conscious of it in our own bosoms. It is this 



416 



RELIGIOUS LIBERTY, STATESMEN Oft. 



consciousness which, in defiance of human laws, has sustained so many 
martyrs in tortures and in flames. They felt that their duty to God 
was superior to human enactments, and that man could exercise no 
authority over their consciences. It is an inborn principle which noth- 
ing can eradicate. The bigot, in the pride of his authority, may lose 
sight of it; but, strip him of his power, prescribe a faith to him which 
his conscience rejects, threaten him in turn with the dungeon and the 
fagot, and the spirit which God has implanted in him rises up in rebel- 
lion, and defies you. — From House Report on Sunday Mails, communi- 
cated to House of Representatives, March 4, 5, 1830; cited in "American 
State Papers" William Addison Blakely (member of the Chicago bar), 
pp. 257-260. 

Religious liberty, George Washington on Constitutional Guaran- 
tee of. — If I could have entertained the slightest apprehension that the 
Constitution framed by the convention where I had the honor to preside 
might possibly endanger the religious rights of any ecclesiastical so- 
ciety, certainly I would never have placed my signature to it; and if I 
could now conceive that the general government might ever be so ad- 
ministered as to render the liberty of conscience insecure, I beg you will 
be persuaded that no one would be more zealous than myself to establish 
effectual barriers against the horrors of spiritual tyranny and every spe- 
cies of religious persecution. For, you doubtless remember, I have often 
expressed my sentiments that any man, conducting himself as a good 
citizen and being accountable to God alone for his religious opinions, 
ought to be protected in worshiping the Deity according to the dictates 
of his own conscience. — George Washington, to Baptist delegation, Aug. 
8, 1789; cited in "A History of the Baptists," Thomas Armitage, D. D., 
LL. D., pp. 806, 807. New York: Bryan, Taylor & Go., 1887. 

Religious Liberty, Thomas Jefferson on. — Well aware that Al- 
mighty God hath created the mind free; that all attempts to influence 
it by temporal punishments or burdens, or by civil incapacitations, tend 
only to beget habits of hypocrisy and meanness, and are a departure 
from the plan of the holy Author of our religion, who, being Lord both 
of body and mind, yet chose not to propagate it by coersions on either, 
as was in his almighty power to do. — From Virginia, "Act for Estab- 
lishing Religious Freedom " (1785), written by Thomas Jefferson; in 
"Works of Thomas Jefferson," Vol. VIII, p. 454; cited in "American 
State Papers," W. Addison Blakely, pp. 132, 133. 

Religious Liberty, James Madison on Unalienable Rights of 
Conscience. — The religion, then, of every man must be left to the con- 
viction and conscience of every man; and it is the right of every man 
to exercise it as these may dictate. This right is in its nature an 
unalienable right. It is unalienable, because the opinions of men, de- 
pending only on the evidence contemplated in their own minds, cannot 
follow the dictates of other men. It is unalienable, also, because what 
is here a right towards men is a duty towards the Creator. It is the 
duty of every man to render to the Creator such homage, and such only, 
as he believes to be acceptable to him. This duty is precedent, both in 
order of time and in degree of obligation, to the claims of civil society. 
— From Madison's Memorial to the General Assembly of Virginia, 1785; 
" Writings of James Madison," Vol. I, p. 162, Philadelphia, 1865; cited 
in "American State Papers," William Addison Blakely, pp. 120, 121. 

Religious Liberty, Patrick Henry on.— Religion, or the duty which 
we owe to our Creator, and the manner of discharging it, can be directed 



RELIGIOUS LIBERTY, STATESMEN ON. 



417 



only by reason and conviction, not by force or violence.-— Virginia "Dec- 
laration of Rights," article 16, drawn up by Patrick Henry. See Tyler's 
"Patrick Henry," pp. 183, 184. 

Religious Liberty, Patkick Henry's Defense of Baptist Ministers 
in Colonial Virginia. — If I have rightly understood, the king's attorney 
has framed an indictment for the purpose of arraigning and punishing 
by imprisonment these three inoffensive persons before the bar of this 
court for a crime of great magnitude, — as disturbers of the peace. May 
it please the court, what did I hear read? Did I hear it distinctly, or 
was it a mistake of my own? ... 

"Preaching the gospel of the Son of God! " 

Amid a silence that could be felt, he waved the indictment three 
times round his head, ..." Great God! " 

At this point, . . . the audience relieved their feelings by a burst of 
sighs and tears. The orator continued: "May it please your Worships, 
in a day like this, when Truth is about to burst her fetters; when man- 
kind are about to be aroused to 'claim their natural and inalienable 
rights; when the yoke of oppression that has reached the wilderness of 
America, and the unnatural alliance of ecclesiastical and civil power is 
about to be dissevered, — at such a period, when Liberty, Liberty of 
Conscience, is about to wake from her slumberings, and inquire into 
the reason of such charges as I find exhibited here today in this indict- 
ment " — 

Here occurred another of his appalling pauses. ..." If I am not 
deceived,— according to the contents of the paper I now hold in my 
hand, — these men are accused of preaching the gospel of the Son of 
God! "... He waved the document three times around his head, as 
though still lost in wonder; and then with the same electric attitude of 
appeal to heaven, he gasped, " Great God! " 

This was followed by another burst of feeling from the spectators; 
and again this master of effect plunged into the tide of his discourse: 

" May it please your Worships, there are periods in the history of 
man when corruption and depravity have so long debased the human 
character that man sinks under the weight of the oppressor's hand, — 
becomes his servile, abject slave. . . . But may it please your Worships, 
such a day has passed. From that period when our fathers left the 
land of their nativity for these American wilds, — from the moment they 
placed their feet upon the American continent, — from that moment 
despotism was crushed, the fetters of darkness were broken, and Heaven 
decreed that man should be free, — free to worship God according to the 
Bible. . . . But, may it please your Worships, permit me to inquire once 
more, For what are these men about to be tried? This paper says, for 
preaching the gospel of the Saviour to Adam's fallen race! " 

Again he paused. For the third time he slowly waved the indict- 
ment round his head; and then turning to the judges, looking them full 
in the face, exclaimed with the most impressive effect, 

" vVnat laws have they violated? " 

The whole assembly were now painfully moved and excited. The 
presiding judge ended the scene by saying, 

" Sheriff, discharge these men." — " Life of Thomas Jefferson," James 
Parton; cited in "American State Papers," W. A. Blakely, pp. 664-667. 

Religious Liberty, Thomas Jefferson's Forecast of Peril to. — 
Besides, the spirit of the times may alter, will alter. Our rulers will 
become corrupt, our people careless. A single zealot may commence 
persecution, and better men be his victims. It can never be too often 
repeated, that the time for fixing every essential right on a legal basis 



418 



RELIGIOUS LIBERTY, STATESMEN ON. 



is while our rulers are honest and ourselves united. From the conclu- 
sion of this war [the Revolution] we shall be going downhill. It will- 
not then be necessary to resort every moment to the people for support. 
They will be forgotten, therefore, and their rights disregarded. They 
will forget themselves, but in the sole faculty of making money, and 
will never think of uniting to effect a due respect for their rights. The 
shackles, therefore, which shall not be knocked off at the conclusion of 
this war, will remain on us long, will be made heavier and heavier, till 
our rights shall revive or expire in a convulsion. — " Notes on the State 
of Virginia," Thomas Jefferson, p. 169 (last part of Query XVII). Bos- 
ton: Lilly and Wait, 1832. 

Religious Liberty, U. S. Grant on Separation of Church and 
State. — Leave the matter of religious teaching to the family altar, and 
keep the church and state forever separate. — TJ. S. Grant; cited in 
Appletorfs Cyclopedia of American Biography, edition 1915. 

Religious Liberty, On Religion by Majorities. — Let us reject this 
decree. In matters of conscience the majority has no power. — Decision 
of the Princes, at the Diet of Spires, 1529; cited in "History of the Ref- 
ormation," J. H. Merle D'Aubigne, book 13, chap. 5. 

Religious Liberty, The Question of a "Right Conscience." — As 
for New England, we never banished any for their consciences, but for 
sinning against conscience, after due means of conviction. — Rev. 

Thomas Shepard (1605-1649), "Massachusetts: Its Historians and Its 
History," p. 23* 

A man enjoys religious liberty when he possesses the free right of 
worshiping God according to the dictates of a right conscience, and of 
practising a form of religion most in accordance with his duties to God. 
— " The Faith of Our Fathers," James Cardinal Gibbons, chap. 17, par. 1, 
pp. 264, 265. Baltimore: John Murphy & Co., 220th thousand, 1893. 

Religious Liberty, Famous English Jurist on. — Conscience is not 
controllable by human laws nor amenable to human tribunals. Persecu- 
tion, or attempts to force conscience, will never produce conviction, and 
are only calculated to make hypocrites or — martyrs. — Lord Mansfield's 
Speech in the House of Lords, Feb. 4, 1776; cited in Appendix to " Black- 
stone's Commentaries and Burns's Ecclesiastical Law," p. 152. 

Religious Liberty, Not Religious Toleration, but Religious 
Rights. — There is a very great difference between toleration and liberty. 
... In our country we ask no toleration for religion and its free exer- 
cise, but we claim it is an inalienable right.-—" Church and State in the 
United States," Philip Schaff, D. D., LL. D., p. 14. New York: Charles 
Scribner's Sons, 1888. 

Religious Liberty, Conscientious Men True Friends of Civil Au- 
thority. — Conscientious men are not the enemies, but the friends, of 
any government but a tyranny. They are its strength, and not its weak- 
ness. Daniel, in Babylon, praying contrary to the law, was the true 
friend and supporter of the government; while those who, in their pre- 
tended zeal for the law and the constitution, would strike down the 
good man, were its real enemies. It is only when government tran- 
scends its sphere, that it comes in conflict with the consciences of men. 
— "Moral Science," James H. Fairchild, p. 179. New York: Sheldon & 
Company, 1892* 

Religious Liberty, The Logic and Results of State Religion. — If 
the state, as such, can possess a religion, we assert that the individual 



RELIGIOUS LIBERTY, STATE RELIGION. 



419 



thenceforward can have none, and that the smallest degree of religious 
liberty is an anti-social heresy. We defy anything to be granted to the 
state, unless everything be granted, or anything to be refused to it, 
unless everything be refused. . . . The state which desires to deprive 
me of my religion, alarms me far less than the state which would have 
one of its own. A constitution which makes the state religious makes 
the individual irreligious, inasmuch as he consents to such a constitu- 
tion. In vain will he declaim against dissimulation and falsehood; 
there exists in the political order to which he adheres, a primary false- 
hood, in which, by virtue of his adhesion, he is an accomplice. Nor 
does this remain an abstract falsehood; it has practical results; it pro- 
duces a long line of individual falsehoods. He who accepts it, accepts 
the civil power as the responsible ruler of his conscience, and charges 
the state to provide a religion for him. . . . 

Moreover, it is impossible for us to regard this merely as a theory 
without consequences. This system, so hostile to the principle of reli- 
gious profession, can arise only from contempt or forgetfulness of this 
principle. It has been established through the weakness or decay of 
convictions. What wonder, then, that its effects should correspond 
with its cause, and that having its origin in indifference, it should also 
produce remissness? When the church can consent to the fiction of a 
state religion, she has lost to a certain extent the consciousness of its 
reality, and this consciousness has a tendency to grow weaker and 
weaker. — " The Conscience of the State" Prof. Alexander Vinet, pp. 
12-14. London: Arthur Miall, 1867. 

Religions Liberty, Man Cannot Repeat Jewish Theocracy. — The 
Jewish constitution was a theocracy, in which Jehovah assumed to that 
people a special relation, — a relation which he never sustained to any 
other portion of our race, — the relation of their King, — himself con- 
ducting the administration of their government, by a system of super- 
natural interposition, and immediate manifestation of his presence and 
authority. Who but Jehovah himself can imitate this? He must select 
another Abraham, make of his seed a nation, separate that nation 
to himself as a peculiar people, and, regarding the community, collec- 
tively considered as his church, institute for it the ordinances of an 
exclusive worship, as well as prescribe for it its civil constitution and 
laws. To talk of imitation, in a case so thoroughly peculiar, or to call 
that imitation, in which the very essence of the thing imitated is of 
necessity wanting, is the height of absurdity. It must be God's doing, 
not man's. — " Civil Establishments of Christianity," Ralph Wardlaw, 
D. D. (Glasgow), p. 12. London: Arthur Miall, 1866. 

Religious Liberty. — See Edict of Milan; Rome, 445, 446. 

Religious Liberty, in Russia. — See Advent, Second, 25. 

Revelation, Book of, foe the Church. — The command to send what 
was written to the seven churches of Asia, showed that the revelation 
was not intended for the evangelist himself alone, but for the church 
at large: and the declaration added, "Blessed is he that heareth, and 
he that readeth the words of this prophecy," was alike an injunction 
and an encouragement from the divine Spirit to all members of the 
church to peruse and study it. — " Horw Apocalypticw," Rev. E. B. 
Elliott, A. M., Vol. I, p. 72. London: Seeley, Burnside, and Seeley, 1847. 

Revelation, Book of, Genuineness and Inspiration of. — So ends 
our catena of testimonies to the genuineness and divine inspiration of 



420 



REVELATION, DATE OF. 



the Apocalypse, traced as proposed through the three half-centuries 
that followed its publication. Alike from East and West, North 
and South, — from the churches of the Asiatic province and the Syrian, 
of Italy and of Gaul, of Egypt and of Africa, — we have heard an un- 
broken and all but uniform voice of testimony in its favor. Nay, even 
what there is of contrary testimony has been shown only to confirm 
and add new weight to that which it opposes: for it proves how unable 
they who most wished it were to find evidence or argument of this kind, 
of any real value, and such as could bear examination, on their side of 
the question. 

Let me just add, by way of supplement to my sketch of the earlier 
historic evidence, that in what remained of the third century, while 
no other opponent to it appeared of any note, the Apocalypse was re- 
ceived as the work of the inspired apostle John, alike by the schismatic 
Novatians and Donatists, and by the most eminent writers of the 
Catholic Church; e. g., Victorinus, Methodius, Arnobius, Lactantius: 
further, that in the earlier half of the fourth century, while Eusebius 
doubted, Athanasius received it; and in its later half, while Cyril of 
Jerusalem apparently hesitated respecting it, and Gregory Nazianzen, 
and Chrysostom, though not rejecting, did yet but sparingly refer to it 
as inspired Scripture, it was on the other hand fully and unhesitatingly 
acknowledged, among the Greeks, by Epiphanius, Basil, and Cyril of 
Alexandria: as well as by Ephrem the Syrian, and, among the Latins, 
by Ambrose, Jerome, and Augustine. Subsequently in the Greek Church, 
though the book was never formally rejected by any ecclesiastical 
council, yet the same variety of opinion was expressed by its chief 
authors as by those of the fourth century. On the other hand, by the 
Latin Church it was universally received; and in the third Council of 
Carthage, held a. d. 397, and presided over by the great Augustine, 
was solemnly declared to be included in the canon of inspired Scripture. 
— " Horw Apocalypticm," Rev. E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. I, pp. 31-35. 
London: Seeley, Burnside, and Seeley, 1847. 

Revelation, Book of, Date Assigned to. — The varied historical 
evidence that has been inquired into, all concurs to confirm the date 
originally and expressly assigned by Irenseus to the Apocalypse, as seen 
and written at the close of the reign of Domitian: that is, near the 
end of the year 95, or beginning of 96. Accordingly, the most approved 
modern ecclesiastical historians and Biblical critics, — writers who have 
had no bias on the point in question, one way or the other, from any 
particular cherished theory of Apocalyptic interpretation, — for example 
alike Dupin, Basnage, Turretin, Spanheim, Mosheim, Milner, Le Clerc, 
Mill, Whitby, Lampe, Neander, Lardner, Tomline, Burton, etc., etc., — 
have alike adopted it. And we may, I am persuaded, depend on its cor- 
rectness with as unhesitating and implicit confidence, as on the truth 
of almost any of the lesser facts recorded in history. It seems sur- 
prising to me that respectable and learned commentators should have 
wasted their time and labor in building up Apocalyptic expositions on 
the sandy foundation of an earlier Neronic date. It seems stranger 
still that they should have allowed themselves so to represent the 
present state of evidence and argument on the point, as if the fact of 
this earlier date were a thing admitted, and beyond doubt. — Id., pp. 
50, 51. 

Prom the first witness who speaks upon the point in the latter 
half of the second century down to the first half of the fifth, we have 
a succession of Fathers bearing testimony with one accord, and in 



REVELATION, SCENERY IN. 



421 



language which admits of no misunderstanding, to the fact that St. 
John was banished to Patmos under the reign of Domitian, and that 
there he beheld those visions of the Apocalypse which he afterwards 
committed to writing. These Fathers too are men ... of ability, 
learning, and critical insight into the history of bygone times. . . . 
They belong to the most different and widespread regions of the church 
— to Gaul, Alexandria, the proconsular province of North Africa, 
Pannonia, Syria, and Rome. They are thus in a great degree independ- 
ent of each other, and they convey to us the incontestable impression 
that for at least the first four centuries of the Christian era, and over 
the whole extent of the Christian church, it was firmly believed that 
St. John had beheld the visions of the Apocalypse in the days of 
Domitian, and not of Nero. — Baird Lecture on the Revelation of St. 
John, by Professor Milligan, p. 308, 1885; cited in "Key to the Apoc- 
alypse,'" H. Grattan Guinness, pp. 7, 8. London: Hodder and Stough- 
ton, 1899. 

Revelation, Book of, Scenery Employed in. — And what then was 
to be the mode and manner of unfolding, before the august company 
thus assembled, this great revelation of the coming future? Was it to 
be simply, as in the case of some other revelations from God, by the 
reading out what was written in the book? Not so. The subject 
matter therein contained was, in a manner far more interesting, to 
be visibly enacted, even as in a living drama; and for the requisite 
scenery and agency alike heaven and earth put in requisition. . . . 

Now of the Apocalyptic scenery, as the reader will be aware, no 
detailed or connected account is given us. We have only incidental 
notices of it. These, however, occur perpetually; and, if carefully 
gathered up and compared together, will be found wonderfully to 
harmonize, so as indeed to indicate a scenery designedly provided for 
the occasion, consistent and complete. And the importance of an early 
and familiar acquaintance with it will hence sufficiently appear, in 
that it is that from which the character and meaning of many im- 
portant points in the Apocalyptic prefigurations is alone to be deduced; 
and that too which connects and gives unity to them as a whole. 

The scene then first visible, and which remained stationary through- 
out the visions in the foreground, was as of the interior of a temple; 
including in its secret and inmost sanctuary the throne of Jehovah 
already spoken of, and the blessed company attendant round it. For 
this did not appear in open space or public: but, as seems manifest in 
the progress of the prophetic drama, and is indeed in one place directly 
intimated, within the inclosure of a temple sanctuary. It was a temple 
resembling Solomon's, or, yet more, the tabernacle framed earlier by 
Moses in the wilderness; although on a grander scale, at least as re- 
gards the inner sanctuary, and with other marked peculiarities. The 
which resemblance is also expressly intimated to us. For it was called 
upon one occasion "the temple of God;" on another, in words only 
referable to the Jewish temple or tabernacle, " the temple of the 
tabernacle of witness, in heaven." Moreover in its parts and divisions 
it well corresponded with that of Israel. The temple proper, or 
sanctuary, was similarly constituted of the holy place and that most 
holy; save that there was no veil, as of old, to separate them: the one 
being characterized by the golden altar of incense, and, as I think 
also, by the seven burning lamps; the' other by the divine glory, and 
the ark of the covenant. A court too appeared attached to this 
sanctuary, ju^t as to the Jewish, and one similarly marked by an 
altar of sacrifice standing in it: besides that there was the similar- 
appendage of an outer court also, as if of the Gentiles. 



422 REVELATION, ANTIDOTE FOR PAPACY. 



As the visions proceeded, other objects appeared in connected 
landscape, around and beneath the temple. Nearest was the Mount 
Zion and its holy city: not the literal Jerusalem, which had been 
leveled to the ground, and was now literally in bondage with her 
children; but that which, though in some things different, sufficiently 
resembled it to have the likeness at once recognized, and to receive 
the appellation: then, beneath and beyond, far stretching (even as it 
might have appeared from that high mountain whence were seen in 
a moment of time the kingdoms of the world and the glory of them), 
the miniature but living landscape of the Roman Empire. Both the 
Mount Zion and the temple seem to have appeared high raised above 
the earth, although not altogether detached from it; and the former, 
as well as latter, in near proximity to the heavenly glory within the 
sanctuary. So that while, on the one hand, the temple might be called 
" the temple of the tabernacle of witness in heaven," and they that were 
true worshipers and citizens in the temple and Mount Zion, " the taber- 
naclers in heaven," yet, on the other, the outer court of the temple 
appeared accessible to the inhabitants of the earth below, and the holy 
city susceptible of invasion from them. 

Such was the standing scenery throughout the Apocalyptic visions. 
— " Horw Apocalypticce" Rev. E. B. Elliott, A. M„ Vol. 7, pp. 96-99. 
London: Seeley, Burnside, and Seeley, 1847. 

Revelation, Book of, Antidote for the Papacy. — The Holy Spirit, 
foreseeing, no doubt, that the Church of Rome would adulterate the 
truth by many "gross and grievous abominations" (I use the words 
of the judicious Hooker) ; and that she would anathematize all who 
would not communicate with her, and denounce them as cut off from 
the body of Christ and from hope of everlasting salvation: foreseeing, 
also, that Rome would exercise a wide and dominant sway for many 
generations, by boldly iterated assertions of unity, antiquity, sanctity, 
and universality; foreseeing also that these pretensions would be 
supported by the civil sword of many secular governments, among 
which the Roman Empire would be divided at its dissolution; and that 
Rome would thus be enabled to display herself to the world in an 
august attitude of Imperial power, and with the dazzling splendor of 
temporal felicity: foreseeing also that the Church of Rome would capti- 
vate the imaginations of men by the fascinations of art allied with 
religion; and would ravish their senses and rivet their admiration by 
gaudy colors, and stately pomp, and prodigal magnificence: foreseeing 
also that she would beguile their credulity by miracles and mysteries, 
apparitions and dreams, trances and ecstasies, and would appeal to 
their evidence in support of her strange doctrines: foreseeing likewise 
that she would enslave men, and much more women, by practising 
on their affections, and by accommodating herself, with dexterous 
pliancy, to their weaknesses, relieving them from the burden of thought 
and from the perplexity of doubt, by proffering them the aid of infalli- 
bility; soothing the sorrows of the mourner by dispensing pardon and 
promising peace to the departed; removing the load of guilt from the 
oppressed conscience by the ministries of the confessional, and by nicely 
poised compensations for sin; and that she would flourish for many 
centuries in proud and prosperous impunity, before her sins would 
reach to heaven, and come in remembrance before God: foreseeing also 
that many generations of men would thus be tempted to fall from the 
faith, and to become victims of deadly error; and that they who clung 
to the truth would be exposed to cozening flatteries, and fierce assaults, 
and savage tortures from her, — the Holy Spirit, we say, foreseeing 



J&JVMLATION, US SJflKATiOA OF. 



all these things in his divine knowledge, and being the ever-blessed 
Teacner, Guide, and Comforter of tne enuren, was graciously pieased 
to provide a neaveniy anciciote for tnese widespread and ion^-enduring 
evus, by dictating tne Apocalypse. — " Union with Home" Vhr. Words- 
worm, U. D., pp. 80, 81. Loudon: Lonyrnans, Green <k Co., 1909. 

Revelation, Book of, a Warning. — The Apocalypse thus assumes 
the ranK. not merely of an elucidation of the divine will, nor of an 
evidence of Christianity, but of a warning, of the highest and most 
pressing nature, to ail men, in the entire range of human society. It 
is not tne mere abstract study of the tneologian, nor tne solitary con- 
templation of tne man or piety, but a great document addressed to the 
mignty of the earth; Wisdom calling out trumpet-tongued to tne lead- 
ers of national council; tne descended minister of heaven, summoning 
for tne last time tne nations to awaKe to tne peril already darkening 
over their heads, and cut tnemselves loose from tnose unscriptural and 
idolatrous faitns, with whicn they must otherwise go down; tne Spirit 
of God, commanding the teachers and holders of the true faith to pre- 
pare tnemselves by a more vigorous cultivation of their talents, by a 
vigilant purity, by a generous and hallowed courage, for that hign serv- 
ice of God and man in wnich they may so soon be called on to act, 
and perhaps to surfer; and proclaiming to ail men alike the infinite 
urgency of redeeming the time before tne arrival of a period, tnat to 
the wnole world of idolatry, European and barbarian, shall come with 
a civil ruin, of wbich the subversion of Jerusalem was but a type; and 
with a physical destruction that can find no parallel but in tne inevi- 
table fury of the deluge. — " Tne Apocalypse oj (St. John," Rev. George 
Groiy, A. M., pp. 6, 7. London: C. <fc J. Kivington, 1828. 

Revelation, Book of, Evidence of Its Inspiration. — What, too, but 
Omniscience could have foreseen that a system, such as that of the 
Papacy, could ever effect an entrance into the Christian church, and 
practise and prosper as it has done? How could it ever have entered 
into the heart of John, the solitary exile of Patmos, to imagine that any 
of the professed disciples of that Saviour whom he loved, and who 
said, " My kingdom is not of this world," should gather up and systema- 
tize all the idolatry and superstition and immorality of the Babylon of 
Belshazzar, introduce it into the bosom of the church, and, by help of it, 
seat themselves on the throne of the Caesars, and there, as the high 
priests of the Queen of Heaven, and gods upon earth, for twelve hun- 
dred years, rule the nations with a rod of iron? Human foresight could 
never have done this; but all this the exile of Patmos has done. His 
pen, then, must have been guided by Him who sees the end from the 
beginning, and who calleth the things that be not as though they were. 
— " The Two Babylons," Rev. Alexander Hislop, p. 290. London: S. W. 
Partridge d Co., 1907. 

Revelation, Protestant and Catholic View of. — The main ques- 
tion, which we have now to answer, is this: How doth man attain to 
possession of the true doctrine of Christ; or, to express ourselves in a 
more general, and at once more accurate manner, How doth man 
obtain a clear knowledge of the institute of salvation, proffered in 
Christ Jesus? The Protestant says, By searching Holy Writ, which 
is infallible: the Catholic, on the other hand, replies, By the church, 
in which alone man arrives at the true understanding of Holy Writ. 
— - " Symbolism" John Adam Moehler, D. D. (R. C.J, p. 277. London: 
Thomas Baker, 1906. 



424 



ROBES, ASCENSION. 



Revelation, Book or. — Bee Daniel, 134, 

Robes, Ascension, Joshua V. Himes on. — We are glad to be able 
to print the following letter from " Father Himes," who is undoubtedly 
the best living authority on the question which has interested so many 
of our readers: 

" To the Editors of the 4 Outlook: ' 

" I have been much interested in the articles lately appearing in 
the Outlook upon the question of ascension robes. I am glad that pub- 
lic interest has been again aroused upon this topic, for it is time it 
should be settled, and settled right; and nothing is truly settled until 
it is settled right. 

44 I wish to say that I was intimately associated with William Miller 
for eleven years, beginning in 1839; that with him I attended hundreds 
of meetings, laboring with him in public and private, and was with him 
at his home in the State of New York on the night of the tenth day of 
the seventh month, when we expected the Lord to come; and having had 
a perfect knowledge of everything connected with that work, I know the 
whole story of ascension robes to be a concoction of the enemies of the 
Adventists, begotten of religious prejudices, and that there is not a 
scintilla of truth in it. No wonder the writer in the Outlook of October 
27, did not give his name and address The statement that ' to be pre- 
pared, dressed in their ascension robes, was the instruction given by 
their leaders to the rank and file of the Millerites,' is almost too silly 
to be noticed. The writer originated, and with others signed, the call 
for the first Adventist Conference, which was held with the church over 
which he was pastor in Boston, Mass., in 1840. 

"During those eventful days, from 1840 to 1844, and for several years 
after, I had charge of all their publishing work, and no man, living or 
dead, knew better what was taught and done by Adventists than did I. 
There were some excesses, such as always attend great religious up- 
heavals, but they were not committed by the " instruction of their lead- 
ers," and the putting on of ascension robes was not one of these excesses. 

" When these stories first started, and while I was publishing in the 
interests of the Adventist cause, I kept a standing offer in the paper 
of which I was editor, of a large reward for one well-authenticated case 
where an ascension robe was worn by those looking for the Lord's re- 
turn. No such proof has ever been forthcoming. It was always rumor, 
and nothing more. Absolute evidence never has been furnished. It has 
always been one of those delightful falsehoods which many people have 
wanted to believe, and hence its popularity and perpetuity until this 
present day. I have refuted the story hundreds of times in both the 
Advent Herald in Boston, Mass., and in the Midnight Cry in New York, 
which had a circulation of tens of thousands of copies; and no accusers 
ever made an attempt to defend themselves, although I held my columns 
open to them to do so. And now, at the age of ninety years, with a full 
personal experience of those times, before God, who is my Judge, and 
before whose tribunal I must soon appear, I declare again that the ascen- 
sion robe story is a tissue of falsehoods from beginning to end, and I am 
glad of the opportunity to deny it once more before 1 die. 

" The preparation urged upon the ' rank and file ' of those looking 
for the coming of the Lord was a preparation of heart and life by a con- 
fession of Christ, a forsaking of their sins and living a godly life; and 
the only robes they were exhorted to put on were the robes of righteous- 
ness obtained by faith in Jesus Christ — garments made white in the 
blood of the Lamb. Nothing of an outward appearance was ever thought 
of or mentioned. J. V. Himes." 



ROME, HISTORICAL SKETCH OF. 



425 



Note. — The foregoing was written Oct. 29, 1894, and appeared in the Out- 
look of Nov. 24, 1894. p. 875. At that time Mr. Himes was rector of St. Andrews 
Episcopal church, Elk Point. S. Dak.. U. S. A. He died there, July 27, 1895, 
aged 91 years. 

Roman Catholic, Use of the Combination Explained. — Roman 
Catholic, a qualification of the name Catholic commonly used in English- 
speaking countries by those unwilling to recognize the claims of the one 
true church. Out of condescension for these dissidents, the members of 
that church are wont in official documents to be styled " Roman Cath- 
olics " as if the term Catholic represented a genus of which those who 
owned allegiance to the Pope formed a particular species. It is in fact 
a prevalent conception among Anglicans to regard the whole Catholic 
Church as made up of three principal branches, — the Roman Catholic, 
the Anglo-Catholic, and the Greek Catholic. . . . 

In the Oxford English Dictionary, the highest existing authority 
upon questions of English philology, the following explanation is given 
under the heading " Roman Catholic: " " The use of this composite term 
in place of the simple Roman, Romanist, or Romish, which had acquired 
an invidious sense, 1 appears to have arisen in the early years of the 
seventeenth century. For conciliatory reasons it was employed in the 
negotiations connected with the Spanish Match (1618-1624) and appears 
in formal documents relating to this printed by Rushworth (I, 85-89). 
After that date it was generally adopted as a non-controversial term, 
and has long been the recognized legal and official designation, though 
in ordinary use Catholic alone is very frequently employed " (New Ox- 
ford Diet., VIII, 766). — The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. XIII. art. "Ro- 
man Catholic," pp. 121, 122. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 

Rome, Historical Sketch of. — Among the states and kingdoms 
which men have reared as the political bulwarks of progress and civi- 
lization, Rome has an easy pre-eminence. . . . From every point of view 
the mightiness of the Roman power stands forth in tremendous outline, 
against the background of the past. Above her brow is set a tiara of 
significant emblems, and at her girdle are hung the keys of the subject 
kingdoms of the world. 

The beginnings of the history of Rome are set in the prehistoric 
shadows. Myth, tradition, legend of men and fable of the gods, are 
mixed and mingled in the story. A city is founded on a hill by the wolf- 
nursling twins of Rhea Sylvia and Mars. There are half-robber heroes 
struggling for the mastery — Roman, Sabine, Etruscan — descendants of 
tribal ancestors of unknown name and station. There are interceding 
women with disheveled hair, strong as their armored brothers, brave as 
their warring lords. Then comes a line of kings, mostly mythical, 
fabled in the Vergilian hexameters — in the Augustan rhapsody — in 
whicn the Trojan blood is made to rule in Latium three hundred years. 
Glimpses of truth flash here and there on the hilltops, until the Elder 
Brutus comes and Tarquin skulks away. 

More brilliant — less fabulous — is the story of the republic. The 
Age ot the Consuls is the age of rising fame. In mere prowess a greater 
than the Greek is here. Without the artistic genius of his rival — with- 
out the subtlety, the wit, the intellectual acumen, songcraft, and tongue- 
force of the son of Hellas — the sturdy republican of Rome surpassed 

1 Note. — The words Romish, Romanist, popish, papist, and papistical are 
highly objectionable to Roman Catholics, and may properly be avoided by Prot- 
estant writers. Some of these objectionable words are found in extracts in this 
book, and are allowed to appear, not because they are approved of, but because 
it is difficult to use the quotations without these words. Protestant writers and 
speakers ought to be considerate of the feelings of Roman Catholics, and in the 
use of language in the controversy, to apply the golden rule.- — Eds. 



426 



ROME, HISTORICAL SKETCH OF. 



him in stalwart vehemence and the stroke of his sword. Stand out of 
the wind of that strong weanon, O Barharian! for it is sharp and swift! 

From the times of Africanus \8cipio JFlmilianusI to the age of 
Cse«ar the strength and majestv of the republic were displayed to the 
he°t advantage. . . . The trophies of all lands were sweot into the 
Eternal City, and her palaces shone with foreign gems and borrowed 
raiment. 

It is the judgment of Gibbon that, on the whole, the hanniest period 
of history was the age of the Antonines \a. d. 121-161]; that then the 
comforts of human life were more generally diffused, and its sorrows, 
misfortunes, and crimes fewer and more tolerable. Had the historian 
lived a century later he might have changed his verdict; but it cannot 
be doubted that in some fair degree the empire was at peace; nor is 
there any period in the Imperial course more worthy to be commended 
than the middle of the second century. From that time forth the decline 
was manifest. The crimes of the earlier Csesars were the crimes of vio- 
lence and audacity; those of the Imperial regime were the colder, but 
not less deadly, vices of a depraved court and a decaying people. 

Coming to the times of Justinian, we note with admiration how 
the robust genius of Rome still asserted itself in the perfection of her 
jurisprudence. It is at this point that the Roman intellect is at its best, 
not indeed as a creative force, but as a great energy, producing order 
in the world and equity among men. Here was elaborated that massive 
civil code which Rome left as her best bequest to after-ages. From the 
luminous brains of Justinian's lawyers were deduced those elements of 
jurisnrudence which, abbrpviat^d into textbooks and modified to meet 
altered conditions of civilized life, have combined to furnish the prin- 
cipia of the be^t law studv in the universities of modern times. 

The later history of the Roman Emnire has much of melancholy in 
its texture. Not without sorrow will the reflective mind contemplate 
so majestic a ruin. . . . 

The harsh cadences of a speech most gutteral were heard in the 
palaces of the Western Caesars, while distant a thousand years the 
shadow of the semilune of the Prophet was seen rising over the towers 
of Constantinople. 

Great, however, is the change of aspect from the old ages of history 
to the new ages which follow. The Ancient World went back, seem- 
ingly, into primitive chaos and deep darkness. The wheels of evolu- 
tion lagged, stood still, revolved the other way. Black shadows settled 
on all the landscape, and civilization stumbled into ditches and pitfalls. 
The contemplation of the eclipse of old-time greatness by the dark orb 
of barbarism may well fill the mind with a melancholy doubt respecting 
the course and destiny of the human race. . . . 

For the collapse and downfall of ancient society two general causes 
may be assigned. The first of these was the decay of those peculiar vir- 
tues which constituted the ethical and intellectual strength of the Graeco- 
Italic races. . . . 

The second cause of the collapse was the impact of barbarism. For 
centuries the silent Nemesis — she 

" Who never yet has left the unbalanced scale " — 
bottled her wrath against the offending peoples who held the Mediter- 
ranean. At last the seals were loosed, and the barbaric tornado was 
poured out of the North. Through the Alpine passes came the rushing 
cohort of warriors, each with the rage of Scythia in his stomach and 
the icicles of the Baltic in his beard. The great hulk of Rome tottered, 
fell, and lay dead on the earth, like the stump of Dagon.— " History of 
the World." John Clark Ridpath, LL. D., (9 vol. ed.JVol 117, pp. 27*29. 
Cincinnati; The- Jones Brothers Pub* Co., 1910. 



ROME, EXTENT OF. 



427 



Rome, an Empire that " Filled the World." — The empire of the 
Romans filled the world, and when that empire fell into the hands of 
a single person, the world became a safe and dreary prison for his ene- 
mies. The slave of imperial despotism, whether he was condemned to 
drag his gilded chain in Rome and the Senate, or to wear out a life of 
exile on the barren rock of Seriphus, or the frozen banks of the Danube, 
expected his fate in silent despair. To resist was fatal, and it was im- 
possible to fly. On every side he was encompassed with a vast extent 
of sea and land, which he could never hope to traverse without being 
discovered, seized, and restored to his irritated master. Beyond the 
frontiers, his anxious view could discover nothing, except the ocean, 
inhospitable deserts, hostile tribes of barbarians, of fierce manners and 
unknown language, or dependent kings, who would gladly purchase the 
emperor's protection by the sacrifice of an obnoxious fugitive. " Wher- 
ever you are," said Cicero to the exiled Marcellus, " remember that you 
are equally within the power of the conqueror." — "History of the De- 
cline and Fall of the Roman Empire," Edward Gibbon, chap. 3, par. 37. 

Rome, Cardinal Manning on Prophecy of. — The legions of Rome 
occupied the circumference of the world. The military roads which 
sprang from Rome traversed all the earth; the whole world was, as it 
were, held in peace and in tranquillity by the universal presence of this 
mighty heathen empire. It was " exceedingly terrible," according to the 
prophecies of Daniel; it was as it were of iron, beating down and sub- 
duing the nations. — " The Temporal Power of the Vicar of Jesus Christ" 
Henry Edward Manning, D. D., p. 122. London: Burns and Lambert, 
1862. 

Rome, a Single City Ruling the Earth. — Can any one be so indif- 
ferent or idle as not to care to know by what means, and under what 
kind of polity, almost the whole inhabited world was conquered and 
brought under the dominion of the single city of Rome, and that too 
within a period of not quite fifty-three years? Or who again can be so 
completely absorbed in other subjects of contemplation or study, as to 
think any of them superior in importance to the accurate understanding 
of an event for which the past affords no precedent? — " The Histories of 
Polybius," book 1, par. 1, E. S. Shuckburgh's translation, Vol. I, p. 1. 
London: Macmillan d Co., 1889. 

The Roman conquest, on the other hand [unlike its predecessors], 
was not partial, nearly the whole inhabited world was reduced by them 
to obedience: and they left behind them an empire not to be paralleled 
in the past or rivaled in the future. — Id., par. 2 (p. 2). 

Though from the frozen pole our empire run, 
Far as the journeys of the southern sun. 

— " Pharsalia," Lucan, book 10. 

Till her superb dominion spread 

East, where the sun comes forth in light, 

And west to where he lays his head. 

— Horace, Ode 1.5, " To Augustus," book 4. 

Rome, Greeted from India. — [Strabo quotes Nicolaus Damascenus, 
who saw an embassy from India, bearing a letter to Augustus Caesar.] 
The letter was written in Greek upon a skin; the import of it was, that 
Porus was the writer, that although he was sovereign of six hundred 
kings, yet that he highly esteemed the friendship of Caesar; that he was 



428 



ROME, POLICY AND AIMS OF. 



willing to allow him a passage through his country, in whatever part 
he pleased, and to assist him in any undertaking that was just. — 
" Geography" Strabo, book 15, chap. 2; Bohn's Library edition, Vol. 
Ill, p. 119. 

The Romans have surpassed (in power) all former rulers of whom 
we have any record. — Id., book 17, chap. 3. 

Rome, the " Iron Monarchy." — The arms of the republic, some- 
times vanquished in battle, always victorious in war, advanced with 
rapid steps to the Euphrates, the Danube, the Rhine, and the ocean; 
and the images of gold, or silver, or brass, that might serve to repre- 
sent the nations and their kings, were successively broken by the iron 
monarchy of Rome. — "History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman 
Empire,'" Edward Gibbon, chap. 38, General Observations at end of chap- 
ter, par. 1. 

Rome, As Recognized in Imperial Times. — Rejoice, blessed Daniel! 
thou hast not been in error: all these things have come to pass. After 
this again thou hast told me of the beast, dreadful and terrible. " It 
had iron teeth and claws of brass: it uevoured and brake in pieces, and 
stamped the residue with the feet of it." Already the iron rules; already 
it subdues and breaks all in pieces; already it brings all the unwilling 
into subjection; already we see these things ourselves. Now we glorify 
God, being instructed by thee. — " Treatise on Christ and Antichrist" 
Hippolytus, sees. 32, 33; "Ante-Nicene Fathers" Vol. V, p. 210. 

Rome, Its Policy and Aim of World-Conquest. — We have no room 
to doubt that Providence had decreed to the Romans the sovereignty of 
the world, and the Scriptures had prophesiec their future grandeur; but 
they were strangers to those aivine oracles; and besides, the bare pre- 
diction of their conquests was no justification with regard to them. 
Although it be difficult to affirm, arid still more so to prove, that this 
people had from their first rise, formed a plan in order to conquer and 
subject all nations; it cannot be denied, if we examine their whole con- 
duct attentively, that it will appear that they acted as if they had a 
foreknowledge of this; and that a kind of instinct determined them to 
conform to it in all things. 

But be this as it may, we see, by the event, to what this so much 
boasted lenity and moderation of the Romans was confined. Enemies to 
the liberty of all nations, having the utmost contempt for kings and 
monarchy, looking upon the whole universe as their prey, they grasped, 
with insatiable ambition, the conquest of the whole world; they seized 
indiscriminately all provinces and kingdoms, and extended their empire 
over all nations; in a word, they prescribed no other limits to their vast 
projects, than those which deserts and seas made it impossible to pass. 
— ''Ancient History," Charles Rollin, book 18, chap. 1, sec. 7; "Reflec- 
tions," at end of section. New York: Nafis and Cornish, 1845. 

Rome, Early Aim at Supreme Sovereignty. — Whilst the Gauls 
were victorious and the whole of the city in their power, the gods and 
men of Rome still held, still dwelt in, the capitol and the citadel. And 
now that the Romans are victorious and the city recovered, are the cita- 
del and capitol to be abandoned? Shall our good fortune innict greater 
desolation on this city than our evil fortune wrought? Even had there 
been no religious institutions established when the city was founded 
and passed down from hand to hand, still, so clearly has Providence 
been working in the affairs of Rome at .this time, that I for one would 



ROME, DIPLOMACY OF. 



429 



suppose that all neglect of divine worship has been banished from 
human life. [chap. 51] . . . 

This is the 365th year of the city [388 b. c], Quirites, yet in all 
the wars you have for so long been carrying on amongst all those 
ancient nations, not to mention the separate cities, the Volscians in 
conjunction with the JEqui and all their strongly fortified towns, the 
whole of Etruria, so powerful by land and sea, and stretching across 
Italy from sea to sea — none have proved a match for you in war. 
This has hitherto been your fortune; what sense can there be — perish 
the thought! — in making trial of another fortune? Even granting 
that your valor can pass over to another spot, certainly the good for- 
tune of this place cannot be transferred. Here is the capitol where in 
the old days a human head was found, and this was declared to be an 
omen; for in that place would be fixed the head and supreme sovereign 
power of the world, [chap. 54]. — "History of Rome'' Livy, "The 
Speech of Camillus Against Migrating to Veil," after the destruction of 
Rome by the Gauls, book 5, chaps. 51, 54, Robert's translation; Every- 
man's Library edition, Vol. I, pp. 347, 351, 352. 

Rome, as Plutarch Viewed Its Policy. — It is manifest to him that 
will reason aright, that the abundance of success which advanced the 
Roman Empire to such vast power and greatness is not to be attributed 
to human strength and counsels, but to a certain divine impulse and a 
full gale of running fortune which carried all before it that hindered 
the rising glory of the Romans. For now trophies were erected upon 
trophies, and triumphs hastened to meet one another: before the blood 
was cold upon their arms, it was washed off with the fresh blood of their 
falling enemies. Henceforth the victories were not reckoned by the 
numbers of the slain or the greatness of the spoils, but by the kingdoms 
that were taken, by the nations that were conquered, by the isles and 
continents which were added to the vastness -of their empire. — "Mor- 
als," Plutarch, "Fortune of the Romans," par. 11. 

Rome, Its Skilful Diplomacy. — The Romans were wont to take 
great care not to appear to be the aggressors, or to attack their neigh- 
bors without provocation; but to be considered always to be acting in 
self-defense, and only to enter upon war under compulsion. — " The His- 
tories of Polybius," Shuckburgh's translation, " Shorter Fragments." be- 
longing in book 28; Vol. II, p. 549. London: Macmillan & Go., 1889. 

Rome, Its Combination of Clemency and Harshness. — In later 
times, the Romans, thirsting after a universal monarchy, in a great 
measure obtained their ends by the force of their arms, but their clem- 
ency toward such as they had conquered, added much to the increase 
and enlargement of their conquests. . . . And therefore, upon the ac- 
count of this extraordinary clemency, kings, cities, and countries, gen- 
erally sheltered themselves under the protection of the Romans. But 
when they were lords almost of the whole world, then they strengthened 
and confirmed themselves in their dominions; by severity, and razing of 
towns and cities to strike a terror into their enemies. For they utterly 
destroyed Corinth in Achaia, Carthage in Africa, Numantia in Spain, 
and rooted up the kingdom of Macedonia, in the ruin of Perseus, and 
became a terror to many. — Diodorus, "Fragments Collected by Constan- 
tine, 7th Eastern Emperor," book 26, chap. 83 (Vol. II, pp. 12, 13). 
London: Henry Valesius. 

Rome, Always Watching to Advance Imperlal Aims. — [Although 
in a life and death struggle with Carthage, whose army was in Italy,] 



430 



ROME, POLICY OF. 



ambassadors were sent to Philip, king of Macedon, to demand the sur- 
render of Demetrius of Pharos, who had taken refuge with him after 
his defeat, and another embassy dispatched to the Ligurians to 
make a formal complaint as to the assistance they had given the Car- 
thaginian in men and money, and at the same time to get a nearer view 
of what was going on amongst the Boii and the Insubres. Officials were 
also sent to Pineus, king of Illyria, to demand payment of the tribute 
which was now in arrears, or, if he wished for an extension of time, 
to accept personal securities for its payment. So, though they had an 
immense war on their shoulders, nothing escaped the attention of the 
Romans in any part of the world, however distant. — " The History of 
Rome" Livy, book 22, chap. 83; Everyman's Library edition, Vol. Ill, 
p. 96. 

Rome, Policy of, in Asia. — From 188 to 133 [b. o.J, not a Roman 
soldier appeared in Asia; but the commissioners of the Senate were 
always there, keeping watch upon the words and acts of the Asiatic 
princes; intervening with authority in all affairs, with the design of 
degrading the native rulers in the eyes of their subjects; exacting rich 
gifts, in order to keep them always burdened; taking their sons as 
hostages, to send them back like Demetrius [of Macedon], gained over 
to the interests of Rome. — " History of Rome," Victory Duruy, chap. 33 
(Vol. II, p. 218). Boston: C. F. Jewett Pub. Co., 1883. 

Rome, Its Fierce Spirit of Conquest. — The vast host of the enemy 
[the Volscians], relying solely on their numbers and measuring the 
strength of each army merely by their eyes, went recklessly into the 
battle and as recklessly abandoned it. Courageous enough in the battle 
shout, in discharging their weapons, in making the first charge, they 
were unable to stand the foot-to-foot fighting and the looks of their 
opponents, glowing with the ardor of battle. — " History of Rome," Livy, 
book 6, chap 13; Everyman's Library edition, Vol. II,, p. 15. 

Rome, the Fierce Countenances of Its Soldiery. — The Romans 
admitted that they had never fought with a more obstinate enemy, and 
when the Samnites were asked what it was that first turned them, with 
all their determination, to flight, they said that the eyes of the Romans 
looked like fire, and their faces and expression like those of madmen; 
it was this more than anything else which filled them with terror. — 
Id., book 7, chap. 33; p. 94. 

Rome, The Romans Described as " Robbers of the World." — Do 
you not know that the Romans, when they found themselves stopped by 
the- ocean on the west, turned their arms this way? That to look back 
to their foundation and origin, whatever they have, they have from 
violence, — home, wives, lands, and dominions. A vile herd of every 
kind of vagabonds, without country, without forefathers, they estab- 
lished themselves for the misfortune of the human race. Neither divine 
nor human laws restrain them from betraying and destroying their 
allies and friends, remote nations or neighbors, the weak or the 
powerful. . . . 

It will be for your immortal glory to have supported two great 
kings, and to have conquered and destroyed those robbers of the world. 
This is what I earnestly advise and exhort you to do; that you may 
choose rather to share with us by a salutary alliance, in conquering the 
common enemy, than to suffer the Roman Empire to extend itself uni- 
versally by our ruin — Letter of Mithridates, king of Pontus, to Arsaces, 
king of the Parthians; cited in Rollin's "Ancient History," book 22, sec. 
3, par. 29 (Vol. IV, p. 368). New York: Nafis and Cornish, 1845. 



ROME, HOSTILITIES WITH GREECE. 



431 



Rome, Its Sway Extended East, South, and to the Holy Land 
(Dan. 8: 9; 11: 16). — Tbe career of Pompey in the east had been one 
uninterrupted success. Forty days sufficed for him to clear the sea of 
pirates; he pursued them to their strongholds and destroyed them. Then 
he advanced against Mithridates and his son-in-law and ally, Tigranes of 
Armenia. A victory in 66 b. c. shattered the Pontic power and brought 
peace with Tigranes. The Parthians also allied themselves with Pom- 
pey. Steadily Mithridates was hemmed in, until, in 63 b. c, he fled to 
his dependency, the kingdom of Bosporus, to the north of the Black 
Sea, and there killed himself. His kingdom was made part of the 
Roman province of Bithynia. The kingdom of the Selucidae was brought 
to an end and Syria became a province (64 b. a). The Jewish king 
resisted Pompey, who stormed Jerusalem (63 b. c.) and reduced Judea 
to a Roman dependency ruled by high priests. The Euphrates River 
became the eastern boundary of the Roman state. Cities were founded, 
stable government was restored, and prosperity revived. Two new prov- 
inces, Bithynia-Pontus and Syria, were added to Rome's eastern pos- 
sessions; the province of Cilicia, which had been established in 102 b. o. 
at the time of Rome's first operation against the pirates, was enlarged 
and friendly alliances with the border kina:s and chiefs were established 
or renewed. An immense sum was paid into the Roman treasury. 
Pompey had amply fulfilled his task, and now returned to Rome, where 
he triumphed, in 61 b. c. — "A History of the Ancient World" George 
Stephen Ooodspeed, Ph. D„ pp. 410, 411. New York: Charles Scribner's 
Sons. 1912. 

Rome, Pompey's Trophies from East and South. — He TPompey] 
had a great desire and emulation to occupy Syria, and to march through 
Arabia to the Red Sea. that he might thus extend his conquests every 
way to the great ocean that encompasses the habitable earth. ... [Then, 
describing Pompey's triumph, on his return to Rome:] In the'first place 
there were tables carried, inscribed with the names and titles of the 
nations over whom he triumphed, Pontus, Armenia, Cappadocia, Paphla- 
gonia, Media, Colchis, the Iberians, the Albanians, Syria, Cilicia, and 
Mesopotamia, together with Phoenicia and Palestine, Judaea, Arabia, and 
all power of the pirates subdued by sea and land. — "Plutarch's Lives" 
Vol. IV, " Pompey," pp. 98, 106: translation called Dryden's, collected 
from the Greek and revised by A. H. Clough. Boston: Little. Brown & 
Co., 1859. 

Rome, Hostilities with Greece Begun by. — Rome came first into 
hostile relations with Macedonia. During the Second Punic War 
Philip V of that kingdom had entered into an alliance with Hannibal. 
He was now troubling the Greek cities which were under the protection 
of Rome. For these things the Roman Senate resolved to punish him. 

An army under Flamininus was sent into Greece, and on the plains 
of Cynoscephalae [b. c. 196], in Thessaly, the Roman legion demon- 
strated its superiority over the unwieldy Macedonian phalanx by sub- 
jecting Philip to a most disastrous defeat [b. c. 197]. The king was 
forced to give up all his conquests, and the Greek cities that had been 
brought into subjection to Macedonia were declared free. Unfortu- 
nately the Greeks had lost all capacity for self-government, and the 
anarchy into which their affairs soon fell afforded the Romans an excuse 
for extending their rule over all Greece. — " General History," Philip 
Van Ness Myers, pp. 241, 242. Boston: Ginn & Company. 

And now Macedonia, under the leadership of Perseus, son of Philip 
V, was again in arms and offering defiance to Rome; but in the year 



432 



ROME — JULIUS CJESAR. 



168 b. c. the Roman consul iEmilius Paulus crushed the Macedonian 
power forever upon the memorable field of Pydna. Twenty-two years 
later (146 b. c.) the country was organized as a Roman province. The 
short but great part which Macedonia as an independent state had 
played in history was ended. She now drops below the historical 
horizon.— Id., p. 242. 

Rome, Succeeds Gkeece by Conquest of Macedonia (Dan. 8: 9). 
— Thus [by victory over Perseus, king of Macedonia, battle of Pydna, 
June 22, 168 b. c] perished the empire of Alexander the Great, which 
had subdued and Hellenized the Bast, one hundred and forty-iour years 
after his death, [p. 508] . . . 

All the Hellenistic states had thus been completely subjected to the 
protectorate of Rome, and the whole empire of Alexander the Great had 
fallen to the Roman commonwealth, just as if the city had inherited it 
from his heirs. From all sides kings and ambassadors flocked to Rome 
to congratulate her, and they showed that fawning is never more abject 
than when kings are in the antechamber, [p. 519] . . . 

The moment was at least well chosen for such acts of homage. 
Polybius dates from the battle of Pydna the full establishment of the 
universal empire of Rome. It was, in fact, the last battle in which a 
civilized state confronted Rome in the field on a footing of equality with 
her as a great power; all subsequent struggles were rebellions, or wars 
with peoples beyond the pale of the Romano-Greek civilization — the 
barbarians, as they were called. The whole civilized world thenceforth 
recognized in the Roman Senate the supreme tribunal, whose commis- 
sioners decided in the last resort between kings and nations; and to 
acquire its language and manners, foreign princes and youths of quality 
resided in Rome. [pp. 519, 520] — " History of Rome," Theodor Momm- 
sen, translated by Wm. P. Dickson, D. D., LL. D., book 3, chap. 10 (Vol. 
II, pp. 508-519). New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1903. 

Rome, under Julius Caesar. — The decisive battle [between Pompey 
and Csesar] was fought at Pharsalus in Thessaly (48 b. c). Pompey 
was beaten and his army scattered; he himself fled to Egypt/where he 
was murdered as he sought to land. But lesser commanders held out 
in the various provinces against the victor and he was compelled to 
make a series of campaigns against them. First, the east was brought 
into order. In Egypt, Cleopatra and her brother Ptolemy, descendants 
of the old Greek rulers, were placed on the throne under Roman pro- 
tection, and Cassar came under the fascination of the intelligent and 
charming but morally unscrupulous young queen!, [Dan. 11: 17.] A 
battle at Zela (47 b. c.) Overthrew the son of Mithridates, who attempted 
to withstand him. It is of these incidents that Byron writes: 

" Alcides with the distaff now he seems at Cleopatra's feet, 
And now himself he beams and came and saw and conquered." 

The formidable array of Pompeian generals in Africa was anni- 
hilated in the battle of Thaps'us (46 b. c). A last stand in Spain was 
made, only to be overthrown in 45 b. c. at the battle of Munda. After 
four years of fighting, Csesar was master of the situation, and the oppor- 
tunity was open to him of solving the problems of the state, which had 
been in the balance for nearly a hundred years. But early in 44 b. c. 
(March 15) he was assassinated in the senate house by a band of con- 
spirators, led by Gaius Cassius and a favorite friend, Marcus Brutus, 
and the Roman world again plunged into anarchy. — "A History of the 
Ancient World," George Stephen Goodspeed, Ph. D., pp. 415, 416. New 
York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1912\ 



ROME — AUGUSTUS. 



433 



Rome, Cesar Compared with Alexander. — He [Julius Caesar] was 
a man most fortunate in all things, superhuman, of grand designs, and 
fit to be compared with Alexander. Both were men of the greatest 
ambition, both were most skilled in the art of war, most rapid in exe- 
cuting their decisions, and most reckless of danger, least sparing of 
themselves, and relying as much on audacity and luck as on military 
skill. — " The Roman History," Appian of Alexandria, " The Civil Wars" 
book 2, chap, 21, par. 149, translation by Horace White (Vol. II, p. 203). 
Neic York: The Macmillan Company. 1899. 

Rome, Cesar's Fall. — [Scene of Caesar's ueath:] With rage and 
outcries Caesar turned now upon one and now upon another like a wild 
animal, but after receiving the wound from Brutus he despaired and. 
veiling himself with his robe, he fell in a decent position at the foot of 
Pompey's statue. — Id., book 2. chap. 16, par. 117 (Vol. II. pp. 179, 180). 

Rome, in the Augustan Age. — The hundred years of strife which 
ended with the battle of Actium [defeating Antony, who had fallen 
under the influence and intrigues of Cleopatra, of Egypt] left the Ro- 
man Republic, exhausted and helpless, in the hands of one [Octavius 
Augustus] wise enough and strong enough to remold its crumbling 
fragments in such a manner that the state, which seemed ready to fall 
to pieces, might prolong its existence for another five hundred years. 
It was a great work thus to create anew, as it were, out of anarchy and 
chaos, a political fabric that should exhibit such elements of perpetuity 
and strength. " The establishment of the Roman Empire," says Meri- 
vale, " was, after all, the greatest political work that any human being 
ever wrought. The achievements of Alexander, of Caesar, of Charle- 
magne, of Napoleon are not to be compared with it for a moment." — 
"General History," Philip Van Ness Myers, p. 274. Boston: Ginn and 
Company, 1906. 

Rome, the Age of the City's Grandeur. — The city, which was not 
built in a manner suitable to the grandeur of the empire, and was liable 
to inundations of the Tiber, as well as to fires, was so much improved 
under his [Augustus Caesar's] administration, that he boasted, not with- 
out reason, that he " found it of brick, but left it of marble." — " Lives 
of the Caesars," C. Suetonius Tranquilhis, " Caesar Augustus," chap. 29. 

Rome, Augustus as Raiser of Taxes. — [Introduction by Augustus 
of general census and tax system.] History has never, perhaps, suf- 
fered a greater or more irreparable injury than in the loss of the 
curious register bequeathed by Augustus to the senate, in which that 
experienced prince so accurately balanced the revenues and expenses 
of the Roman Empire, [par. 43] . . . 

The introduction of customs was followed by the establishment of 
an excise, and the scheme of taxation was completed by an artful 
assessment on the real and personal property of the Roman citizens, 
who had been exempted from any kind of contribution above a century 
and a half. [par. 47] .... 

The excise, introduced by Augustus after the civil wars, was ex- 
tremely moderate, but it was general. It seldom exceeded one per cent; 
but it comprehended whatever was sold in the markets or by public 
auction, from the most considerable purchases of lands and houses, to 
those minute objects which can only derive a value from their infinite 
multitude and daily consumption. Such a tax, as it affects the body of 
the people, has ever been the occasion of clamor and discontent. — [par. 



28 



434 



ROME — AUGUSTUS. 



49]. — "History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'' Edward 
Gibbon, chap. 6, pars. 43, 47, 49 (Vol. I, pp. 186-191). 

Note. — It was at this time in the order of the prophecy of Daniel 11, that 
there was to " stand up in his estate a raiser of taxes [one that causes an ex- 
actor to pass over, margin] in the ' glory ' of his power." Verse 20. This 
stands in history as the glorious age of Rome. — Eds. 

Rome, Enrolment in the Days of Augustus. — The oath was ad- 
ministered at the same time, according to the usage of the Roman 
census, in which a return of persons, ages, and properties, was required 
to be made upon oath, under penalty of confiscation of the goods of the 
delinquents, as we learn from Ulpian. And the reason for registering 
ages was, that among the Syrians, males from fourteen years of age, 
and females from twelve, until their sixty-fifth year, were subject to a 
capitation, or poll-tax, by the Roman law. This was two drachmas a 
head, half a stater, or about fifteen pence of our currency. See the case 
of our Lord and Peter afterwards, where " a stater," the amount of both, 
was procured by a miracle. Matt. 17: 24-27. [p. 49] . . . 

By the wary policy of Roman jurisprudence, to prevent insurrec- 
tions, and to expedite the business, all were required to repair to their 
own cities. Even in Italy, the consular edict commanded the Latin 
citizens " not to be enrolled at Rome, but all in their own cities." And 
this precaution was still more necessary in turbulent provinces, like 
Judea and Galilee. And the decree was peremptory, and admitted of no 
delay. Joseph therefore was obliged to go with Mary, notwithstanding 
her advanced state of pregnancy, to his family town, Fethlehem, where 
the Saviour of the world was born in a stable, and laid in a manger! 

Thus did "the fierceness of man," or the anger of Augustus 
towards Herod, " turn to the praise of God," and to the fulfilment of 
prophecy, that Christ should be born at Bethlehem (Micah 5: 2), so far 
from his mother's residence; and that as Shiloh (the apostle) he should 
come into the world when " the scepter had departed from Judah " 
(Gen. 49: 10), for Judea was made a Roman province by the introduc- 
tion of a Roman enrolment therein. Julian, the apostate, unwittingly 
objected this to Christ's claim: 

" This Jesus, proclaimed by you [Christians] was one of Csesar's 
subjects. If ye disbelieve, I will prove it presently; or rather let it be 
told now; ye say then yourselves that he was enrolled, with his father 
and mother, in the time of Cyrenius." [p. 50]. — "A New Analysis of 
Chronology," Rev. William Hales, D. D., Ninth Period, " The Roman 
Enrolment and Taxing," Vol. Ill, pp. 49, 50. London: C. J. G. & F. Riv- 
ington, 1830. 

Rome, Law Regarding Place of Enrolment. — In connection with 
the census of Quirinius it is stated in Luke 2:3: "All went to enroll 
themselves, every one to his own city." This has been felt by many 
scholars to be an improbable statement, and has been cited as an evi- 
dence of the unhistorical character of the whole story of the census in 
Luke. In this connection part of a papyrus discovered in Egypt, which 
is dated in the 7th year of the Emperor Trajan, 103-104 a. d., is of great 
interest. This document contains three letters. The third of the letters 
is the one which relates to our subject. It is as follows: 

" Gaius Vibius, chief prefect of Egypt. Because of the approaching 
census it is necessary that all those residing for any cause away from 
their own nomes, should at once prepare to return to their own gov- 
ernments, in order that they may complete the family administration 
of the enrolment, and that the tilled lands may retain those belonging 



ROME — TIBERIUS. 



435 



to them. Knowing that your city has need of provisions from the 
country, I wish ' . . . (At this point the papyrus becomes too fragmen- 
tary for connected translation.) 

It is perfectly clear that in Egypt the enrolment was done on the 
basis of kinship. The word rendered "family" above [ovr/jdri] means 
" kindred " in the larger sense. The phrase rendered " belonging to " 
[them, i. e., the tilled lands] also means " kindred." It appears, then, 
that in Egypt the enrolment of each district was intended to include all 
the kinsmen belonging to that district, and that, lest tnose residing 
elsewhere should forget to return home for the census, proclamations 
were issued directing tnem to do so. It is well known uiat in many 
respects the customs of administration in Syria and Egypt were similar. 
Luke's statement, that Joseph went up from Nazareth to Bethlehem, 
because he was of the house and lineage of David, to enroll himself with 
Mary (Luke 2: 4, 5), turns out to be in exact accord with the govern- 
mental regulations as we now know them from the papyri. — "Archaeol- 
ogy and the Bible," George A. Barton, Ph. D„ LL. D., p. 435. Phila- 
delphia: American Sunday -School Union, 1916. 

Rome, Tibeeius, Successoe of Augustus, a Dissembler. — Tiberius 
was a patrician of good education, but he had a most peculiar nature. 
He never let what he desired appear in his talk, and about what he 
said he wished he usually cared nothing at all. Thus his words indi- 
cated just the opposite of his real purpose: he denied any interest in 
what he longed for and urged the claims of what he hated. He would 
exhibit anger over matters that were very far from arousing his rage, 
and made a show of affability where he was most vexed. — " Roman His- 
tory," Gassius Dio, look 57, under A. D. 14 (Vol. IY, p. 259). Troy, N. Y.: 
Pafraefs Book Company, 1905. 

Note. — The prophecy of Daniel had listed next in order of history " a vile 
person," given to " flatteries." Dan. 11 : 21. The word translated " flattery " 
means also " dissimulation." Elliott : " The word has a double sense ; being ap- 
plied both to slipperiness of a path, and the slipperiness or flattering and deceit 
of the tongue." Ps. 35 : 6 ; Prov. 2 :"16. Gesenius : " Arts of dissimulation." — 
Quoted by Elliott, " Horw Apocalypticw," Vol. IV, p. 133. Barnes: "By acts of 
dissembling." — "Notes on Daniel/' p. 451. Vileness and dissembling were to be 
the characteristics of this power, which would receive adulation and flattery 
from others. — Eds. 

Rome, Tibeeius Described as a Vile Dissembles, — Though he 
made no scruple to assume and exercise immediately the imperial au- 
thority, by giving orders that he should be attended by the guards who 
were the security and badge of the supreme power; yet he affected, by a 
most impudent piece of acting, to refuse it for a long time; ... by 
ambiguous answers, and a crafty kind of dissimulation, etc. — " Lives of 
the Gwsars," G. Suetonius Tranquillus, " Tiberius," chap. 24. 

The vile old lecher. — Id., chap. 45. 

Rome, Afteb Dissembling, Tibeeius accepts Sovebeignty. — When 
no further news of a revolutionary nature came, but all parts of the 
Roman world began to yield a steady acquiescence to his leadership, he 
no longer practised dissimulation regarding the acceptance of sovereign 
power. — "Roman History," Gassius Dio, took 57, chap. 7 (Yol. IY, p. 
267). Troy, N. Y.: Pafraefs Book Company, 1905. 

Rome, Time of Flattest and Insincerity. — Such was the pesti- 
lential character of those times, so contaminated with adulation. — " The 
Works of Tacitus" Yol. I, " The Annals," book 3, chap. 65. 



436 



HOME, DEGENERACY OF. 



As for Tiberius, his body was now wasted and his strength ex- 
hausted, but his dissimulation failed him not. — Id., book 6, chap. SO. 

At last, when all restraints of shame and fear were removed, and 
he was left to the uncontrolled bent of his genius, he broke out at once 
into acts of atrocious villainy and revolting depravity. — Id., book 6, 
chap. 51. 

Rome, the Prince of the Covenant "Broken" (Dan. 11: 22).— 
Christus, the founder of that name, was put to death as a criminal by 
Pontius Pilate, procurator of Judea, in the reign of Tiberius: but the 
pernicious superstition, repressed for a time, broke out again, not only 
through Judea, where the mischief originated, but through the city of 
Rome also, whither all things horrible and disgraceful flow, from all 
quarters, as to a common receptacle, and where they are encouraged. 
— Id., book 15, chap. 44. 

It was in the midst of the reign of Tiberius that, in a remote prov- 
ince of the Roman Empire, the Saviour was crucified. Animated by an 
unparalleled missionary spirit, his followers traversed the length and 
breadth of the empire, preaching everywhere the " glad tidings." Men's 
loss of faith in the gods of the old mythologies, the softening and lib- 
eralizing influence of Greek culture, the unification of the whole civi- 
lized world under a single government, the widespread suffering and the 
inexpressible weariness of the oppressed and servile classes, — all these 
things had prepared the soil for the seed of the new doctrines. In less 
than three centuries the pagan empire had become Christian not only 
in name, but also very largely in fact. — " General History," Philip Van 
Ness Myers, p. 282. Boston: Ginn and Company. 1906. 

Rome, So-called Conversion oe. — But the elevation of Christianity 
as the religion of the state presents also an opposite aspect to our con- 
templation. It involved great risk of degeneracy to the church. The 
Roman state, with its laws, institutions, and usages, was still deeply 
rooted in heathenism, and could not be transformed by a magical stroke. 
The Christianizing of the state amounted therefore in great measure to 
a paganizing and secularizing of the church. Tne world overcame the 
church, as much as the church overcame the world; and the temporal 
gain of Christianity was in many respects canceled by spiritual loss. 
The mass of the Roman Empire was baptized only with water, not with 
the spirit and fire of the gospel, and it smuggled heathen manners and 
practices into the sanctuary under a new name. The very combination 
of the cross with the military ensign by Constantino was a most doubt- 
ful omen, portending an unhappy mixture of the temporal and the 
spiritual powers.— " History of the Christian Church^ Philip Schaff, 
Vol. Ill, p. 93. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1893. 

Rome, Degeneracy under Later Empire. — The secularization of 
the church appeared most strikingly in the prevalence of mammon wor- 
ship and luxury. . . . Chrysostom addresses a patrician of Antioch: 
"You count so and so many acres of land, ten or twenty palaces, as 
many baths, a thousand or two thousand slaves, carriages plated with 
silver and gold." Gregory Nazianzen, who presided for a time in the sec- 
ond ecumenical council of Constantinople in 381, Gives us the following 
picture, evidently rhetorically colored, yet drawn from life, of the 
luxury of the degenerate civilization of that period: ' We repose in 
splendor on high and sumptuous cushions, upon the most exquisite- cov- 
ers, which one is almost afraid to touch, and are vexed if we but hear 



ROME, INVASIONS OF. 



437 



the voice of a moaning pauper; our chamber must breathe the odor of 
flowers, even rare flowers: our table must flow with the most fragrant 
and costlv ointment, so that we become perfectly effeminate." — Id., 
p. 127. 

Rome, to be Displaced by New Nations. — The uncontrollable prog- 
ress of avarice, prodigality, voluptuousness, theater going, intemperance, 
lewdness, in short, of all the heathen vices, which Christianity had come 
to eradicate, still carried the Roman Empire and people with rapid 
strides toward dissolution, and gave it at last into the hands of the 
rude, but simple and morally vigorous barbarians. When the Chris- 
tians were awakened by the crashings of the falling empire, and anx- 
iously asked why God permitted it, Salvian, the Jeremiah of his time, 
answered: "Think of your vileness and your crimes, and see whether 
you are worthy of the divine protection." Nothing but the divine judg- 
ment of destruction upon this nominally Christian, but essentially 
heathen world, could open the way for the moral regeneration of society. 
There must be new, fresh nations, if the Christian civilization prepared 
in the old Roman Empire was to take firm root and bear ripe fruit. — 
Id., p. 128. 

Rome, Invasions of. — The death of Theodosius placed the admin- 
istration of the empire in the hands of his two sons. Arcadius received 
the eastern portion, Honorius the west. Both were young and incapable. 
Meanwhile the flood of Germanic invasion which in the course of the 
following century was to overwhelm the fairest provinces of the West- 
ern Empire had already begun. .The Visigoths (West Goths), fleeing 
before the Huns, who had already conquered the Ostrogoths (East 
Goths) settled for a time in Dacia, but with the consent of the Roman 
officers they crossed the Danube in the reign of Valens [364-378]. Feel- 
ing misused by their hosts, they rose in rebellion, and in the bloody 
battle of Adrianople (378 *a. d.) they slew the emperor himself and 
destroyed his army. The best that Theodosius could do was to leave 
them in Mcesia where only his strong arm restrained their further 
movements. Meanwhile, Vandals, Suevi, Burgundians, Alamanni, and 
Franks burst into the western provinces. 

The very year of the death of Theodosius (a. d. 395), the Visigoths 
rose under Alaric, their chieftain, and marched into Greece. Seven 
years later they attacked Italy. Stilicho, the general of Honorius, suc- 
cessfully resisted them, until, out of jealousy and fear, he was mui- 
dered by his royal master. Then Alaric was able to overrun Italy and 
even to capture Rome (a. d. 410). 

► It was in this crisis that the Roman legions departed from Britain, 
leaving it exposed to the attacks of the Picts and Scots. The Suevi 
had penetrated into Spain, where they were followed by the Vandals. 
Upon the death of Alaric, the Visigoths left Italy and moved westward 
into Spain, where they set up a kingdom (a. d. 412) which was to last 
for three hundred years. The Vandals retired before them into Africa 
(a. d. 429), where they captured Carthage ten years later, and therein 
established a kingdom under their shrewd and enterprising leader 
Gaiseric [Genseric]. 

As if this were not enough, the cause of this tremendous upheaval of 
the German tribes now appeared on the scene in the advance of the 
Huns, a people of alien race and strange manners, wild savage warriors, 
rushing down out of the far northeast from their homes in Central Asia. 
Under their king, Attila, they were united and organized into a formid- 
able host, which included also Germans and Slavs. Attila had no less 
a purpose than to overthrow the Roman Empire and set up a new Hun- 



438 



ROME, INVASIONS OF. 



nish state upon its ruins. " Though a barbarian, Attila was by no 
means a savage. He practised the arts of diplomacy, often sent and 
received embassies, and respected the international laws and customs 
which then existed." After ravaging the east as far as the Euphrates, 
he turned to the west, crossed the Rhine, and invaded Gaul. There he 
was met by an imperial army under ^Etius and was defeated and turned 
back in a fierce struggle at the " Catalaunian Fields" (Chalons) in 
a. d. 451, which is justly regarded as one of the decisive battles of his- 
tory. The next year he penetrated into Italy, and the destruction of 
Rome seemed imminent, but mysteriously the heathen king stayed his 
advance on the receipt of the message from Pope Leo the Great : " Thus 
far and no farther." In 453 a. d. he died, and with his death his vast 
empire dissolved and the Hunnish peril was over. 

The emperors during this period were weak men and ineffective 
rulers, often set up and always upheld by their armies, which were 
made up almost entirely of Germans and led by men of the same race. 
Stilicho was a Vandal. Ricimer, another imperial general, was a Sue- 
vian. The emperors of the West emphasized still more their importance 
by placing the seat of government at Ravenna, an almost inaccessible 
fortress on the Adriatic Sea. The rest of Italy might suffer from the 
marches and contests of rival armies, while they were secure. Thus 
they beheld, in a. d. 455, the capture and sack of Rome by Gaiseric, the 
Vandal king of Africa, repeated in a. d. 472 by Ricimer. 

Following Honorius, a succession of nine weaklings kept up a pre- 
tense of imperial rule, until Romulus Augustulus, a mere boy, was set 
upon the throne. His German mercenaries, irritated by a refusal to 
grant them lands on which to settle, took as their leader Odovacar, the 
Rugian, captured the emperor, and forced him to resign his office (a. d. 
476). Then the imperial insignia were sent to the emperor of the East, 
Zeno, who thus became sole emperor and appointed Odovacar governor 
of Italy. In fact the latter ruled Italy as a king, while, as we have seen, 
other parts of the West did not even formally acknowledge the em- 
peror's authority. For this reason the year a. d. 476 is often regarded 
as a turning-point in the history of Rome as marking the fall of the 
Western Empire. — "A History of the Ancient World," George Stephen 
Goodspeed, Ph. D., pp. 502-505. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 
1912. 

Rome, Eakly Invasions as Viewed by a Contemporary. — At this 
time [about a. d. 364, 365] the trumpet as it were gave signal for war 
throughout the whole Roman world; and the barbarian tribes on our 
frontier were moved to make incursion on those territories which lay 
nearest to them. The Allemanni laid waste Gaul and Rhaetia at the 
same time. The Sarmatians and Quadi ravaged Pannonia. The Picts, 
Scots, Saxons, and Atacotti harassed the Britons with incessant inva- 
sions; the Austoriani and other Moorish tribes attacked Africa with 
more than usual violence. Predatory bands of the Goths plundered 
Thrace. — "History" Ammianus Marcellinus, book 26, chap. 4, par. 5. 

Rome, Fael of (Western Empire). — Odovacar [or Odoacer] . . . 
had served under Ricimer in 472 against Anthemius; and by 476 he had 
evidently distinguished himself sufficiently to be readily chosen as their 
king by the congeries of Germanic tribes- which were cantoned in Italy. 
His action was prompt and decisive. He became king on 23 August: by 
the 28th Orestes had been captured and beheaded at Piacenza, and on 
4 September Paulus, the brother of Orestes, was killed in attempting to 
defend Ravenna. The emperor Romulus Augustulus became the captive 



ROME, INVASIONS OF. 



43 9 



of the new king, who, however, spared the life of the handsome boy, and 
sent him to live on a pension in a Campanian villa. While Odovacar 
was annexing Italy, Euric was spreading his conquests in Gaul; and 
when he occupied Marseilles, Gaul, like Italy, was lost. 

The success of Odovacar did not however, mean the erection of 
an absolutely independent Teutonic kingdom in Italy, or the total ex- 
tinction of the Roman Empire in the "West; and it does not therefore 
indicate the beginning of a new era. in anything like the same sense as 
the coronation of Charlemagne in 800. It is indeed a new and important 
fact, that after 476 there Was no Western Emperor until the year 800, 
and it must be admitted that the absence of any separate emperor of 
the West vitally affected both the history of the Teutonic tribes and the 
development of the Papacy, during those three centuries. — " The Cam- 
bridge Medieval History," J. B. Bury, M. A., Vol. I, pp. 430, 431. New 
York: The Macmillan Company, 1911. 

Rome, in Hands of Invaders (about a. d. 500). — I have now ac- 
complished the laborious narrative of the decline and fall of the Roman 
Empire, from the fortunate age of Trajan and the Antonines. to its total 
extinction in the West, about five centuries after the Christian era. At 
that unhappy period, the Saxons fiercely struggled with the natives for 
the possession of Britain: Gaul aud Spain were divided between the pow- 
erful monarchies of the Franks and Visigoths and the dependent king- 
doms of the Suevi and Burgundians: Africa was exposed to the cruel 
persecution of the Vandals, and the savage insults of the Moors: Rome 
and Italy, as far as the banks of the Danube, were afflicted by an army 
of barbarian mercenaries, whose lawless tyranny was succeeded by the 
reign of Theodoric the Ostrogoth. All the subjects of the empire, who, 
by the use of the Latin language, more particularly deserved the name 
and privileges of Romans, were oppressed by the disgrace and ca- 
lamities of foreign conquest; and the victorious nations of Germany 
established a new system of manners and government in the western 
countries of Europe. The majesty of Rome was faintly represented by 
the princes of Constantinople, the feeble and imaginary successors of 
Augustus. Yet they continued to reign over the East, from the Danube 
to the Nile and Tigris; the Gothic and Vandal kingdoms of Italy and 
Africa were subverted by the arms of Justinian; and the history of the 
Greek "emperors may still afford a long series of instructive lessons, and 
interesting revolutions. — " History of the Decline and Fall of the 
Roman Empire," Giooon. chap. 38. last par. (Vol. Ill, pp. 631, 632). 

Rome, the Swarm of Invaders Fttlftt/ling the Prophecy of the 
Division of the Emptre. — What an imposing sight was that of all these 
barbarians rushing down from the east and from the north in number- 
less multitudes, crossing the Baltic in their boats, issuing from their 
forests on their wild horses, passing over rivers on the ice; and for the 
fulfilment in the Roman Empire of Daniel's prophecy. . . . But where 
were all these Gothic races at the time when Daniel beheld them from 
his bed in Babylon, in the first year of Belshazzar? Where were these 
nations that were to come, 955 years after the prophecy, and throw 
themselves into the last of the four monarchies? — They were living in 
the distant regions of Asia, on the tableland of the Altaic mountains, 
in the high valleys of Hindoo-Cntch of Cashmere, and of the Himalaya. 
The great Odin, who was in aftertime to lead them into Scandinavia, 
and of whom they were to make a god, was not yet even born; and 
nevertheless all their paths were already traced in the councils of the 
Most High, and foretold in his Word. — " The Prophet Daniel Explained** 
Prof. L. Gaussen, Vol, J, p. 011. London. 



440 



ROME — AliLEMANI. 



Rome, Luther's Saying Concerning. — Luther subsequently re 
garded his visit to Rome as a good providence of God; for he said to 
his friends that he would not have missed this journey for a thousand 
florins. On the other hand, however, he likewise recognized the danger 
of a lengthy stay in that city, on which account he was, in after years, 
accustomed to say, " He who goes to Rome for the first time, seeks a 
knave; the second time, he finds him; the third time, he brings him 
back with him." — " History of the Reformation in Germany and Swit- 
zerland Chiefly" Dr. K. R. Hagenbach, Vol. I, p. 89. Edinburgh: T. & T. 
Clark, 1878. 

Rome, Pagan, the Hindering Power, — It is admitted by both 
Protestant and Roman Catholic interpreters that St. Paul's "man of sin" 
and St. John's " Antichrist " are the same. But the rise of the "man of 
sin " is preceded by the removal of a hindering power which was in 
existence in Paul's own day, and to which he referred in carefully 
guarded language, — a power which the early church recognized as that 
of imperial Rome; and similarly the rise of the antichristian persecut- 
ing power in the Apocalypse is preceded by the removal of ruling power 
in the Roman state. The conclusion is that the hindering power re- 
moved in each case is the same. It is a remarkable fact, in relation to 
the "let," or hindrance, to the manifestation of the "man of sin," that 
" we have the consenting testimony of the early Fathers, from Irenseus, 
the disciple of the disciple of St. John, down to Chrysostom and Jerome, 
to the effect that it was understood to be the imperial power ruling and 
residing at Rome." — "Key to the Apocalypse," H. Grattan GvAnness, 
D. D„ pp. 113, 114. London: Rodder and Stoughton, 1899. 

Rome, Its Barbarian Invaders : Alaiii. — Alans, Alani, a Sarmatian 
people who inhabited the steppes north of the Caucasus Mountains and 
the Black Sea during the first three centuries of the Christian era. A 
large section of them were subdued and incorporated by the Huns in 370. 
Subsequently they settled in Pannonia, Lusitania (411), and Africa 
(429),— Nelson's Encyclopedia, Vol. I, art. "Alans," p. 126. 

The Suevians and one branch of the Vandals established them- 
selves in the northwestern corner [of the Iberian Peninsula, Spain and 
Portugal], the land of Gallicia. . . . The central lands of Lusitania and 
the province of New Carthage fell to the lot of Alans. ... Of these 
kingdoms, that of the Suevians was the most abiding. . . . The West- 
Gothic sword, wielded in the name of Rome, before long made short 
work of the rest. — " Western Europe in the Fifth Century," E. A. Free- 
man, pp. 141, 142. London: Macmillan & Co., 1904. 

Rome, Its Barbarian Invaders : Allemanni. — Alamanni, or Alle- 
manni, a German tribe, first mentioned by Dio Cassius, under the year 
213. They apparently dwelt in the basin of the Maine, to the south of 
the Chatti. According to Asinius Quadratus their name indicates that 
they were a conglomeration of various tribes. There can be little doubt, 
however, that the ancient Hermunduri formed the preponderating ele- 
ment in the nation. Among the other elements may be mentioned the 
Juthungi, Bucinobantes, Lentienses, and perhaps the Armalausi. From 
the fourth century onwards we hear also of the Suebi or Suabi. The 
Hermunduri had apparently belonged to the Suebi, but it is likely 
enough that re-enforcements from new Suebic tribes had now moved 
westward. In later times the names Alamanni and Suebi seem to be 
synonymous. The tribe was continually engaged in conflicts with the 
Romans, the most famous encounter being that at Strassburg, in which 



ROME — ANGLO-SAXONS. 



441 



they were defeated by Julian, afterwards emperor, in the year 357, 
when their king Chonodomarius was taken prisoner. Early in the fifth 
century the Alamanni appear to have crossed the Rhine and conquered 
and settled Alsace and a large part of Switzerland. Their kingdom 
lasted until the year 495, when they were conquered by Clovis, from 
which time they formed part of the Frankish dominions. The Ala- 
mannic and Swabian dialects are now spoken in German Switzerland, 
the southern parts of Baden and Alsace, Wiirttemberg and a small por- 
tion of Bavaria. — Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. I, art. "Alamanni" 
p. 468, 11th edition. 

Rome, Its Barbarian Invaders: Anglo-Saxons. — We need not 
doubt that the Angli and the Saxons were different nations originally; 
but from the evidence at our disposal it seems likely that they had 
practically coalesced in very early times, perhapr even before the inva- 
sion. At all events the term Angli Saxones seems to have first come 
into use on the Continent, where we find it, nearly a century before 
Alfred's time, in the writings of Paulus Diaconus (Paul the Deacon). 
There can be little doubt, however, that there it was used to distinguish 
the Teutonic inhabitants of Britain from the Ola Saxons on the Conti- 
nent. — Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. II, art. "Anglo-Saxons," p. 38, 
lltli edition. 

It was in the middle decade of the fifth century of our era that the 
half-civilized Celtic people of South Britain, left naked by the with- 
drawal of the Roman legions, and hard pressed on the north by the Picts 
and the Scots, adopted the fatal expedient of inviting to their aid the 
barbarians of the Baltic. The tribes thus solicited were the Jutes, the 
Angles, the Saxons, and the Frisians. The first mentioned dwelt in the 
Cimbric Chersonesus, now Jutland, or Denmark. Parts of Schleswig 
and Holstein were also included in their territories. In the latter coun- 
try the district known as Angeln was the native seat of the Angles. To 
the south of these two regions, spreading from the Weser to the delta 
of the Rhine, lay the country of the Saxons, embracing the states after- 
wards known as Westphalia, Friesland, Holland, and a part of Belgium. 
A glance at the map will show that these tribes occupied a position of 
easy approach by sea to the British Isles. . . . 

It is believed that Hengist and Horsa, the leaders of the barbarian 
host which accepted the call of the Celts, as well as a majority of their 
followers in the first expedition [a. d. 449] were Jutes. With them, how- 
ever, a large body of Angles from Holstein, and Saxons from Friesland, 
was joined in the invasion. So came a mixed host into England. . . . 

The result of the first contest in the island was that all of Kent, the 
ancient Cantium, was seized by the invaders and ruled by Eric, the son 
and successor of Hengist. Thus was established the first Saxon king- 
dom in England. 

Thus far the predominating foreigners were Jutes, mixed with 
Angles. This condition of affairs continued with little change for about 
a quarter of a century. In the year 477 a Saxon leader named Ella and 
his three sons landed a powerful force of their countrymen in what was 
afterwards called Sussex, or South Saxony. The first settlement made 
by the immigrant warriors was at Withering, in the island of Selsey. 
Thus far the Celtic populations had measurably held their own, but a 
serious struggle now began for the possession of Britain. The native 
peoples took up arms and made a spirited resistance. A great battle 
was fought in which the Saxons were victorious, and the Celts were 
driven into the forest of Andredswold. Meanwhile new bands of Saxons 
poured into the island and joined their countrymen. The British 



442 



HOME — BUKGU INDIANS. 



princes established a confederacy, but Ella defeated their army in a 
second battle and gained possession of nearly the whole of Sussex. 
Such was the founding of the second Saxon kingdom in Britain. 

The coast now in possession of the invaders extended from the 
estuary of the Thames to the river Arun. Near the close of the fifth 
century the Saxon leader, Cerdic, with a second army from the Conti- 
nent, landed in tne island and carried the conquest westward over 
Hampshire and the Isle of Wight to the river Avon. Thus was founded 
Wessex, or the kingdom of the West Saxons. West of the Avon the 
country was still held by the Britons, who now fought desperately to 
maintain their frontier against the invaders. 

North of the river Thames the first conquest was made in 527 by 
the Saxon prince Ercenwine, who overran the flat country of Essex, es- 
tablishing here the kingdom of the East Saxons. Subsequent con- 
quests soon extended the Saxon border northward to the Stour, which 
was maintained as the frontier till 547. 

The next descent made by the German tribes from the Baltic was 
on the coast at Flamborough Head. A long space was thus left between 
the frontier of the East Saxons and the scene of the new invasion. 
This time the invaders were Angles. The wild country between the 
Tees and the Tyne, embracing the present county of Durham, was 
overrun, and here was founded the kingdom of Bernicia. The next 
incoming tribe was also of the Angle race. The territory between the 
Tees and the Humber was now occupied, but not without a long and 
bloody contest with the natives. This region became the kingdom of 
Deira. 

Near the close of the sixth century the barbarians came in swarms. 
The most populous bands were out of Angeln. — " History of the World" 
John Clark Ridpath, LL. D., Vol. IV, pp. 443-445. Cincinnati: The Jones 
Brothers Pub. Co., 1910. 

Borne, Its Barbarian Invaders: Bavarians. — The earliest known 
inhabitants of the district afterwards called Bavaria were a people, 
probably of Celtic extraction, who were subdued by the Romans just 
before the opening of the Cnristian era, when colonies were founded 
among them and their land was included in the province of Raetia, 
During the fifth century it was ravaged by the troops of Odoacer and, 
after being almost denuded of inhabitants, was occupied by tribes who, 
pushing along the valley of the Danube, settled there between a. d. 488 
and 520. Many conjectures have been formed concerning the race and 
origin of these people, who were certainly a new and composite social 
aggregate. Most likely they were descendants of the Marcomanni, 
Quadi, and Narisci, tribes of the Suevic or Swabian race, with possibly a 
small intermixture of Gothic or Celtic elements. They were called 
Baioarii, Baiowarii, Bawarii, or Baiuwarii, words derived most probably 
from Baja or Baya, corruptions of Bojer, and given to them because 
they came from Bojerland, or Bohemia. Another but less probable ex- 
planation derives the name from a combination of the old high German 
word uudra, meaning league, and bai, a Gothic word for both. The 
Bavarians are first mentioned in a Prankish document of 520, and 
twenty years later Jordanes refers to them as lying east of the Swa- 
bians. Their country bore some traces of Roman influence, and its main 
boundaries were the Enns, the Danube, the Lech, and the Alps; but its 
complete settlement was a work of time. — Encyclopedia Britannica, 
Vol. Ill, art. "Bavaria,'" p. 545, 11th edition. 

Borne, Its Barbarian Invaders: Burgundians. — The Burgundians 
invaded the country with the Vandals, 410 a. d., but were vanquished by 



ROME — FRANKS, GEPID^S. 



443 



the Franks in 523 [rather, 523-534], and again became independent in 
the ninth century. — Nelson's Encyclopedia, Vol. II, art. " Burgundians," 
p. 889. 

Their dominion [a. d. 500], considerably more extensive than when 
we last viewed it on the eve of Attila's invasion, now included the later 
provinces of Burgundy, Franche-Comte and Dauphine, besides Savoy 
and the greater part of Switzerland — in fact, the whole valley of the 
Saone and the Rhone, save that for the last hundred miles of its course 
the Visigoths barred them from the right bank and the mouths of the 
latter river. — " Italy and Her Invaders" Thomas Hodgkin, Vol. Ill, pp. 
857, 358. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1885. 

Although subject to the Franks [by conquest of 534] and tributary 
to them in men and money, Burgundy continued as a separate part of 
the Frankish kingdom at the side of Neustria and Austrasia. At first 
partitioned, it was, on the death of Clotaire I (561), reunited, with a 
constitution of its own, its own government, and with boundaries mod- 
ified in several respects. The Burgundians lived in the full enjoyment 
of their possessions and of their own laws, participated in the adminis- 
tration, and constituted a special force in war. In respect of the were- 
gild [tribute, or " fine " for offenses], they stood on an equality with the 
other subject peoples — the Alamanni, Friesians, Bavarians, and Sax- 
ons. Repeatedly the old national pride flamed forth, even to open 
revolt, but never succeeded against Frankish predominance." — "His- 
tory of All Nations," Vol. VI, " The Great Migrations," Julius von 
Pflugk-Harttung, p. 403. Philadelphia: Lea Brothers & Co., 1902. 

Rome, Its Barbarian Invaders: Franks. — Franks, The, a confed- 
eration of tribes who are found about 250 a. d. settled in the lower 
Rhine valley, and grouped shortly afterwards as Salian Franks (on the 
lower Rhine) and Ripuarian Franks (on the middle Rhine). After 
the accession of Clovis, in 481, to the throne of the Salian Franks, the 
dependence upon Rome, which had lasted since the early part of the 
fifth century, came to an end. Clovis, having occupied the Seine valley, 
overthrew (496) the Alemanni, and then became an orthodox Christian. 
This induced the church to throw all its influence on the side of the 
Salian Franks, who by 510 had conquered or absorbed all the other 
Frankish tribes. At that time the kingdom of Clovis included most of 
modern France north of the Loire. . . . The rise of the Carlovingians 
led to the formation of the empire of Charles the Great; but on his 
death quarrels ensued among his descendants, and finally, by the treaty 
of Verdun (843), the empire was dismembered. Three monarchies then 
arose, one- of which was that of Germany, another that of France, and 
the third that of Burgundy and Lorraine. — Nelson's Encyclopedia, Vol. 
V, art. " Franks," p. 193. 

Rome, Its Barbarian Invaders : Gepidae. — The native haunts of 
the Gepidae appear to have been on the Vistula, near the Baltic. It is 
from this position that their first movements were directed against the 
civilized states of the South. At the first they were associated with the 
Vandals, and were afterwards leagued with the Goths of the Middle 
Danube. At the time of the invasion of Attila they were obliged to 
follow the standard of that imperial savage, but after his death they 
regained their independence. Under their king Adaric, they beat back 
the Huns from their territories on the Lower Danube, and became one 
of the most prosperous states. Twelve years after the downfall of the 
Western Empire, Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, defeated the Gepidse 



444 



ROME — GOTHS. 



in a great battle near Sirmium. Afterwards, in 566, the nation suf- 
fered a second overthrow at the hands of Alboin, king of the Lombards, 
and from that time the remnants of the people were gradually absorbed 
by the dominant populations around them. — " History of the World,'" 

John Clark Bidpath, LL. D., (9 vol. ed.) Vol. IV, pp. 392-394. Cincin- 
nati: The Jones Brothers Pub. Co., 1910. 

Rome, Its Barbarian Invaders: Goths. — Goths, a people of Ger- 
manic race, who are first heard of on the southern shores of the Baltic. 
. . . Early in the third century, ... we find the Goths settled on the 
Black Sea, between the Don and the Danube. The eastern portion of 
the nation came to be known as the Ostrogoths, or East Goths, and 
western as the Visigoths, or West Goths. . . . 

Bishop Wulfila, or Ulfilas, labored for forty years among the Goths, 
and saw as the fruits of his labor the conversion of the entire people to 
the Arian branch of Christianity. It is a remarkable fact that the Goths 
were the most tolerant of religionists, and it was not till the Visigoths 
of Spain had become " orthodox " that they developed any persecuting 
tendencies. . . . 

Upon the Ostrogoths [Bast Goths] in 375 fell the invading army of 
the Huns, who subjugated and absorbed them, so that, at the famous 
battle of Chalons, part of the army of Attila, which the Visigoths helped 
to defeat, was composed of Ostrogoths, who had been servants of the 
Huns till that date (451). During the intervening period the Ostro- 
goths have no history, save as regards that small section which was 
allowed by the Emperor Valens to cross the Danube with the Visigoths 
[West Goths] into Thrace, to escape the Huns. But the injustice of the 
Byzantines provoked them to revenge, and in 378, near the modern 
Adrianople, they defeated and slew the emperor Valens. Under his suc- 
cessor, the emperor Theodosius, the relations of the Goths and Romans 
became peaceful, but when, on his death in 395, the empire was divided 
between his two sons, Arcadius and Honorius, trouble began. The 
Goths, under their king, Alaric, ravaged Greece. But Stilicho, ruler of 
the Western empire in the name of Honorius, having intervened, Alaric 
in 402 invaded Italy, but was twice defeated (at Pollentia and Verona), 
and forced to retire by Stilicho. In 408, Stilicho being dead, Alaric 
again invaded Italy, and swept all before him. Rome was three times 
besieged, and the third time it was sacked and plundered (410). Alaric 
died while engaged in the siege of Ravenna, to which Honorius had fled; " 
and his successor, Ataulf, induced the Visigoths to turn their arms 
against his enemies in Gaul. As a reward for these services, their king, 
Wullia, was granted (419) Aquitania, the richest province of Gaul. His 
successors increased their territory, till under Euric (466-484) they not 
only held all Gaul south of the Loire and west of the Rhone, but sub- 
dued the greater part of the Iberian peninsula. After the' battle of 
Voclad, near Poitiers (507), in which they were defeated by Clovis, king 
of the Franks, the Goths finally (about 510) abandoned all their French 
territory except a strip on the Mediterranean. Henceforth they were a 
Spanish power. At length, as a matter of political necessity, their king, 
Reccared (586-600), became a convert to Catholicism, and the Visigoths, 
weary of ecclesiastical isolation, were converted by battalions. The 
clergy, as the price of this political deal, succeeded in making them- 
selves supreme. . . . 

[Ostrogothic Division] The Ostrogoths, released from their servi- 
tude by the defeat of the Huns at Chalons, settled in Pannonia, along 
the middle Danube, and for a time were busy as enemies or allies of the 
empire, till their young king, Theodoric, obtained permission to invade 



ROME — GOTHS. 



445 



Italy, as the agent of the empire, to drive out Odoacer, who had usurped 
the throne of the Western empire. This was with some difficulty ac- 
complished, with the help of certain Visigoths (489-493), nnd Theodoric, 
in fact, if not in name, became king of Italy. He i-uled wisely and well, 
and Italy enjoyed a prosperity she had not known for centuries. After 
the death of Theodoric, the emperor Justinian sent his famous general, 
Belisarius, to subdue Italy. Belisarius got possession of Rome, where 
for a whole year (537-538), he was vainly besieged by Witigis, who had 
been elected (536) king of the Goths. And Belisarius had practically 
subdued the country when he was recalled, through court jealousies, to 
Constantinople. Although sent back to Italy in 544, Belisarius could 
effect nothing against the soldier and ruler of genius whom the Goths 
had made king over them. This was Totila, who rapidly recovered Italy. 
Justinian at last awoke to the seriousness of the task, and intrusted it 
to his aged chamberlain, Narses. who led a huge army to invade Italy 
from the north, and fought a decisive battle at Taginae, now Tadino 
(552), where Totila was killed. Under the newly elected king, Teia. 
the Goths made so desperate a stand at Mons Lactarius, near Vesuvius 
[554], that the imperial general was glad to grant them a safe-conduct 
out of Italy. Their subsequent history is not known. — Nelson's Ency- 
clopedia, Vol. V, art. " Goths: pp. 508, 509. 

The Ostrogoths had grown to be first in influence among the bar- 
barian states. . . . Theodoric accordingly* undertook the conquest of 
Italy. The invasion was in the nature of an emigration of the whole 
Gothic people. The aged, the infirm, the women and children, were all 
borne along with the immense procession of warriors, and the whole 
property was included with the baggage. . . . The Goth fought his way 
through every opposing obstacle, passed the Julian Alps, and made his 
way into Italy. 

Odoacer went boldly forth to meet him. The two hosts met on the 
river Sontius, and a decisive battle was fought, in which the Ostrogoths 
were successful. The country of the Veneti as far south as Verona 
thus fell into the hands of Theodoric. . . . Thus, in the year a. d. 493, 
the Ostrogothic kingdom was established in Italy. 

Theodoric at once entered upon a reign of thirty-three years' dura- 
tion. In accordance with the rights of conquest, a third of the lands 
was apportioned to his followers, [p. 408] . . . 

It was deemed expedient by Theodoric not to assume the insignia 
of imperial authority. He accepted the title of king — a name more 
congenial than that of emperor to the nations of the North, [p. 409] . . . 

In the year a. d. 500, Theodoric visited Rome, where he was received 
with all the glory that the diminished sun of the old metropolis was 
able to shed on her sovereign. For six months the Gothic king remained 
at the ancient capital of the Csesars, where his manners and morals 
were justly applauded by those who as children had witnessed the 
extinction of the empire. . . . 

In religious faith Theodoric, like his people, was an Arian. This 
fact opened a chasm between the Goths and the Italians, the latter 
accepting the Nicene creed. The king, however, was little disposed to 
trouble or be troubled in matters of faith. He and his Gothic subjects 
pursued their own way, and the orthodox Catholics, theirs. Those of 
the Goths who preferred to apostatize to the Athanasian belief were 
permitted to do so without persecution. The whole career of Theodoric 
[p. 410] was marked with a spirit of tolerance and moderation. The old 
theory of the Roman law that every citizen might choose his own 
religion was adopted as best suited to the condition of the people. . . . 



446 



ROME — GOTHS. 



It appears that the religious toleration introduced into the state by 
Theodoric, though outwardly accepted by the Catholics, was exceedingly 
distasteful to their orthodoxy. Without the power to reverse or resent 
the policy of the king, the Italian zealots turned their animosity upon 
the Jews and made that persecuted race the object of their scorn and 
persecution. Many rich but defenseless Israelites — traders and mer- 
chants living at Rome, Naples, Ravenna, Milan, and Genoa — were de- 
prived of their property and turned adrift as so many paupers. Their 
synagogues were despoiled and then burned, their houses pillaged, and 
their persons outraged. To the credit of Theodoric, he set himself 
against these manifestations of rapacious bigotry, and some of the chief 
leaders of the tumult were obliged to make restitution to their victims, 
and were then condemned to be publicly whipped in the streets by the 
executioner. 

Then it was that the Italian Catholics set up a cry against the 
persecution of the church. The clemency and good deeds of the king 
were forgotten by those who were opposed to martyrdom when them- 
selves were the martyrs. . . . 

Certain it is that Justinian, who had now succeeded to power at 
Constantinople, resolved to purge the church of heresy as well in the 
West as in his paternal dominions. An edict was issued from Constan- 
tinople against the Arian Christians in all the Mediterranean states. 
Those who refused to accept, the established creed of the church were 
to suffer the penalty of excommunication. This course was indignantly 
resented by Theodoric, who justly reasoned that the same toleration 
shown by himself to his Catholic subjects in the West should of right be 
extended to the Arian Christians in the empire of the Greeks. Theo- 
doric accordingly ordered the Roman Pontiff and four distinguished sen- 
ators to go on an embassy to Constantinople, and there demand of Jus- 
tinian the rights of religious freedom. They were commanded in their 
instructions to urge upon that monarch that any pretense to a dominion 
over the conscience of man is a usurpation of the divine prerogative, 
that the power of the earthly sovereign is limited to earthly things, and 
that the most dangerous heresy in a state is that of a ruler who puts 
from himself and his protection a part of his subjects on account of their 
religious faith. The rejection by Justinian of this appeal furnished, so 
far as any act could furnish, to Theodoric good ground for issuing an 
edict that, after a certain day, the orthodox religion should be prohib- 
ited throughout Italy. 

It was in the midst of the bitterness excited by this schismatic broil 
that the virtuous and philosophic Boethius, who had so long been the 
greatest and best of the king's counselors, was accused of treason, im- 
prisoned in the tower of Pavia, and then subjected to an ignominious 
execution, [p. 411] . . . 

Thus in his old age was the life of Theodoric clouded with suspi- 
cion and crime. . . . Especially did the specter of the venerable Sym- 
machus, who had been executed soon after Boethius, frown out of the 
shadows and menace the trembling king, who hobbled into his cham- 
ber, and after three days of remorse died, in August, a. d. 526. [p. 412]. . . 

Now it was [about 535 a. d.] that the emperor Justinian undertook 
to avail himself of the dissensions of the Goths, and thereby recover 
Italy. . . . Abundant excuse was offered to the Byzantine court for pros- 
ecuting its designs against the barbarian kingdoms. The state of the 
Vandals was distracted with civil commotions. Hilderic, the rightful 
sovereign, had been deposed and imprisoned, and the usurping Gelimer 
was seated on the throne. The Catholic party of the West favored the 
restoration of the deposed sovereign, and appealed to Justinian to aid 
in that work. The latter fitted out a powerful expedition, the command 



ROME — GOTHS. 



447 



of which was intrusted to Belisarius. In the year 533, the armament 
proceeded to the African coast. A battle was fought with the Vandals 
a few miles from Carthage, and Belisarius was completely victorious. 
The Eastern army entered the Vandal capital. Gelimer was again de- 
feated and obliged to surrender. Within three months, order was re- 
stored in Africa, and Belisarius returned to Constantinople to be re- 
ceived with distrust by his suspicious sovereign. Such was his popu- 
larity, however, that a great triumph was celebrated in his honor in 
the capital of the East. . . . 

In a. d. 535, Belisarius was again sent out from Constantinople to 
reduce Sicily. That work was accomplished without serious opposition, 
and in the following spring Belisarius crossed over [p. 413] into Italy. 
The whole country south of Campania was speedily reduced. . . . 

The old Roman faction of Italy, thoroughly orthodox and thoroughly 
tired of the supremacy of the Goths, went over to Belisarius, and the 
city of the Caesars was once more rescued from barbarism. The king of 
the Goths, however, collected a formidable army in the North, and in 
the spring of 537 besieged Belisarius in Rome. A line of fortifications 
was drawn around the city. Many of the ancient structures were demol- 
ished and the material rebuilt into the ramparts. The mausoleums of 
the old emperors were converted into citadels. When the Goths swarmed 
around the sepulcher of Hadrian, the immortal marbles of Praxiteles 
and Lysippus were torn from their pedestals and hurled down upon the 
heads of the barbarians in the ditch. Belisarius made one audacious 
sortie after another, hurling back his inveterate assailants. Nearly the 
whole Gothic nation gathered around the Eternal City, but Belisarius 
held out until re-enforcements arrived from the East, and after a siege 
of a year and nine days' duration, Rome was delivered from the clutch 
of her assailants. Vitiges was obliged to burn his tents and retreat 
[538 a. d.] before his pursuing antagonist to Ravenna. . . . 

The king of the Goths now shut himself up in the impregnable 
fortifications of Ravenna. Nothing could tempt him to show himself 
beyond the defenses of the city. Nevertheless the Roman general laid 
siege to the place, and awaited the results of impending famine. He 
vigilantly guarded the approaches to the city, cut off supplies, fired the 
exposed granaries, and even poisoned the waters of the city. In the 
midst of their distress the Goths, conceiving that Belisarius but for his 
obedience to Justinian would make them a better king than their own, 
offered to surrender the city into his hands and become his subjects, if 
he would renounce his allegiance to the emperor of the East and accept 
the crown of Italy. Belisarius seemed to comply. Ravenna was given 
up by the Goths, and the victor took possession. It was, however, no 
part of the purpose of Belisarius to prove a traitor to the emperor, 
though the conduct of Justinian towards himself furnished an excellent 
excuse for treason. The suspicion of the thing done soon reached Con- 
stantinople, and Justinian made haste to recall the conqueror from the 
West. . . . 

With the departure of Belisarius the courage of the Goths revived. 
They still possessed Pavia, which was defended by a thousand warriors, 
and, what was far more valuable, the unconquerable love of freedom. 
Totila, a nephew of Vitiges, was called to the throne, and intrusted with 
the work of re-establishing the kingdom, [p. 414] . . . 

One of the alleged reasons for the recall of Belisarius had been 
that he might be assigned to the defense of the East against the armies 
of Persia. Having successfully accomplished this duty, he was again 
available as the chief resource of Justinian in sustaining the Greek 
cause in Italy. In the year 545 the veteran general was accordingly 



448 



ROME — GOTHS. 



assigned to the command in the West. , ; . Meanwhile Totiia laid actual 
siege to Rome, and adopted starvation as his ally. . . . 

When Belisarius landed in Italy, he made an ineffectual attempt to 
raise the siege of the city, and the Romans were then obliged to capit- 
ulate, . . . and the city was given up to indiscriminate pillage. ... 

The Gothic king next directed nis march into southern Italy, where 
he overran Lucania and Apulia, and quickly restored the Gothic su- 
premacy as far as the strait of Messina. Scarcely, however, had Totiia 
departed upon his southern expedition when Belisarius, who had estab- 
lished himself in the port of Rome, sallied forth with extraordinary 
daring, and regained possession of the city. ... In 549 they [the Goths] 
again besieged and captured Rome. . . . 

In the meantime Belisarius was finally recalled to Constantinople 
and was forced into an inglorious retirement. . . . He was succeeded in 
the command of the Roman army in the West by the eunuch Narses, 
who in a body of contemptible stature concealed the spirit of a warrior. 
The dispatch of Justinian recalling Belisarius had declared that the 
remnant of the Gothic war was no longer worthy of his presence. It 
was this " remnant " that in the year 551 was intrusted to Narses. His 
powers were ample and his genius sufficient even for a greater work. 
On arriving in Italy he made haste to bring matters to the crisis of 
battle. On his way from Ravenna to Rome he oecame convinced that 
delay would be fatal to success. On every side there were evidences of 
a counter-revolution in favor of the Goths. It was evident that nothing 
but a victory could restore the influence of the Byzantine government in 
the West. 

Advancing rapidly on the capital he met the Goths in the Flaminian 
Way, a short distance from the city. Here, in July of 552, the fate of 
the kingdom established by Theodoric was yielded to the arbitrament 
of arms. A fierce and obstinate conflict ensuea, in which Totiia was 
slain and his army scattered to the winds. Narses received the keys of 
Rome in the name of his Master, this being the fifth time that the 
Eternal City had been taken during the reign of Justinian. The rem- 
nants of the Goths [p. 416] retired beyond the Po, where they assembled 
and chose Teias for their king. 

The new monarch at once solicited the aid of the Franks, and then 
marched into Campania to the relief of his brother Aligern, who was 
defending the treasure house of Cumae, in which Totiia had deposited a 
large part of the riches of the state. In the year 553 Narses met this 
second army in battle, and again routed the Goths and killed their king. 
Aligern was then besieged in Cumse for more than a year, and was 
obliged to surrender. It was evident that the kingdom of the Goths was 
in the hour and article of death. 

At this juncture, however, an army of seventy-five thousand Ger- 
mans, led by the two dukes of the Alemanni, came down from the 
Rhaetian Alps and threatened to burst like a thunder cloud upon cen- 
tral Italy. The change of climate, however, and the wine-swilling glut- 
tony of the Teutonic warriors combined to bring on contagion and deci- 
mate their ranks. Narses went forth with an army of eighteen thousand 
men and met the foe on the banks of the Vulturnus. Here, in 554, the 
petty eunuch inflicted on the barbarians a defeat so decisive as to refix 
the status of Italy. The greater part of the Gothic army perished 
either by the sword or in attempting to cross the river. The victorious 
army returned laden with the spoils of the Goths, and for the last time 
the Via Sacra was the scene of the spectacle of victory called a triumph. 
It was a vain shadow of the imperial glory of the Caesars. 

Thus, in the year 554, after a period of sixty years' duration, was 
subverted the Ostrogothic throne of Italy. One third of this time had 



ROME — GOTHS. 



449 



been consumed in actual war. The country was devastated — almost 
depopulated — by the conflict. The vast area of the kingdom was re= 
duced to the narrow limits of a province, which, under the name of the 
Exarchate of Ravenna, remained as an appanage of the Eastern Em- 
pire. As for the Goths, they either retired to their native seats beyond 
the mountains or were absorbed by the Italians, [p. 417] — "History of 
the World," John Clark Ridpath, (9 vol. ed.) Vol. IV, pp. 408-417. Cin- 
cinnati: The Jones Brothers Pub. Co., 1910. 

So ended the long siege of Rome by Witigis, a siege in which the 
numbers and prowess of the Goths were rendered useless by the utter 
incapacity of their commander. Ignorant how to assault, ignorant how 
to blockade, he allowed even the sword of Hunger to be wrested from 
him and used against his army by Belisarius. He suffered the flower 
of the Gothic nation to perish, not so much by the weapons of the 
Romans as by the deadly dews of the Campagna. With heavy hearts 
the barbarians must have thought, as they turned them northwards, 
upon the many graves of gallant men which they were leaving on that 
fatal plain. Some of them must have suspected the melancholy truth 
that they had dug one grave, deeper and wider than all, the grave of 
the Gothic monarcny in Italy. — " Italy and Her Invaders," Thomas 
Hodgkin, book 5, chap. 9, last par. (Vol. IV, p. 285). 

The utter failure of the Gothic enterprise against Rome did not, as 
might have been expected, immediately bring about the fall of Ravenna. 
Unskilled as was the strategy of the Ostrogoths, there was yet far more 
power of resistance shown by them than by the Vandals. In three 
months the invasion of Africa had been brought to a triumphant con- 
clusion. The war in Italy had now lasted for three years, two more 
were still to elapse before the fall of the Gothic capital announced even 
its apparent conclusion. — Id., book 5, chap. 10, par. 1 (Vol. IV, p. 286). 

[Visigothic Division] We now return to the history of the Visi- 
goths who had become a Spanish power. After Theodoric's death his 
grandson Amalaric was acknowledged as sovereign of the Visigoths, but 
his direct rule was confined to the Gaulish dominions. Amalaric died 
in 531, and the Visigothic state now became what it had been prior to 
419, a purely elective monarchy. Athanagild, who was placed on the 
throne by a rebellion in which he was aided by an army from Justinian, 
reigned prosperously for fourteen years (554-567); but his Byzantine 
allies (the 'Greeks,' as they were called) seized several of the Spanish 
cities, and were not completely dislodged until about 625. 

The brilliant reign of Leovigild, who made Toledo the capital of 
the kingdom, was marked by the subjugation of the Suevic kingdom in 
northwestern Spain and Portugal. In 572 Leovigild associated with 
himself in the kingdom his two sons, Ermenegild and Reccared. 

On the death of .Leovigild his son Reccared, already a crowned king, 
succeeded without the formality of election. One of his first acts was 
to announce his determination to adopt and to establish the Catholic 
religion. 

The conversion of the Visigoths was a political necessity. The 
secure establishment of their dominion was impossible so long as they 
were divided from the subject people by religious differences, and had 
against them the powerful organization of the Spanish church. They 
were converted in battalions, and the clergy made themselves supreme. 
The efforts of Witica (701-710) to carry out extensive reforms in church 
and state were indeed seconded by the archbishop of Toledo, but were 
virulently opposed by the great body of the clergy. Of his successor, 
29 



450 



ROME — MRULI. 



Roderic, " the last of the Goths," legend has a great deal to say, but 
history knows only that his defeat on the banks of the Guadalete (Au- 
gust, 711) placed the dominion of Spain in the hands of the Moorish 
invaders. Under the pressure of the Moslem yoke the Christians of the 
Peninsula became united into one nation, and the Goths ceased to exist 
as a separate people. — Standard Encyclopedia of the World's Knowl- 
edge, Vol. XII, pp. 293, 294. New York: Funk and W agnails Company. 

Rome, Its Barbarian Invaders: Heruli. — Heruli, a Teutonic tribe 
which figures prominently in the history of the migration period. The 
name does not occur in writings of the first two centuries a. d. Where 
the original home of the Heruli was situated is never clearly stated. 
Jordanes says that they had been expelled from their territories by the 
Danes, from which it may be inferred that they belonged either to what 
is now the kingdom of Denmark, or the southern portion of the Jutish 
peninsula. They are mentioned first in the reign of Gallienus (260- 
268), when we find them together with the Goths ravaging the coasts of 
the Black Sea and the iEgean. Shortly afterwards, in a. d. 289, they 
appear in the region about the mouth oi the Rhine. During the fourth 
century they frequently served together with the Batavi in the Roman 
armies. In the fifth century we again hear of piratical incursions by 
the Heruli in the Western seas. At the same time they had a kingdom 
in Central Europe, apparently in or around the basin of the Elbe. 
Together with the Thuringi and Warni they were called upon by Theo- 
doric the Ostrogoth about the beginning of the sixth century to form an 
alliance with him against the Frankish king Clovis, but very shortly 
afterwards they were completely overthrown in war by the Langobardi. 
A portion of them migrated to Sweden, where they settled among the 
Gotar, while others crossed the Danube and entered the Roman service, 
where they are frequently mentioned later in connection with the Gothic 
wars. After the middle of the sixth century, however, their name com- 
pletely disappears. — Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. XIII, art. "Heruli" 
p. 4G3, 11th edition. 

Heruli, a Teutonic tribe first mentioned in the reign of Gallienus, 
in the latter half of the third century after Christ. We hear of them 
ravaging the coasts of Southeast Europe, along with Goths, and shortly 
afterwards (289 a. d.) appearing in the country round the mouth of the 
Rhine. Later, they served frequently under the Romans, and later still 
(fifth century) made piratical expeditions in the Western seas, and had 
a kingdom in the basin of the Elbe. About the beginning of the sixth 
century they joined Theodoric, the Ostrogoth, against Clovis, king of 
the Franks, and soon after suffered defeat at the hands of the Lango- 
bardii. After this their name disappears from history. — Standard Ency- 
clopedia of the World's Knowledge, Vol. XIII, art. " Heruli," p 334. New 
York: Funk and Wagnalls Company. 

First of kingdoms established by the barbarians in Italy was that 
of the Heruli. This nation was led into the peninsula by the bold chief- 
tain Odoacer. . . . Odoacer at once made himself king of Italy. Rome 
was down, and the residue was ground under the heel of a German 
chieftain out of the North, who, to the one third of the lands of Italy 
which had been demanded by his followers as a recompense for their 
services, added the remaining two thirds to fill up the measure. King 
Odoacer soon showed himself master of the strange situation which 
had supervened in Italy. He wisely adapted his methods of government 
to the condition of the people. . . . He accepted the title of king, but 
refused the purple and the diadem, thus conciliating both the German 



ROME — HERULI. 



451 



princes and the phantom nobility of Italy. . . . The Roman nobility led 
a life of tremulous anxiety, humbly subservient to the master to whom 
they owed their lives and the remnant of their fortunes. Nor did the 
king fail in many instances to interpose between the rapacity of his bar- 
barian and the helplessness of his Roman subjects. The demands of the 
German chiefs were frequently resisted by the king, and several of the 
more insolent were put to death for the attempted robbery of native 
noblemen. In the pursuance of this difficult policy Odoacer consumed 
the fourteen years of his reign. With him rose and fell the Herulian 
kingdom in Italy. His people were neither strong enough nor suffi- 
ciently civilized to found a permanent dominion. Already the great 
nation of the Ostrogoths, under the leadership of the justly celebrated 
Theodoric, whom the discriminating Gibbon has declared to have been 
" a hero alike excellent in the arts of war and of government," was 
ready to sweep down from the North and destroy the brief ascendancy 
of the Heruli in Italy. — " History of the World,'" John Clark Ridpath, 
Vol. IV, pp. 406-408. Cincinnati: The Jones Brothers Pub. Co., 1910. 

Odoacer, or Odovacar (c. 434-493), the first barbarian ruler of Italy 
on the downfall of the Western Empire, was born in the district border- 
ing on the middle Danube about the year 434. In this district the once 
rich and fertile provinces of Noricum and Pannonia were being torn 
piecemeal from the Roman Empire by a crowd of German tribes, among 
whom we discern four, who seem to have hovered over the Danube from 
Passau to Pest, namely, the Rugii, Scyrri, Turcilingi, and Heruli. With 
all of these Odoacer was connected by his subsequent career, and all 
seem, more or less, to have claimed him as belonging to them by birth; 
the evidence slightly preponderates in favor of his descent from the 
Scyrri. — Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. XX, art. " Odoacer,'" p. 5, 11th 
edition. 

On the defeat and death of Orestes they ["the barbarian mercena- 
ries in Italy "] proclaimed their leader, Odoacer the Rugian, king of 
Italy. Romulus Augustulus laid down his imperial dignity, and the 
court at Constantinople was informed that there was no longer an em- 
peror of the West. 

The installation of a barbarian king in Italy was the natural climax 
of the changes which had been taking place in the West throughout the 
fifth century. In Spain, Gaul, and Africa barbarian chieftains were al- 
ready established as kings. In Italy, for the last twenty years, the real 
power had been wielded by a barbarian officer. Odoacer, when he de- 
cided to dispense with the nominal authority of an emperor of the West, 
placed Italy on the same level of independence with the neighboring 
provinces. But the old ties with Rome were not severed. The new king 
of Italy formally recognized the supremacy of the one Roman emperor 
at Constantinople, and was invested in return with the rank of " pa- 
trician," which had been held before him by Aetius and Ricimer. — 
Id., Vol. XXIII, art. "i?ome," p. 658, 11th edition. 

Odoacer was the first barbarian who reigned in Italy, over a people 
who had once asserted their just superiority above the rest of mankind. 
The disgrace of the Romans still excites our respectful compassion, and 
we fondly sympathize with the imaginary grief and indignation of their 
degenerate posterity. But the calamities of Italy had gradually subdued 
the proud consciousness of freedom and glory. In the age of Roman 
virtue the provinces were subject to the arms, and the citizens to the 
laws, of the republic; till those laws were subverted by civil discord, 
and both the city and the province became the servile property of a 



452 



ROME — HUNS, LOMBARDS. 



tyrant. The forms of the constitution, which alleviated or disguised 
their abject slavery, were abolished by time and violence; the Italians 
alternately lamented the presence or the absence of the sovereign, whom 
they detested or despised; and the succession of five centuries inflicted 
the various evils of military license, capricious despotism, and elab- 
orate oppression. During the same period, the barbarians had emerged 
from obscurity and contempt, and the warriors of Germany and Scythia 
were introduced into the provinces, as the servants, the allies, and at 
length the masters, of the Romans, whom they insulted or protected. 
The hatred of the people was suppressed by fear; they respected the 
spirit and splendor of the martial chiefs who were invested with the hon- 
ors of the empire: and the fate of Rome had long depended on the sword 
of those formidable strangers. The stern Ricimer, who trampled on 
the ruins of Italy, had exercised the power, without assuming the title, 
of a king; and the patient Romans were insensibly prepared to acknowl- 
edge the royalty of Odoacer and his barbaric successors. 

The king of Italy was not unworthy of the high station to which 
his valor and fortune had exalted him: his savage manners were pol- 
ished by the habits of conversation; and he respected, though a con- 
queror and a barbarian, the institutions, and even the prejudices, of his 
subjects. . . . Like the rest of the barbarians, he had been instructed 
in the Arian heresy; but he revered the monastic and episcopal char- 
acters; and the silence of the Catholics attests the toleration which they 
enjoyed. — " The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," 
Edward Gibbon, chap. 36, pars. 32, 33 (Vol. Ill, pp. 515, 516). New York: 
Harper & Brothers. 

Rome, Its Barbaeian Invaders: Huns. — Huns, a people of Tartar 
or Ugrian stock, who in the third century b. c. seem to have dominated 
the whole of North Asia, from the Ural Mountains to the Straits of 
Korea; and the famous Great Wall of China was erected at this time to 
check their inroads. . . . 

When the Huns first appeared in Europe remains a matter of con- 
jecture; but crossing the Volga, they overthrew the kingdom of the 
Alans about 374, and pressed on at once to the conquest of the Gothic 
Empire. . . . Supreme between the Danube and the Volga, the Huns 
successfully invaded Persia, terrorized Syria, and threatened Italy; and 
in 446 Attila was in a position to dictate to the Byzantines a treaty by 
which they surrendered a part of their territory, paid an immediate 
indemnity of six thousand pounds' weight of gold, and agreed to pay 
two thousand one hundred annually to the suzerain Attila. . . . 

Although Hungary may owe its name to the early Huns, the present 
Hungarians, the Magyars, are descended from immigrants of the ninth 
century, who came as successful invaders from the East. Whether the 
Huns who ravaged Italy in the ninth and tenth centuries were mainly 
of the old Hun race, or were their Magyar conquerors, is something of 
a problem. — Nelson's Encyclopedia, Vol. VI, art. "Huns," p. 300. 

Rome, Its Barbarian Invaders : Lombards. — Lombards, or Lon- 
gobardi, a German people who, at the beginning of the Christian era, 
settled on the Lower Elbe, and in the fifth century seem to have mi- 
grated to the regions of the Danube, where they became converts to 
Arianism. Throwing off the yoke of the Herulse (490), under whose 
domination they had fallen, they destroyed the Gepidse (566), took pos- 
session of Pannonia, and under Alboin invaded Italy (568). There they 
easily established themselves in the northern half, with Pavia as their 
capital, and were induced by Gregory the Great [Pope 590-604] and their 
queen Theodelinda to accept Roman Catholicism. On the seizure of the 



ROME — LOMBARDS. 



453 



Pentapolis and Ravenna by the energetic Lombard king Liutprand, the 
Pope, fearful of further aggression, summoned Pepin, king of the 
Franks, who subdued the Lombards [756] and presented the disputed 
territory to the Pope. Charlemagne finally subjugated and made their 
kingdom an imperial province. The Lombards thereafter became merged 
in the general Italian population. — Nelson's Encyclopedia, Vol. VII, art. 
" Lombards," p. 895. 

For a period of two hundred years Italy remained under the domin- 
ion of the Lombards. . . . The Lombard monarchy was elective. The 
right of the chiefs to choose their own sovereign, though many times 
waived in deference to heredity and other conditions, was not resisted 
or denied. About eighty years after the establishment of the kingdom, 
the laws of the Lombards were reduced to a written code. Nor does 
their legislation compare unfavorably with that of any other barbarian 
state. 

This epoch in history should not be passed over without reference 
to the rapid growth of the Papal Church in the close of the sixth and 
the beginning of the seventh century. Most of all by Gregory the Great, 
whose pontificate extended from 590 to 604, was the supremacy of the 
apostolic see asserted and maintained. Under the triple titles of Bishop 
of Rome, Primate of Italy, and Apostle of the West, he gradually, by 
gentle insinuation or bold assertion, as best suited the circumstances, 
elevated the episcopacy of Rome into a genuine papacy [p. 418] of the 
church. He succeeded in bringing the Arians of Italy and Spain into 
the Catholic fold, and thus secured the solidarity of the Western 
ecclesia. [p. 419] . . . 

It was the growth and encroachment of Catholic power in Italy 
that ultimately led to the overthrow of the Lombard kingdom. As 
the eighth century drew to a close and the kingdom of the Franks 
became more and more predominant beyond the Alps, the popes with 
increasing frequency called upon the Carlovingian princes to relieve 
Italy of the Lombard incubus. As early as the times of Gregory III, 
Charles Martel was solicited to come to the aid of his Catholic brethren 
in the South. The entreaties of Pope Stephen were still more impor- 
tunate, and Pepin, king of the Franks, was induced to lead an army 
across the Alps. Two centuries of comparative peace had somewhat 
abated the warlike valor of the Lombards. They were still brave enough 
to make occasional depredations upon the provinces and sanctuaries of 
the Holy Church, but not brave enough to confront the spears of the 
Franks. Astolphus, the Lombard king, cowered at the approach of 
Pepin, and he and his princes eagerly took an oath to restore to the 
church her captive possessions and henceforth to respect her wishes. 

No sooner, however, had the Frankish sovereign returned beyond 
the mountains than Astolphus broke his faith and renewed his preda- 
tory war on the Catholic diocese. A second time the angered Pepin 
came upon the recreant Lombards, whose country he overran and left 
the kingdom prostrate. For a period of about twenty years the Lombard 
state survived the shock of this invasion, and then returned to its old 
ways. Again the Romans were dispossessed of their property and 
driven from their towns. Pope Adrian I had now come to the papal 
throne, and Charlemagne had succeeded his father Pepin. Vainly did 
the Lombards attempt to guard the passes of the Alps against the great 
Frankish conqueror. By his vigilance he surprised the Lombard out- 
posts and made his way to Pavia. Here, in 773, Desiderius, the last of 
the Lombard princes, made his stand. For fifteen months the city was 
besieged by the Franks. When the rigors of the investment could be 
endured no longer, the city surrendered, and the kingdom of the Lorn- 



454 



ROME — LOMBARDS. 



bards was at an end. The country became a province in the empire of 
Charlemagne, but Lombardy continued for a time under the government 
of native princes. So much was conceded to the original kinship of the 
Lombards and the Pranks. — "History of the World" John Clark Rid- 
path (9 vol. ed.) Vol. IV, pp. 418-420. Cincinnati: The Jones Brothers 
Pub. Co., 1910. 

From Rothari (d. 652) to Liutprand (712-744) the Lombard kings, 
succeeding one another in the irregular fashion of the time, sometimes 
by descent, sometimes by election, sometimes by conspiracy and vio- 
lence, strove fitfully to enlarge their boundaries, and contended with 
the aristocracy of dukes inherent in the original organization of the 
nation, an element which, though much weakened, always embarrassed 
the power of the crown, and checked the unity of the nation. Their 
old enemies the Franks on the west, and the Slavs or Huns, ever ready 
to break in on the northeast, and sometimes called in by mutinous and 
traitorous dukes of Friuli and Trent, were constant and serious dangers. 
By the popes, who represented Italian interests, they were always looked 
upon with dislike and jealousy, even when they had become zealous 
Catholics, the founders of churches and monasteries; with the Greek 
Empire there was chronic war. From time to time they made raids into 
the unsubdued parts of Italy, and added a city or two to their domin- 
ions. But there was no sustained effort for the complete subjugation of 
Italy till Liutprand, the most powerful of the line. He tried it, and 
failed. He broke up the independence of the great southern duchies, 
Benevento and Spoleto. For a time, in the heat of the dispute about 
images, he won the Pope to his side against the Greeks. For a time, 
but only for a time, he deprived the Greeks of Ravenna. Aistulf, his 
successor, carried on the same policy. He even threatened Rome itself, 
and claimed a capitation tax. But the popes, thoroughly irritated and 
alarmed, and hopeless of aid from the East, turned to the family which 
was rising into power among the Franks of the West, the mayors of 
the palace of Austrasia. Pope Gregory III applied in vain to Charles 
Martel. But with his successors Pippin and Charles the popes were 
more successful. In return for the transfer by the Pope of the Frank 
crown from the decayed line of Clovis to his own, Pippin crossed the 
Alps, defeated Aistulf, and gave to the Pope the lands which Aistulf had 
torn from the empire, Ravenna and the Pentapolis (754-756). But the 
angry quarrels still went on between the popes and the Lombards. The 
Lombards were still to the Italians a " foul and horrid " race. At length, 
invited by Pope Adrian I, Pippin's son Charlemagne once more de- 
scended into Italy. As the Lombard kingdom began, so it ended, with 
a, siege of Pavia. Desiderius, the last king, became a prisoner (774), 
and the Lombard power perished. Charlemagne, with the title of king 
of the Franks and Lombards, became master of Italy, and in 800 the 
Pope, who had crowned Pippin king of the Franks, claimed to bestow 
the Roman Empire, and crowned his greater son emperor of the Ro- 
mans. — Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. XVI, art. " Lombards" p. 934. 
11th edition. 

No sooner had he [Alboin, king of the Lombards (565-573)] erected 
his standard, than the native strength of the Lombards was multiplied 
by the adventurous youth of Germany and Scythia. The robust peas- 
antry of Noricum and Pannonia had resumed the manners of barba- 
rians; and the names of the Gepids, Bulgarians, Sarmatians (or Slavs), 
and Bavarians may be distinctly traced in the provinces of Italy. Of 
the Saxons, the old allies of the Lombards, twenty thousand warriors, 
with their wives and children, accepted the invitation of Alboin. Their 



ROME — MARCOMANNI, QUADI. 



455 



bravery contributed to his success; but the accession or the absence of 
their numbers was not sensibly felt in the magnitude of his host. 
Every mode of religion was freely practised by its respective votaries. 
The king of the Lombards had been educated in the Arian heresy; but 
the Catholics, in their public worship, were allowed to pray for his 
conversion; while the more stubborn barbarians sacrificed a she goat, 
or perhaps a captive, to the gods of their fathers. — ' Tnc Historians' 
History of the World;' Vol. VII, p. 435. New York: The Outlook Com- 
pany, 1904. 

The Longobards at the time of the invasion were for the most part 
pagan; a few had imbibed Arianism, and hence their ferocity against 
priests and monks whom they put to death. They destroyed churches 
and monasteries; they hunted and killed many of the faithful who 
would not become pagan; they laid waste their property, and seized 
Catholic places of worship, to hand them over to the Arians. The holy 
pontiff, Gregory the Great, does not cease to lament the desolation 
caused by the Longobard slaughter throughout Italy. Slowly however 
the light of faith made way among them and the church won their 
respect and obedience. This meant protection for the conquered. Grad- 
ually the church's constitution and customs spread among the barba- 
rians the ideas of Roman civilization, until at last, in defense of her 
own liberty and that of the people which the Longobards continued to 
imperil, she was forced to call in the aid of the Franks, and thus change 
the fate of Italy. This occurred only after two centuries of Longo- 
bardic domination. — Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. IX, art. " Lombardy " 
p. 338. 

Note. — The gloss given this bit of history is thoroughly characteristic of 
Roman Catholic writers. The Lombards had been converted to Latin Christian- 
ity at least nominally, more than a century and a half before their government 
was overthrown and their territory given to the Pope. The crux of their offend- 
ing was, that, while Catholics by profession, they did not readily lend themselves 
to further the ambitions of the popes, who had now conceived the purpose of 
adding temporal dominion to their spiritual power. It was that this ambition 
might be realized that the kingdom of the Lombards was overthrown. — Eds. 

Rome, Its Barbarian Invaders : Marcomanni. — The name Marco- 
manni signifies Marchmen, or borderers, and was, no doubt, applied to 
several neighboring tribes in the confines of Germany. . . . During the 
third and fourth centuries the cis-Danubian provinces were several 
times overrun by the Marcomanni, but they did not succeed, either 
there or elsewhere, in laying the foundations of a permanent state. In 
the fifth and sixth centuries, the relative importance of the nation grew 
less and less, until it finally disappeared from history. — " History of the 
World," John Clark Ridpath, LL.D., (9 vol. ed.J Vol. IV, pp. 391, 392. 
Cincinnati: The Jones Brothers Pub. Co., 1910. 

Rome, Its Barbarian Invaders : Quadi. — The Quadi were kinsmen 
of the Suevi, having their original homes in southeastern Germany. . . . 
During the years a. d. 357-359, the exposed provinces of the empire were 
dreadfully harassed by this warlike people, who, in alliance with the 
Sarmatians, captured the frontier posts, and made it necessary for 
Constantius to exert himself to the utmost to stay their ravages. 
They were, however, speedily subdued, and the chiefs of the nation, even 
from beyond the Carpathian mountains, were glad to save themselves 
by making their submission and giving hostages to the emperor. The 
nation maintained its independence until near the close of the following 
century, when they were absorbed by the more powerful Goths, and 
ceased to be a separate people. — Id., p. 392. 



ROME — SUE VI, VANDALS. 



Rome, Its Barbarian Invaders: Saxons. — Saxons, a Teutonic race 
who lived along the banks of the Elbe and on the islands near its 
mouth in the second century. Ptolemy places them in the " Cimbric 
Chersonesus," near the Jutes and Angles; but they afterwards occupied 
a much larger extent, from the delta of the Rhine to the Weser. After 
the migration of the Saxons to Britain the name of " Old Saxons " was 
given to the parent stock. One very large body of Saxon population 
occupied the present Westphalia, but the tribes by which Britain was 
invaded appear principally to have come from the country now called 
Friesland — at least, of ail the Continental dialects, Frisic is nearest to 
the Anglo-Saxon of our ancestors. It was in the fifth and sixth centu- 
ries that the Saxons crossed to Britain and settled in the south of 
England, where the names Middlesex (Middle Saxons) Sussex (South 
Saxons), and Wessex (West Saxons) still bear witness to their influ- 
ence. Those who remained in Germany extended their territory south- 
ward by conquest; and it is this southern and mountainous :>art of the 
old kingdom that now bears the name of Saxony. After a long series 
of sanguinary conflicts they were completely subdued by Charlemagne. 
— Nelson's Encyclopedia, Vol. X, art. " Saxons," p. 607. 

Rome, Its Barbarian Invaders : Suevi. — Suevi, Germanic people or 
confederation. Caesar's Suevi inhabited the modern Baden, while Taci- 
tus places them to the north and east of that region: either they had 
migrated between 50 b. c. and 100 a. d., or Caesar met only a portion 
of the people. After 250 a. d. the name is used of the Germanic people, 
from whom the modern Swabians have derived their name. In later 
history they appear in alliance with the Alemanni and Burgundians, and 
hold the German side of Gaul and Switzerland; and even enter into 
Italy and Spain, in union with the Visigoths. — Nelson's Encyclopedia, 
Vol. XI, art. " Suevi," p. 524. 

It is probably from the Alamannic region that those Suebi came 
who joined the Vandals in their invasion of Gaul, and eventually 
founded a kingdom in northwest Spain. — Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. 
XXVI, art. " Suebi," p. 20, 11th edition. 

Those provinces [of the Iberian peninsula, Spain and Portugal] were 
now occupied or torn in pieces by a crowd of invaders, Suevi, Vandals, 
and Alans. . . . Early in the fifth century they [the Alans] possessed 
a domain in central Spain which stretched from sea to sea. Their 
dominion passed for a few years into the hands of the Suevi, who had 
already formed a settlement in northwestern Spain, and who still kept 
a dominion in that corner long after the greater part of the peninsula 
became Gothic. — "Historical Geography of Europe," E. A. Freeman, 
chap. 4, p. 90. London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1882. 

Rome, Its Barbarian Invaders : Vandals. — Vandals, a Germanic 
tribe, probably closely akin to the Goths. In history they first appear 
about 150 a. d., dwelling on the south coast of the Baltic and on the 
banks of the Oder. ... On the invitation of the Roman Bonifacius, in 
429 they invaded Africa under their king Genseric, or Gaiseric. . . . They 
built a fleet, ravaged Sicily, sacking Pallermo, and in June, 455, landed 
at the mouth of the Tiber, and plundered Rome from the 15th to the 
29th of June. . . . For years the Vandals continued to harry the Mediter- 
ranean coasts. They conquered the island of Sardinia, and, repulsing a 
Roman attack in 468, added Sicily to their rule. Their power was at 
its height when Genseric died (477). In his time the Vandals became 
Christians, but they were Arians, and fiercely persecuted orthodox be- 



RULE OF FAITH. 



457 



lievers and other heretics. In 533 the Byzantine general, Belisarius, 
landed in Africa. The Vandals were several times defeated, and Car- 
thage was entered on Sept. 15, 533; and in November of the same year 
they were routed in the decisive battle of Tricamaron. In the next year 
Africa, Sardinia, and Porsica were restored to the Roman Empire. As 
a nation, the Vandals soon ceased to exist. — Nelson's Encyclopedia, 
Vol. XII, art. " Vandals," pp. 380, 381.. 

The Arian heresy [of the Vandals] was proscribed, and the race of 
these remarkable conquerors was in a short time exterminated. A sin- 
gle generation sufficed to confound their women and children in the 
mass of the Roman inhabitants of the province, and their very name 
was soon totally forgotten. There are few instances in history of a 
nation disappearing so rapidly and so completely as the Vandals of 
Africa. — "History of Greece," George Finlay, Vol. I, p. 232. 

It is reckoned that during the reign of Justinian, Africa lost five 
millions of inhabitants; thus Arianism was extinguished in that region, 
not by any enforcement of conformity, but by the extermination of the 
race which had introduced and professed it. — " History of the Christian 
Church" J. C. Rooertson, Vol. I, p. 521. London: 1858. 

Rome, Babylon an Accredited Name for. — See Babylon, 61-65. 

Rome. — See Idolatry, 216-219; Images, 219, 220; Ten Kingdoms. 

Romulus Augustulus. — See Rome, 438, 451. 

Rule of Faith, Protestant View of. — The Old Protestant doctrinal 
position was, that the one source and norm of Christian teaching is 
the Word of God, which is contained in the prophetic and apostolical 
books of the Old and New Testaments. These books, therefore, have 
always been looked upon by the church of all lands and ages as canon- 
ical books and as the unequivocal and exclusive record of the revela- 
tions of God. — " Modernism and the Reformation," John Benjamin Rust, 
Ph. D., D. D., pp. 43, 44. New York: Fleming H. Revell Company. 

Rule of Faith, Roman Catholic View of. — The Catholic rule of 
faith, as I stated before, is not merely the written Word of God, but 
the whole word of God, both written and unwritten; in other words, 
Scripture and tradition, and these propounded and explained by the 
Catholic Church. This implies that we have a twofold rule or law, 
and that we have an interpreter, or judge, to explain it, and to decide 
upon it in all doubtful points. — " The End of Religious Controversy" 
Rev. J6hn Milner, D. D. (R. C), p. 61. New York: P. J. Kenedy. 

The whole business of the Scriptures belongs to the church. She 
has preserved them, she vouches for them, and she alone, by confronting 
the several passages with each other, and with tradition, authoritatively 
explains them. Hence it is impossible that the real sense of Scripture 
should ever be against her and her doctrine; and hence, of course, I 
might quash every objection which you can draw from any passage in 
it by this short reply: The church understands the passage differently 
from you: therefore you mistake its meaning. — Id., p. 85. 

Rule of Faith. — See Bible, citations from Confessions of Faith, 
76-78. 

Russia, Religious Liberty in. — See Advent, Second, 25. 



458 



SABBATH, BEGINNING OF. 



Sabbath, Made for the Human Race. — If we had no other passage 
than this of Genesis 2: 3, there would be no difficulty in deducing from 
it a precept for the universal observance of a Sabbath, or seventh day, 
to be devoted to God as holy time, by all that race for whom the earth 
and its nature were specially prepared. The first men must have known 
it. The words, " He hallowed it," can have no meaning otherwise. They 
would be a blank unless in reference to some who were required to keep 
it holy. — "A Commentary on the Holy Scriptures," John P. Lange, 
translation by Philip Schaff, Vol. I, p. 197. New York: Charles Scrib- 
ner's Sons, 1907. 

Sabbath, Established at Creation, Perpetuated. — The seventh 
day was hallowed at the close of the creation: its sanctity was after- 
ward marked by the withholding of the manna on that day, and the 
provision of a double supply on the sixth, and that previous to the giv- 
ing of the law from Sinai : it was then made a part of the great epitome 
of religious and moral duty, which God wrote with his own finger on 
tables of stone; it was a part of the public political law of the only 
people to whom almighty God ever made himself a political Head and 
Ruler; its observance is connected throughout the prophetic age with 
the highest promises, its violations with the severest maledictions; it 
was among the Jews in our Lord's time a day of solemn religious as- 
sembling, and was so observed by him. — "A Biblical and Theological 
Dictionary," Richard Watson (Methodist), art. " Sabbath," p. 829. New 
York: 1883. 

Sabbath, Set Apart for the Human Race. — " And sanctified it." 
Heb., EHp T , kadash. It is by this term that positive appointment of 
the Sabbath as a day of rest to man is expressed. God's sanctifying the 
day is equivalent to his commanding men to sanctify it. As at the close 
of creation the seventh day was thus set apart by the Most High for 
such purposes, without limitation to age or country, the observance of 
it is obligatory upon the whole human race, to whom, in the wisdom 
of Providence, it may be communicated. This further appears from 
the reason why God blessed and sanctified it, viz., " because that in it 
he had rested," etc., which is a reason of equal force at all times and 
equally applying to all the posterity of Adam; and if it formed a just 
ground for sanctifying the first day which dawned upon the finished 
system of the universe, it must be equally so for sanctifying every sev- 
enth day to the end of time. The observance of the day is moreover 
enjoined in the decalogue, which was not abolished with the peculiar 
polity of the Jews, but remains unalterably binding upon Christians in 
every age of the world. . . . The sanctification of the seventh day in 
the present case can only be understood of its being set apart to the 
special worship and service of God. — " Notes, Critical and Practical, on 
the Book of Genesis," George Bush (Presbyterian), Professor of Hebrew 
and Oriental Literature, New York City University, (2 vol. ed.) Vol. I, 
pp. 48, 49, note on Gen. 2:3. New York: Mark H. Newman, 1843. 

Sabbath, Creator's Example and Command. — By this is meant, 
1. The day appointed of God, at the close of creation, to be observed by 
man as a day of rest from all secular employment, because that in it 
God himself had rested from his work. Gen. 2: 1-3. Not that God's 
rest was necessitated by fatigue (Isa. 40: 28); but he rested, that is, 
ceased to work, on the seventh day as an example to man; hence as- 
signed it as a reason why men should rest on that day. Ex. 20: 11; 
31 : 17. God's blessing and sanctifying the day, meant that he separated 
it from a common to a religious use, to be a perpetual memorial or 



SABBATH, MEANING OP. 



459 



sign that all who thus observed it would show themselves to be the 
worshipers of that God who made the world in six days and rested on 
the seventh. Ex. 20: 8-11; 31: 16, 17; Isa. 56: 6, 7. 

2. The Sabbath is indispensable to man, being promotive of his 
highest good, physically, intellectually, socially, spiritually, and eter- 
nally. Hence its observance is connected with the best of promises, and 
its violation with the severest penalties. Ex. 23: 12; 31: 12-18; Neh. 
13: 15-22; Isa. 56: 2-7; 58: 13, 14; Jer. 17: 21-27; Eze. 20: 12, 13; 22: 
26-31. Its sanctity was very distinctly marked in the gathering of the 
manna. Ex. 16: 22-30. 

3. The original law of the Sabbath was renewed and made a prom- 
inent part of the moral law, or ten commandments, given through Moses 
at Sinai. Ex. 20: 8-11. — "Theological Compend," Amos Binney (Meth- 
odist), pp. 169, 170. New York: The Methodist Book Concern, 1902. 

Sabbath, Jewish Historian on. — Moses says, that in just six days 
the world, and all that is therein, was made, and that tnc seventh day 
was a rest, and a release from the labor of such operations; whence it 
is that we celebrate a rest from our labors on that day, and call it the 
Sabbath, which word denotes rest in the Hebrew tongue. — ''Antiquities 
of the Jews," Josephus, Whiston's translation, book, 1, chap. 1, sec. 1, p. 
25. London: Milner and Company. 

Sabbath, Set Apart at Creation. — When it is therefore said by the 
inspired historian, that God " sanctified the seventh day," I must under- 
stand him to say, that God set it apart (from the other six days of 
labor), to be religiously employed by man. — " The Obligation of the Sab- 
bath," Rev. J. Newton Brown, p. 48. Philadelphia: A. Hart, 1853. 

Sabbath, Meaning of Sanctify. — tfrjp. [in piel form] To make holy, 
to sanctify, to hallow. ... 2. To pronounce holy, to sanctify, e. g., the 
Sabbath (Gen. 2: 3); a people (Lev. 20: 8; 21: 8). Also to institute any 
holy thing, to appoint, e. g., a fast (Joel 1: 14; 2: 15); (parallel with 
h$2b mur» a festival (2 Kings 10: 20). — Gesenius, "Hebrew and English 
Lexicon," Edward Robinson, p. 914. Boston: Crocker and Brewster, 
1854. 

Sabbath, Its Observance Began at Close of Creation. — Common 
sense says that any commemorative institution should commence at or 
near the time of the event commemorated; whereas, this supposition of 
a mere prolepsis leaves " a great gulf," a vast oblivious chasm of more 
than two thousand years, between the creation and the Sabbath by 
which it was commemorated. And even then, to crown the climax of 
absurdity, it limits that commemoration of an event, in which the whole 
created race are equally interested, to the smallest fraction of that race! 
— " The Obligation of the Sabbath," Rev. J. Newton Brown, p. 49. Phila- 
delphia: A. Hart, 1853. 

Where is the example in Scripture of any instituted commemoration 
not beginning from the time of its appointment? . . . Did circumcision 
under the Old Testament, or baptism and the Lord's Supper under the 
New, remain in abeyance for centuries before they were acted upon? 
And shall the commemoration of the glories of creation be thought to be 
suspended for more than two thousand years after the occasion on which 
it was appointed had taken place? and especially as the reason for the 
celebration existed from the beginning; related to the whole race of 
mankind more than to the Jews, and was indeed most cogent immedi- 
ately after the creation? — " The Divine Authority and Perpetual Obliga- 
tion of the Lord's Bay" Daniel Wilson, pp. 46, 47. New York: J. Leavitt, 
1831* 



460 



SABBATH, UNIVERSALITY OF. 



Sabbath, Memorial of Creation.— As a memorial of that fact [the 
creation of the world], he set apart the Sabbath, kept it, sanctified 
and blessed it, for the benefit of all. . . . Thus the keeping of the Sab- 
bath makes God known, gives efficacy to his moral government. . . . 
It commemorates the work of God as Creator, Preserver, Benefactor, 
and Redeemer. — " The Sabbath Manual" Rev. Justin Edwards, D. D., 
pp. 16, 19, 22. New York: American Tract Society. 

Sabbath, Birthday of Completed World. — But after the whole 
world had been completed according to the perfect nature of the number 
six, the Father hallowed the day following, the seventh, praising it and 
calling it holy. For that day is a festival, not only of one city or one 
country, but of all the earth, — a day which alone is right to call the 
day of festival for all people, and the birthday of the world. — " The 
Works of Philo Judwus" translated by G. D. Yonge, Vol. I, in "On the 
Creation of the World," sec. 30. London: Henry G. Bohn, 1854* 

The most judicious commentators agree that Adam and Eve con- 
stantly observed the seventh day, and dedicated it in a peculiar manner 
to the service of the Almighty; and that the first Sabbath, which Philo 
(one of the most ancient writers) calls the birthday of the world, was 
celebrated in Paradise itself. — "An Illustrated History of the Holy 
Bible," John Kitto, p. 47, note. Norwich, Conn.: Henry Bell, 1868. 

Sabbath, Luther on Edenic Origin of. — Seeing the Scriptures men- 
tion the Sabbath before Adam, was not he then commanded to work 
six days and rest on the seventh? Doubtless so, for we hear that he 
should labor in Eden, and have dominion over the fishes, birds, and 
beasts. — "Sermons on Genesis," Martin Luther, (Erlanger ed.J Vol. 
XXXIII, pp, 67, 68; quoted in " History of the Sabbath," Andrews and 
Gonradi, p. 27. 

Sabbath, Lange on Cavil About Patriarchal Observance of. — To 
object that the Bible, in its few brief memoranda of their lives [of patri- 
archs after Noah], says nothing about their Sabbath keeping, any more 
than it tells us of their forms of prayer and modes of worship, .is 
worthless argument. The Holy Scripture never anticipates cavils; it 
never shows distrust of its own truthfulness by providing against ob- 
jections — objections we may say that it could have avoided, and most 
certainly would have avoided, had it been an untruthful book made 
either by earlier or later compilers. — " Commentary on the Holy Scrip- 
tures," John P. Lange, " On Genesis," p. 197. 

God instituted the Sabbath at the creation of man, setting apart 
the seventh day for that purpose, and imposed its observance as a uni- 
versal and perpetual moral obligation upon the race. — " The Day 
Changed and the Sabbath Preserved," Archibald Hodges, D. D., pp. 

3, 4. Philadelphia: Presbyterian Board of Publication, 1909 * 

Sabbath, Historical Evidences of Universality of. — The division 
of time into seven days is moreover very common among all ancient 
nations. This seems to indicate that they all received this institution 
from the same source, although the religious observance of it had been 
gradually neglected. 

From these facts I think we may conclude that the Sabbath was 
originally given to the whole human race, and that it was observed by 
the Hebrews previously to the giving of the law; and that, in early 
ages, this observance was probably universal. — " Elements of Moral 



SABBATH — DAYS OF CREATION. 



461 



Science," Francis Wayland (Baptist), p. 91. Boston: Gould and Lincoln, 
1873. 

Sabbath, Peize Essay on Universality of. — The Sabbath was 
made for all men, and was designed to be a universal and perpetual bless- 
ing. It was not made for any particular class or race of men, but for 
man, the generic man, the whole human family. — " The Lord's Day," 
A. E. Waffle, p. 163. Philadelphia: The American Sunday School Union, 
1885* 

Sabbath, Not " One Day in Seven " Only. — It is not true that the 
Sabbath law " fixes only the proportion of time " for rest. In every 
variety, and on every occasion of its enunciation, the law pertina- 
ciously requires a particular day for its observance; and by whatever 
means " the date of reckoning " and the identity of this period may be 
discovered, it is obvious that, if once ascertained, it becomes the ex- 
clusive object of the law's consideration, and engrosses its entire au- 
thority. It is not true that any or " every seventh day for devotional 
rest " will meet its requirements. Wherever the Sabbath is enjoined, 
with a remarkable reiteration it uniformly and expressly limits it to 
" the seventh day." The command leaves no crevice for evasion. — " Ob- 
ligation of the Sabbath;' W. B. Taylor, pp. 20, 21. Philadelphia, 1853* 

Sabbath, and Days of Creation Week. — There is no adequate 
reason for thus departing from the plain and natural sense of the 
record. . . . Nay, we ask, what has there ever teen discovered in the 
sea or on the land that may not be explained in entire harmony with 
it? On the other hand, indeed, the supposition that this day (the third) 
was a period of unmeasured and immeasurable duration, does involve 
us, among other serious difficulties, in the grave one of holding that 
herbs, shrubs, and trees flourished and blossomed, and matured seeds 
and fruits in darkness, even ages before the sun had ever once shone 
upon the face of the eartn; for the sun did not appear until the fourth 
period. . . . The fine " theories " and beautiful " visions " of mighty 
periods, that have been invented to relieve us of a few seeming difficul- 
ties connected with the sacred history, will be found without exception, 
when duly studied, to involve more numerous and vastly more serious 
difficulties, so far as the Bible is concerned. ... By forsaking the more 
simple and natural interpretation of this chapter, nothing is gained, 
much is lost, and everything is hazarded. — " Science and the Bible" 
Herbert W. Morris, pp. 81-86. Philadelphia: Ziegler & McCurdy, 1872. 

Now let it be carefully noted that, according to the Scriptures, 
those " days " had only two divisions; viz., darkness and light, divided 
only by evening and morning; i. e., the part that was called " day " was 
all light, and that part which was called " night " was all darkness. 
There is no escape from this. So that, according to the most recent of 
all these estimates, each " day " must have consisted of about five mil- 
lion years of unbroken darkness, followed by about five million years 
of unbroken light! 

Now, seeing that the trees and shrubs and grass were made on 
the third day, and the fowls and other living creatures on the fifth day, 
one naturally asks what became of the,se things after they were created? 
for it is certain that no vegetable creation could possible live — much 
less animal life — through five million years of unbroken light, any 
more than it could survive a similar period of unbroken darkness. 
And yet if we accept the period theory, this is what we should have to 
believe took place! — "All About the Bible" Sidney Collett, pp. 266, 
267. Neiv York: Fleming H. Rev ell Company. 



462 



SABBATH, FROM CREATION TO SINAI. 



Sabbath, A. Campbell, on the Patriarchal Rest Day. — The right- 
eous always remembered the weeks, and regarded the conclusion of the 
week as holy to the Lord. Hence, even after the apostasy, which issued 
in the neglect of family worship, in consequence of the sons of God 
intremarrying with the daughters of men, and which brought a flood 
of water upon the world of the ungodly — we find Noah religiously 
counting his weeks, even while incarcerated in the ark. In the Wilder- 
ness of Sin, before the giving of the law, we also find the Jews observing 
the Sabbath. — " The Christian System," Alexander Campbell, p. 135. 
Pittsburgh: Forrester and Campbell, 1839 * 

Sabbath, Marked the Week. — " In process of time it came to pass 
that Cain brought of the fruit of the ground an offering unto the Lord. 
And Abel, he also brought of the firstlings of his flock, and of the fat 
thereof." It is remarkable that what is here rendered " in process of 
time," is, in the Hebrew, "at the end of days; " and the inquiry is not 
without pertinency; at what "end of days" were those evidently cus- 
tomary offerings brought unto the Lord? On what occasion would these 
firstborn of the human race be so likely to present these their reli- 
gious services unto God, as on that day which God himself had blessed 
and sanctified; the Sabbath, the end of the week? Such an allusion to 
the Sabbath and the division of time into weeks is at least natural, 
and as much as could be expected in a historic sketch, which, for brev- 
ity, is wholly unparalleled among the writings of man. — " The Chris- 
tian Sabbath," Rev. John S. Stone, pp. 20, 21. New York: Alexander V. 
Blake, 1844 * 

Sabbath, Not Newly Ordained at Sinai. — The use of " remember," 
in connection with the fourth commandment, " implies that the weekly 
rest day was not a new institution." It was observed before Sinai was 
reached. " The Sabbath was a recognized institution long before the 
days of Moses. Traces of its strict observance in the ancestral home of 
Abraham are disclosed in the Assyrian records unearthed in these later 
days " (H. Clay Trumbull). — Henry T. Scholl, D. D., in New York Chris- 
tian Observer (Presbyterian), Dec. 24, 1913. 

Sabbath, " Remember." — This was the most ancient institution, 
Ged calls them to remember it; as if he had said, Do not forget that 
when I had finished my creation I instituted the Sabbath, and remember 
why I did so, and for what purposes. — "A Commentary and Critical 
Notes," Adam Clarke, Vol. I, p. 402, note on Ex. 20:8. New York: 
Phillips and Hunt. 

Sabbath, from Creation to Sinai. — The consecration of the Sab- 
bath was coeval with the creation. The first Scriptural notice of it, 
though it is not mentioned by name, is to be found in Gen. 2: 3, at the 
close of the record of the six days' creation. It has been maintained 
by some that this is only an anticipatory reference to the fourth com- 
mandment, because there is no record of the observance of the Sabbath 
between the creation and the exodus. But this is just in accordance 
with the plan of the Scripture narrative, in which regular and ordinary 
events are unnoticed. There are not wanting indirect evidences of its 
observance, as the intervals between Noah's sending forth the birds 
out of the ark, an act naturally associated with the weekly service 
(Gen. 8: 7-12), and in the week of a wedding celebration (Gen. 29: 
27, 28); but when a special occasion arises, in connection with the 
prohibition against gathering manna on the Sabbath, the institution 
is mentioned as one already known (Ex. 16: 22-30). — "A Dictionary of 



SABBATH, NOT CEREMONIAL. 



463 



the Bible," William Smith, p. 590, art. "Sabbath." Neiv York: Fleming 
H. Revell Company. 

Sabbath, Alexander Campbell on. — The seventh day was observed 
from Abraham's time, nay, from creation. The Jews identified their 
own history with the institution of the Sabbath day. They loved and 
venerated it as a patriarch usage. — " The Evidences of Christianity, a 
Debate Between Robert Owen and Alexander Campbell" p. 302. St. 
Louis: Christian Publishing Company, 1906. 

Sabbath, Did Not Originate in Wilderness. — As Ezekiel speaks of 
statutes and judgments given to the Israelites in the wilderness, some 
of which were certainly old statutes and judgments repeated and en- 
forced, so when he says that the Sabbaths were given to the Israelites 
in the wilderness^ he cannot be fairly accounted to assert that the Sab- 
baths had never been given till then. The fact indeed probably was, 
that they had been neglected and half forgotten during the long bond- 
age in Egypt (slavery being unfavorable to morals), and that the observ- 
ance of them was reasserted and renewed at the time of the promulga- 
tion of the law in the desert. In this sense, therefore, the prophet might 
well declare that on that occasion God gave the Israelites his Sab- 
baths. — " Undesigned Coincidences in the Old and Neiv Testaments," 
John J. Blunt, p. 27. New York: Robert Carter & Brothers. 

Sabbath, Fourth Commandment Part of Moral Code. — Inasmuch 
as, 1st, this precept belongs to the law of the ten commandments, of 
1 which all the others are considered universally obligatory: 2nd, as the 
reasons given are the same as those for its original institution; and 3d, 
as we find it frequently referred to in the prophets as one of the moral 
laws of God, we conclude that it is of unchangeable obligation. — " Ele- 
ments of Moral Science," Francis Wayland, pp. 92, 93. Boston: Gould 
and Lincoln, 1873. 

Sabbath, Fundamental Morality of. — We claim that the com- 
mand to keep the Sabbath is a part of the moral law, because it is 
placed in direct connection with other commands that are obviously 
moral. It is true that moral and positive precepts are sometimes spoken 
of in the same connection. This occurs in one or two condensed sum- 
maries of the commands which God had laid upon the Hebrew people. 
But the passage containing the decalogue is plainly not one of this 
kind. It is universally admitted that it is a summary of the moral 
law. — " The Lord's Bay" (Prize Essay), A. E. Waffle, p. 142. Philadel- 
phia: The American Sunday-School Union, 1885* 

Sabbath, The Fourth Precept Not Misplaced. — Every other com- 
mand in the decalogue is acknowledged to be of a moral nature. How 
happens it that the fourth should be an exception? It is not an excep- 
tion. So far from being " strictly ceremonial," it is eminently moral. 
— " The Obligation of the Sabbath," Rev. J. Newton Brown, p. 14. 
Philadelphia: A. Hart, 1853. 

Sabbath, Cannot be Ceremonial. — Of the law thus impressively 
given, the fourth commandment forms a part. Amid the same cloud of 
glory, the same thunders and lightnings, uttered by the same dread 
voice of the Infinite One, and graven by his finger, came forth these 
words as well: "Remember the Sabbath day to keep it holy." It is im- 
possible, in view of these facts, to class the Sabbath with the ceremonial 
institutions of Israel. By the sacred seal of the divine lip and finger, 



464 



SABBATH, NOT A FEAST DAY. 



it has been raised far above those perishing rites. — " The Abiding Sab- 
bath," George Elliott (Prize Essay), p. 118; quoted by George Fraziei" 
Miller in " Adventism Answered," p. 159. Brooklyn: Guide Printing and 

Publishing Company, 1905.* 

Sabbath, Not in Ceremonial Law. — We find that two distinct codes 
were written out and given to the people of Israel at Mt. Sinai. The 
first was written by God himself, on tables of stone; and the other was 
taken down from his mouth, and recorded by Moses. One is called the 
moral law; and the other, the ceremonial, or Levitical law. The latter, 
it is agreed on all hands, has " vanished away." But the fourth com- 
mandment ... is one of the ten, which were written on stone by the 
finger of God. The other nine are indisputably of universal and per- 
petual obligation. They are as strongly binding upon us as they were 
upon the men who beheld the fires and felt the quakings of Sinai. And 
how is it with the fourth, which enjoins the sanctification of the Sab- 
bath?" If it is not equally obligatory upon all men, why was it en- 
graved by the same divine hand, and on the same enduring tables? " — 
"Essays on the Sabbath," Heman Humphrey, pp. 25, 26. "New York: 
Jonathan Leavitt, 1829 * 

Sabbath, No Part of Ceremonial System. — The weekly Sabbath is 
a very early institution. It was appointed and observed the very first 
week of time. It is no part of the law of ceremonies, which law was 
occasioned by the entrance of sin; for the Sabbath was established be- 
fore sin had entered, and would have been obligatory on Adam and his 
offspring if sin had not been known among them. — "Discourses on the 
Sabbath," Seth Williston, pp. 11, 12. Paris, Ky.: John Lyle, 1818* 

Sabbath, Different from the Sabbatical Feasts. — The Hebrew 
word for feast in the verses quoted above [Ex. 23: 14-17; Deut. 16: 16] 
is Ghag, and is defined in Gesenius's Hebrew-English Lexicon as " a 
festival feast." The seventh-day Sabbath is never designated by Ghag. 
Another Hebrew word sometimes translated feast is Moed, which is 
defined by Gesenius as follows: "A set time, appointed season; festival 
day; coming together, assembly, congregation." Edersheim makes the 
following remark concerning these two words: "In Hebrew two terms 
are employed — the one, Moed, or appointed meeting, applied to all fes- 
tive seasons, including sabbaths and new moons; the other, Ghag, from 
a root which means ' to dance,' or ' to be joyous,' applying exclusively 
to the three festivals of Easter [Passover], Pentecost, and Tabernacles, 
in which all males were made to appear before the Lord, in his sanc- 
tuary." — " The Temple," p. 196. London: Hodder and Stoughton. 

Those ceremonial days were not to be observed until Israel should 
be settled in Canaan. The weekly Sabbath they were then bound to 
observe. They were called solemn feasts, set feasts; all of which were 
typical, and to be done away when Christ should finish the work of re- 
demption. Then, Jew and Gentile, when this partition wall should be 
broken down, must look to the moral law and the gospel of Jesus 
Christ as their guide, and keep only the Sabbath given to man in 
Eden. They were no longer to offer up sacrifices for sin, but accept of 
the sacrifice Christ offered once for all. — " The Sabbath," Harmon Kings- 
bury, p. 205. New York: Robert Carter, 1840* 

Sabbath, Never Associated, with New Moons and Feasts. — The 
Sabbath appears to be regularly distinguished from sabbaths; and as 
sabbaths are regularly joined with new moons and other holidays of the 



SABBATH, CHRIST'S ATTITUDE TOWARD. 465 



Jews, which the Sabbath never is, it is clear to me that the Sabbath is 
not alluded to in any of these instances. — President Timothy Dwight; 
quoted by Harmon Kingsbury in " The Sabbath," p. 195. New York: 
Robert Carter, 1840 * 

Sabbath, Not Jewish. — In every one of these respects [opportunity 
for rest, commemoration of creation, opportunity of increasing holiness 
before the fall, means of grace after the fall. — Eds.], the Sabbath is 
equally important and necessary to every child of Adam. It was no 
more necessary to a Jew to rest after the labor of six days was ended, 
than to any other man. It was no more necessary to a Jew to com- 
memorate the perfections of God, displayed in the works of creation; it 
was no more necessary to a Jew to obtain holiness, or to increase in it; 
it is no more necessary to a Jew to seek or to obtain salvation. What- 
ever makes either of these things interesting to a Jew in any degree, 
makes them in the same degree interesting to any other man. The 
nature of the command, therefore, teaches as plainly as the nature of 
a command can teach, that it is of universal application to mankind. 
It has, then, this great criterion of a moral precept, viz., universality of 
application. — " Theology Explained and Defended," a Series of Sermons 
by Timothy Dwight, (4 vols.) Vol. Ill, Sermon 105, p. 225, 6th edition. 
New York: G. d C. & H. Garvill, 1829. 

Sabbath, Christ's Attitude Toward. — Much has been made of the 
attitude of Christ in speech and deed toward the Sabbath. Some have 
imagined that by words he uttered and by deeds he did he relaxed 
the binding nature of the old command. This view, however, is to 
absolutely misunderstand and misinterpret the doing and the teaching 
of Jesus. — " The Ten Commandments," G. Campbell Morgan (Congre- 
gationalist), p. 50. New York: Fleming H. Revell Company. 1901. 

Sabbath, Not Abrogated by Christ. — The Great Teacher never 
intimated that the Sabbath was a ceremonial ordinance to cease with 
the Mosaic ritual. It was instituted when our first parents were in 
Paradise; and the precept enjoining its remembrance, being a portion 
of the decalogue, is of perpetual obligation. Hence, instead of regarding 
it as a merely Jewish institution, Christ declares that it " was made for 
man" or, in other words, that it was designed for the benefit of the 
whole human family. Instead of anticipating its extinction along 
with the ceremonial law, he speaks of its existence after the downfall 
of Jerusalem. [See Matt. 24: 20.] When he announces the calamities 
connected with the ruin of the holy city, he instructs his followers to 
pray that the urgency of the catastrophe may not deprive them of the 
comfort of the ordinances of the sacred rest. " Pray ye," said he, " that 
your flight be not in the winter, neither on the Sabbath day." — " The 
Ancient Church," W. D. Killen, pp. 188. 189. New York: Anson D. F. 
Randolph d Co., 1883. 

Sabbath, Christ as Lord of. — It seems as if some cannot think of 
power in connection with the Sabbath unless as exercised in abrogation. 
If it be placed in Christ's charge, they take it for granted that more 
or less extinction must be the consequence. They speak as if Christ's 
scepter were an ax, and the only question were how much it would 
hew down and devastate. We maintain, on the contrary, that Christ 
would not be the Lord of the Sabbath to be its destroyer. — " Cyclopedia 
of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature," McClintock and 
Strong, art. " Sabbath, Christian," p. 196* 

Sabbath, For Christians. — The Sabbath was appointed at the crea- 
tion of the world, and sanctified, or set apart for holy purposes, " for 



466 



SABBATH, JEWISH PERVERSION OF. 



man," for all men, and therefore for Christians; since there was never 
any repeal of the original institution. To this we add, that if the moral 
law be the law of Christians, then is the Sabbath as explicitly enjoined 
upon them as upon the Jews. — "A Biblical and Theological Dictionary,'" 
Richard Watson (Methodist), p. 829. New York: B. Waugh and T. 
Mason, 1832.* 

Sabbath, Jewish Perversion of. — The puerility of extreme Rab- 
binical legalism is seen in such restrictions as these: "None should 
eat an egg that is laid on the Sabbath, as the hen violated the fourth 
commandment in doing work on the Sabbath." When Christ with his 
disciples passed through the cornfields, the third rule was violated in 
plucking corn, as it was equivalent to threshing. Walking on the grass 
was also prohibited for a like reason. Even having nails in one's 
shoes while walking was considered equivalent to carrying a burden. 
One could mark down one letter of the alphabet, without violating the 
conception of the law, but it was wrong to mark down two letters. The 
Jews were not allowed to carry a mouthful of food two steps on the 
Sabbath day, as it would be bearing a burden. — " Scientific Basis of Sab- 
bath and Sunday," Robert John Floody, p. 118. Boston: Gupples and 
Shoenhof, 1901. 

They [the Pharisees] watched Christ, that they might discover some 
act for which they might condemn him as a transgressor. No crime 
did they oftener allege against him than that of violating the law of 
the Sabbath. When accused of this, he in no instance intimated that 
the law of the Sabbath is not of perpetual obligation. He performed no 
works on the Sabbath, but necessary works of mercy. These the law 
always admitted. Hence, in every instance in which the Pharisees ac- 
cused him of this crime, he effectually silenced them by appealing to 
the law itself; by reminding them of their own practical interpretation 
of the law; or by referring them to the conduct of some one who per- 
formed necessary works of mercy on the Sabbath, but whom they never 
thought of accusing as a transgressor. — Zephaniah Swift Moore, D. D., 
in a Sermon before the Legislature of Massachusetts, 1818, p. 3* 

Sabbath, Observance of, in Early Centuries. — Down even to the 
fifth century the observance of the Jewish Sabbath was continued in 
the Christian church, but with a rigor and solemnity gradually dimin- 
ishing until it was wholly discontinued. — " Ancient Christianity Exem- 
plified," Lyman Coleman, chap. 26. sec. 2, p. 527. Philadelphia: Lippin- 
cott, Grambo & Co., 1852. 

It is certain (and little do you know of the ancient condition of the 
church if you know it not) that the ancient Sabbath did remain and 
was observed (together with the celebration of the Lord's day) by the 
Christians of the East Church, above three hundred years after our 
Saviour's death. — "A Learned Treatise of the Sabbath," Edward Brere- 
wood, p. 77, London, 1630: cited in "A Critical History of the Sabbath 
and the Sunday," A. H. Lewis, D. D., pp. 130, 131. Alfred Centre (N. Y.): 
The American Sabbath Tract Society, 1886. 

The seventh-day Sabbath was . . . solemnized by Christ, the apos- 
tles, and primitive Christians, till the Laodicean Council did in a manner 
quite abolish the observation of it. . . . The Council of Laodicea [about 
a. d. 364] . . . first settled the observation of the Lord's day, and pro- 
hibited . . . the keeping of the Jewish Sabbath under an anathema. — 
" Dissertation on the Lord's Day," William Prynne (1633), pp. 33, 34, 
44; cited in "History of the Sabbath" J. N. Andrews, p. 362, 3d edition, 
Battle Creek, 1887. 



SABBATH, IN EARLY CENTURIES. 



467 



Sabbath, in Rome, Seventh Century. — It has come to my ears 
that certain men of perverse spirit have sown among you some things 
that are wrong and opposed to the holy faith, so as to forbid any work 
being done on the Sabbath day. What else can I call these but preachers 
of Antichrist? — Pope Gregory the Great, book 13, epistle 1, par. 2; 
" Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers," Vol. XIII, p. 92. New York: Chris- 
tian Literature Company, 1898. 

Sabbath, Held by Celtic Church, Scotland, Eleventh Century. — 
They worked on Sunday, but kept Saturday in a Sabbatical manner. 
— " History fo Scotland," Andrew Lang, Vol. I, p. 96 * 

They seem to have followed a custom of which we find traces in 
the early monastic church of Ireland, by which they held Saturday to 
be the Sabbath, on which they rested from all their labors. — " Celtic 
Scotland," William F. Skene, book 2. chap. 8 (Vol. II, p. 349). Edin- 
burgh: David Douglas, 1877. 

Note. — When the Catholic Queen Margaret, of England, married Malcolm 
of Scotland, 1069, she set herself to turn the Celtic Church from Sabbath keep- 
ing, succeeding too well, as told by her confessor and biographer, Turgot. — Eds. 

It was another custom of theirs to neglect the reverence due to 
the Lord's day, by devoting themselves to every kind of worldly busi- 
ness upon it, just as they did upon other days. That this was contrary 
to the law, she [Queen Margaret] proved to them as well by reason as 
by authority. " Let us venerate the Lord's day," said she, " because of 
the resurrection of our Lord, which happened upon that day, and let us 
no longer do servile works upon it; bearing in mind that upon this 
day we were redeemed from the slavery of the devil. The blessed Pope 
Gregory affirms the same. . . . The arguments of the queen were unan- 
swerable; and from this time forward those prudent men paid such re- 
spect to her earnestness that no one dared on these days either to carry 
any burden himself or to compel another to do so. — " Life of Queen Mar- 
garet," Turgot, sec. 20. (British Museum Library.) 

Sabbath, Twelfth and Thirteenth Century Victims of Intoler- 
ance. — We also believe that the reports about the Pasaginians rest 
partly upon misunderstanding; as, for example, that circumcision is 
said to have been practised among them. They rightfully belong to 
those sects who believed the Bible. — Renter's " Reportorium," Vol. LVI. 
p. 38* 

The account of their practising circumcision is undoubtedly a slan- 
derous story forged by their enemies, and probably arose in this way: 
because they observed the seventh day. — " History of the Baptist De- 
nomination," W. H. Erbkam, Vol. II, p. 414; cited in "History of the 
Sabbath," Andrews and Conradi, p. 551, 4th edition, 1912. 

Sabbath, in Abyssinia. — Because God, after he had finished the 
creation of the world, rested thereon; which day, as God would have it 
called the holy of holies; so the not celebrating thereof with great honor 
and devotion seems to be plainly contrary to God's will and precept, 
who will suffer heaven and earth to pass away sooner than his word; 
and that, especially, since Christ came not to destroy the law, but to 
fulfil it. It is not, therefore, in imitation of the Jews, but in obedience 
to Christ and his holy apostles, that we observe that day. . . . We do 
observe the Lord's Day after the manner of all other Christians in 
memory of Christ's resurrection. — Reason for keeping Sabbath, given by 



468 



SABBATH IN EUROPE. 



Abyssinian legate at the court of Lisbon (1534) ; quoted in " Church His- 
tory of Ethiopia," Geddes, pp. 87, 88; cited in "History of the Sabbath," 
Andreivs and Conradi, p. 562, 4th edition, 1912. 

Note. — The Abyssinians received the Eastern form of doctrine, supposedly, 
by missionaries from Alexandria in the fourth century. The Sabbath had not 
then been discarded as the day of rest, though the Sunday festival was observed. 
In the seventh century the rise of the Saracen power cut Abyssinia off from the 
knowledge of the world. Gibbon says : " Encompassed on all sides by the enemies 
of their religion, the Ethiopians siept near a thousand years, forgetful of the 
world, by whom they were forgotten." (Chap. 47, par. 37.) And when discovered 
by the Portuguese in the sixteenth century, they were found making the seventh 
day the day of rest, not having known of its being set fully aside in the course of 
apostasy. The Jesuit priests never rested until they persuaded the Abyssinian 
king (a. D. 1604) to submit to the Pope, and to prohibit Sabbath observ- 
ance. — Eds. 

Sabbath, in Pre-Reformation Norway. — The clergy from Nidaros, 
Oslo, Stavanger, Bergen, and Hamar, assembled with us in Bergen at 
this provincial council, are fully united in deciding in harmony with 
the laws of the holy church that Saturday keeping must under no cir- 
cumstances be permitted hereafter further than the church canon com- 
mands. Therefore, we counsel all the friends of God throughout all 
Norway who want to be obedient towards the holy church, to let this 
evil of Saturday keeping alone; and the rest we forbid under penalty 
of severe church punishment to keep Saturday holy. — From minutes of 
the Catholic Provincial Council, Bergen, A. D. 1435, in " Dipl. Norveg." 
7, 397; cited in "History of the Sabbath" Andrews and Conradi, p. 673. 
1912. 

Sabbath, in Reformation Times in Sweden and Finland. — We find 
traces of these Jewish doctrines throughout the entire Swedish kingdom, 
from Finland, northern Sweden, Dalarne, Westmanland, and Neriko, 
down to Westergotland and Smaaland. Even King Gustavus I was 
obliged to issue a special letter of warning against the error so general 
among the laity of Finland. — " The Swedish Church after the Reforma- 
tion," Norlin, Vol. I, p. 357; cited in "History of the Sabbath," Andrews 
and Conradi, p. 679. 1912. 

In the archbishopric of Upsala the peasants- also decided to keep 
Saturday instead of Sunday. In a few places they pressed the matter 
so urgently that their priests even agreed to grant their request by 
beginning to hold public services on Saturday. During the reign of 
King Gustaf Adolph we find this marvelous belief in many parts of 
Sweden. — "History of the Swedish Church," Norlin, Vol. II, p. 256; 
cited by L. H. Christian, in Review and Herald (Washington), May 5, 
1904. 

Sabbath, Bishop Anjou on Idea of Swedish Sabbath Revival. — 
The belief in the sacredness of a certain Sabbath day could without any 
connection with the religious movements of earlier times very easily 
raise the question if it wasn't Saturday that ought to be kept holy. The 
people very naturally began to think that the Sabbath law really had no 
binding force unless it was applied to that particular day which the Old 
Testament designates. The great liberty that seemed to be connected 
with Sunday keeping, the close application of the Old Testament which 
in those days was customary at the church services and Bible readings, 
and especially the common practice of following even in civil cases at 
law the law of God as given by Moses, — all these things led the people 
to study the commandment that demands the keeping of Saturday. 
One thing is certain: this belief in Saturday as the Sabbath did not 
generally stand alone; it was a part of the revival work of those days, 



SABBATH IN REFORMATION TIMES. 



469 



and was taught in connection with a message of warning against com- 
mon sins and vices. — " History of the Swedish Church" Bishop L. A. 
Anjou, p. 353, footnote; cited by L. H. Christian in Review and Herald 
{Washington), May 5, 1904. 

Sabbath, m Europe in Reformation Times. — The followers of Hans 
Spittelmaier [in Moravia, about 1529] received the name of '"Schwertler " 
(sword-bearers) and Sabbatarians. Leonhard Lichtenstein [one of the 
princes of Lichtenstein], held to the latter party. — " Geschichte der 
Bbhmischen Briider," Vol. I, p. 212; cited in " History of the Sabbath," 
Andrews and Conradi, p. 641, 4th edition, 1912. 

Notes. — This " History of the Sabbath *' adds : " Even most prominent men, 
as the princes of Lichtenstein, held to the observance of the true Sabbath. When 
persecution finally scattered them, the seeds of truth must have been sown by 
them in the different portions of the Continent which they visited. . . . We have 
found them [Sabbath keepers] in Bohemia. They were also known in Silesia and 
Poland. Likewise they were in Holland and northern Germany. . . . There were 
at this time Sabbath keepers in France, . . . ' among whom were M. de la Roque. 
who wrote in defense of the Sabbath against Bossuet, Catholic bishop of Meaux." 
That Sabbatarians again appeared in England by the time of the Reformation, 
during the reign of Queen Elizabeth (a. d. 1533-1603), Dr. Chambers testifies in 
his Cyclopedia [art. "Sabbath"]." — Pages 6^9, 650. 

In 1618 John Traske and his wife, of London, were condemned for the Sab- 
bath of the Lord, the man being whipped, and both imprisoned. He recanted 
under the pressure, after a year, but Mrs. Traske, a gifted school-teacher, was 
given grace to hold out for sixteen years, dying in prison for the word of the 
Lord. 

By 1661 Sabbath keepers in London had further increased. In that year 
•John James was minister to a considerable congregation, meeting in East London, 
off the Whitechapel Road. As part of proceedings against dissenting sects after 
the restoration of the monarchy, he was arrested and condemned to death on 
Tyburn Tree." His wife knelt at the feet of King Charles II and pleaded for 
her husband's life ; but the king scornfully rejected the plea, and said that the 
man should hang. Bogue says : 

"For once the king remembered his promise, and Mr. James was sent to 
join the noble army of martyrs." — " History of Dissenters/' Vol. I } p. 155. 

In 1683 Francis Bamfield — formerly an influential minister of the Church 
of England, but later pastor of a Sabbath-keeping congregation meeting in the 
Pinner's Hall, London — died of hardships in Newgate prison, for the Sabbath 
of the Lord. An old writer says that his body was followed to burial by " a very 
great company of factious and schismatical people," in other words, dissenters 
from the state church. 

" Sabbatarian Baptists," these English witnesses to God's Sabbath were 
first called in those times, and then Seventh-day Baptists. In 1664 Stephen 
Mumford, of one of these London congregations, was sent over to New England. 
He settled in Rhode Island, where the Baptist pioneer of religious liberty, Roger 
Williams, had founded his colony. In 1671 the first Sabbatarian church in 
America was formed in Rhode Island. Evidently this movement created a stir ; 
for the report went over to England that the Rhode Island colony did not keep 
the Sabbath — meaning Sunday. Roger Williams wrote to his friends in Eng- 
land denying the report, but calling attention to the fact that there was no 
Scripture for " abolishing the seventh day," and adding : 

" You know yourselves do not keep the Sabbath, that is the seventh day." — 
"Letters of Roger Williams/' Vol. VI, p. 3^6. Narragansett Club Publications. 
— Eds. 

Sabbath, on a Kound World. — 

And now to trace you round this rolling world, 
An eastern and a western route you've twirled, 
And made out nothing by the spacious travel, 
But what I call a wretched, foolish cavil. 
And now to make you clearly understand 
That Sabbath day may be in every land, 
At least those parts where mortal men reside 
(And nowhere else can precepts be applied), 
There was a place where first the orb of light 
Appeared to rise, and westward took its flight; 



470 



SABBATH, CHANGE OF. 



That moment, in that place the day began, 
And as he in his circuit westward ran, 
Or rather, as the earth did eastward spin, 
To parts more westward daylight did begin. 
And thus at different times, from place to place, 
The day began — this clearly was the case. 
And I should think a man must be a dunce 
To think that day began all round at once, 
So that in foreign lands it doth appear, 
There was a first day there as well as here. 
And if there was a first, the earth around, 
As sure as fate the seventh can be found. 
And thus you see it matters not a whit, 
On which meridian of earth we get, 
Since each distinctly had its dawn of light, 
And ever since, successive day and night; 
Thus while our antipodes in darkness sleep, 
We here the true, primeval Sabbath keep. 
— William Stillman, 1810, quoted in Review and Herald, Feb. 3, 1852. 

Sabbath — See Advent, Second, 22-25; Calendar. 

Sabbath, Change of, Neander on Sunday Festival. — Opposition 
to Judaism introduced the particular festival of Sunday very early, 
indeed, into the place of the Sabbath. . . . The festival of Sunday, like 
all other festivals, was always only a human ordinance, and it was far 
from the intentions of the apostles to establish a divine command in 
this respect, far from them, and from the early apostolic church, to 
transfer the laws of the Sabbath to Sunday. Perhaps, at the end of the 
second century a false application of this kind had begun to take place; 
for men appear by that time to have considered laboring on Sunday as 
a sin. — " The History of the Christian Religion and Church," Dr. Au- 
gustus Neander, p. 186, translation by Henry John Rose, B. D. (in one 
volume). Philadelphia: James M. Campbell & Co., 1843, 

Sabbath, Change of, Gladstone on the Sabbath "Deposed." — The 
seventh day of the week has been deposed from its title to obligatory 
religious observance, and its prerogative has been carried over to the 
first, under no direct precept of Scripture, but yet with a Biblical record 
of facts, all supplied by St. John, which go very far indeed towards 
showing that among the apostles themselves, and therefore from apos- 
tolic times, the practice of divine worship on the Lord's day has been 
continuously and firmly established. The Christian community took 
upon itself to alter the form of the Jewish ordinance, but this was with 
a view to giving larger effect to its spiritual purpose. — " Later Glean- 
ings,'" W. E. Gladstone, p. 342. London. 

Sabbath, Change of, Alexander Campbell on. — I do not believe 
that the Lord's day came in the room of the Jewish Sabbath, or that 
the Sabbath was changed from the seventh to the first day, for this plain 
reason, that where there is no testimony, there can be no faith. Now 
there is no testimony in all the oracles of heaven that the Sabbath was 
changed, or that the Lord's day came in the room of it. . . . There is no 
divine testimony that the Sabbath was changed, or that the Lord's day 
came in the room of it; therefore there can be no divine faith that the 
Sabbath was changed or that the Lord's day came in the room of it. — 
Alexander Campbell (Candidus), in Washington (Pa.) Reporter, Oct. 8, 
1821* 



SABBATH, CHANGE OF. 



471 



Sabbath, Change of, King Charles II on Authority for. — It 
will not be found in Scripture where Saturday is discharged to be kept, 
or turned into the Sunday; wherefore it must be the church's authority 
that changed the one and instituted the other; therefore my opinion is, 
that those who will not keep this feast [Easter] may as well return to 
the observation of Saturday, and refuse the weekly Sunday. — • Charles 
II; cited in " Sabbath Laics and Sabbath Duties," Robert Cox, F. S. A. 
Scot., p. 333. Edinburgh: Maclachlan and Stewart, 1853. 

Sabbath, Change of, How the Sunday Institution Crept in. — 
The Christian church made no formal, but a gradual and almost uncon- 
scious transference of the one day to the other. — " The Voice from 
Sinai," Archdeacon F. W. Farrar, p. 152* 

Bear in mind that the substitution [of the first for the seventh day] 
was not a coerced happening; it could not be a sudden, but only a very 
slow development, probably never anticipated, never even designed or 
put into shape by those chiefly interested, but creeping almost uncon- 
sciously into being — "A Day for Rest and Worship," William B. Dana, 
p. 174. New York: Fleming H. Revell Company. 

Sabbath, Change of, Eusebius on Transfer by Ecclesiastical 
Authority. — All things whatsoever that it was duty to do on the Sab- 
bath, these we have transferred to the Lord's day. — " Commentary on 
the Psalms," Eusebius; cited in " Commentary on the Apocalypse," 
Moses Stuart, Vol. II, p. 40. Andover: Allen, Morrill, and Wardwell, 
1845. ■ 

Sabbath, Change of, Action of Counch of Laodicea on (about 
a. d. 364). — Christians shall not Judaize and be idle on Saturday 
[Sabbath, original], but shall work on that day; but the Lord's day 
they shall especially honor, and, as being Christians, shall, if possible, 
do no work on that day. If, however, they are found Judaizing, they 
shall be shut out from Christ. — U A History of the Councils of the 
Church, from the Original Documents," Rt. Rev. Charles Joseph Hefele, 
D. D., Bishop of Rottenburg, book 6, sec. 93, canon 29 (Vol. II, p. 316). 
Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1896. 

Notes. — The translator has used the word " Saturday." The original has, 
of course, " Sabbath," as the seventh day was always called in ecclesiastical law, 
until modern times. 

Touching the authority of the Council, or as some prefer to call it, the Synod, 
of Laodicea, it may be remarked that while its ecumenical character is challenged 
in some quarters, its acts have never been called in question, and the sixty-four 
articles adopted by it are today practically a part of the canon law of the Roman 
Catholic Church. — Eds. 

Sabbath, Change of, The West Leads the Way in Setting Aside 
Recognition of Sabbath. — The people of Constantinople, and of sev- 
eral other cities, assemble together on the Sabbath, as well as on the 
next day; which custom is never observed at Rome, or at Alexandria. 
— "Ecclesiastical History," Sozomen, from A. D. 324-440, book 7, chap. 
19, p. 344. London: Henry G. Bohn, 1855. 

Almost all churches throughout the world celebrate the sacred mys- 
teries on the Sabbath of every week, yet the Christians of Alexandria 
and at Rome, on account of some ancient tradition, refuse to do this. — 

"Ecclesiastical History," Socrates (about A. D. 493), book 5, chap. 22, 
p. 289. London: George Bell & Sons, 1874. 



472 



SABBATH, CHANGE OF. 



Sabbath, Change of, Spread of Sun Worship in the Third Cen- 
tury. — Sun worship, however, became increasingly popular at Rome 
in the second and third centuries a. d. The sun-god of Emesa in Syria 
— Deus Sol invictus Elagabalus — was exalted above the older gods of 
Rome by the Emperor [Macrinus, a. d. 217, taking the name Elagabalus] 
who, as his priest, was identified with the object of his worship; and 
in spite of the disgust inspired by the excesses of the boy-priest, an 
impulse was given to the spread of a kind of " solar pantheism," which 
embraced by a process of syncretism the various Oriental religions and 
was made the chief worship of the state by Aurelian. — " Companion to 
Roman History," H. Stuart Jones, p. 302. 

It was openly asserted that the worship of the sun, under his name 
of Elagabalus, was to supersede all other worship. — " History of Chris- 
tianity, Henry Hart Milman, book 2, chap. 8, par. 22. 

Sabbath, Change of, Church Adopts Pagan Festivals. — It is 
not necessary to go into a subject which the diligence of Protestant 
writers has made familiar to most of us. The use of temples, and these 
dedicated to particular saints; . . . holy water; asylums; holy days and 
seasons, use of calendars, processions, . . . are all of pagan origin, and 
sanctified by their adoption into the church. — " Development of Chris- 
tian Doctrine," John Henry Cardinal Newman, p. 373. London: Long- 
mans, Green, & Co., 1906. 

Sabbath, Change of, The Accusation of a Fourth Century Non- 
Christian. — You celebrate the solemn festivals of the Gentiles, their 
calends and their solstices; and as to their manners, those you have 
retained without any alteration. Nothing distinguishes you from the 
pagans except that you hold your assemblies apart from them. — Faustus 
to St. Augustine (4th century); cited in " History of the Intellectual 
Development of Europe," John William Draper, M. D., LL. D., Vol. I, 
chap. 10, p. 310. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1876. 

Sabbath, Change of, Influence of Surrounding Paganism. — The 
early Christians had at first adopted the Jewish seven-day week, 
with its numbered week days, but by the close of the third century a. d. 
this began to give way to the planetary week; and in the fourth and 
fifth centuries the pagan designations became generally accepted in the 
western half of Christendom. The use of the planetary names by Chris- 
tians attests the growing influence of astrological speculations intro- 
duced by converts from paganism. . . . During these same centuries the 
spread of Oriental solar worship, especially that of Mithra, in the Roman 
world, had already led to the substitution by pagans of dies Solis for dies 
Saturni, as the first day of the planetary week. . . . Thus gradually a 
pagan institution was ingrafted on Christianity. — "Rest Days," Prof. 
Hutton Webster (University of Nebraska), pp. 220, 221. New York: The 
Macmillan Company, 1916. 

Sabbath, Change of, Mingling of Pagan and Christian Ideas in 
Promotion of Sunday. — Sunday (dies solis, . . . "day of the sun," be- 
cause dedicated to the sun), the first day of the week, was adopted by 
the early Christians as a day of worship. The " sun " of Latin adoration 
they interpreted as the " Sun of Righteousness." ... No regulations for 
its observance are laid down in the New Testament, nor, indeed, is its 
observance even enjoined. — Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious 
Knowledge, Vol. IV, art. " Sunday" p. 2259, 3d edition, 1891. New York: 
Funk & Wagnalls. 



SABBATH, CHANGE OF. 



473 



If we may believe the biographies in the Augustine history, a more 
ambitious scheme of a universal religion had dawned upon the mind of 
the emperor [Elagabalus (201-222), son of the senator Varius Marcellus]. 
The Jewish, the Samaritan, even the Christian, were to be fused and 
recast into one great system, of which the sun was to be the central 
object of adoration. — " History of Christianity, " Dean Henry Hart Mil- 
man, book 2, chap. 8, par. 20. 

The devotion of Constantine was more peculiarly directed to the 
genius of the sun, the Apollo of Greek and Roman mythology; and he 
was pleased to be represented with the symbols of the god of light and 
poetry. . . . The altars of Apollo were crowned with the votive offerings 
of Constantine; and the credulous multitude were taught to believe that 
the emperor was permitted to behold with mortal eyes the visible 
majesty of their tutelar deity. . . . The sun was universally celebrated 
as the invincible guide and protector of Constantine. — "A History of the 
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," Edward Gibbon, chap. 20, par. 
3 (Vol. II, p. 251). Neiv Yorfc: Harper d- Brothers. 

Sabbath, Change of, The Ancient Sun Festival Substituted. — 
The first day of the week, named after the sun, and therefore an evi- 
dent relic of sun worship. In French it is Dimanche, in Italian Do- 
minica, both from Dominus, " the Lord." Christians, with the exception 
of the Seventh-day Adventists, have substituted it as a day of rest and 
prayer in lieu of the Jewish Sabbath. — " Curiosities of Popular Cus- 
toms,''' 1 Win. 8 Walsh,, art. "Sunday," p. 901. Philadelphia: J. B. Lip- 
pincott Company, 1898. 

Sabbath, Change of, Dr. Hiscox's Solemn Question and Decla- 
ration. — There was and is a commandment to keep holy the Sabbath 
day, but that Sabbath day was not Sunday. It will be said, however, 
and with some show of triumph, that the Sabbath was transferred from 
the seventh to the first day of the week, with all its duties, privileges, 
and sanctions. Earnestly desiring information on this subject, which I 
have studied for many years, I ask, Where can the record of such a 
transaction be found? Not in the New Testament, absolutely not. 
There is no Scriptural evidence of the change of the Sabbath institution 
from the seventh to the first day of the week. 

I wish to say that this Sabbath question, in this aspect of it, is the 
gravest and most perplexing question connected with Christian insti- 
tutions which at present claims attention from Christian people; and 
the only reason that it is not a more disturbing element in Christian 
thought and in religious discussions, is because the Christian world has 
settled down content on the conviction that somehow a transference 
has taken place at the beginning of Christian history. . . . 

To me it seems unaccountable that Jesus, during three years' inter- 
course with his disciples, often conversing with them upon the Sabbath 
question, discussing it in some of its various aspects, freeing it from its 
false glosses, never alluded to any transference of the day; also, that 
during forty days of his resurrection life, no such thing was intimated. 
Nor, so far as we know, did the Spirit, which was given to bring to 
their remembrance all things whatsoever that he had said unto them, 
deal with this question. Nor yet did the inspired apostles, in preaching 
the gospel, founding churches, counseling and instructing those founded, 
discuss or approach this subject. 

Of course, I quite well know that Sunday did come into use in early 
Christian history as a religious day, as we learn from the Christian 
Fathers and other sources. But what a pity that it comes branded with 
the mark of paganism, and christened with the name of the sun god, 



474 



SABBATH, CHANGE OF. 



when adopted and sanctioned by the papal apostasy, and bequeathed as 
a sacred legacy to Protestantism ! — Dr. Edward T. Hiscox, author of 
" The Baptist Manual," in a paper read before a New York Ministers' 
Conference, held Nov. 13, 1893. 

Note. — The New York Examiner (Baptist) of Nov. 16, 1893, tells of the 
interest in discussing this paper, but does not print it. — Eds. 

Sabbath, Change of, Prophecy of Attempt (Dan. 7: 25). — "And 
think to change times and laws." Verse 25. The word rendered 
think ("^Q) means more properly to hope; and the idea here is that he 
hopes and trusts to be able to change times and laws. Vulgate, Putabit 
quod possit mutare tempora, etc. The state of mind here referred to 
would be that of one who would desire to produce changes in regard to 
the times and laws referred to, and who would hope that he would be 
able to effect it. If there was a strong wish to do this, and if there was 
a belief that in any way he could bring it about, it would meet what is 
implied in the use of the word here. There would be the exercise of 
some kind of authority in regard to existing times for festivals, or other 
occasions, and to existing laws, and there would be a purpose so to 
change them as to accomplish his own ends. 

The word " times " ( T^fti ) would seem to refer properly to some 
stated or designated time — as times appointed for festivals, etc. Gese- 
nius, " time, specially an appointed time, season." Eccl. 6: 1; Neh. 2:6; 
Esther 9:27, 31. Lengerke renders the word Fest-Zeiten, — "festival 
times," — and explains it as meaning the holy times, festival days, 
Lev. 23: 2, 4, 37, 44. The allusion is, undoubtedly, to such periods set 
apart as festivals or fasts — seasons consecrated to the services of re- 
ligion; and the kind of jurisdiction which the power here referred to 
would hope and desire to set up, would be to have control of these pe- 
riods, and so to change and alter them as to accomplish his own pur- 
poses, either by abolishing those in existence, or by substituting others 
in their place. At all times these seasons have had a direct connection 
with the state and progress of religion, and he who has power over them, 
either to abolish existing festivals, or to substitute others in their 
places, or to appoint new festivals, has an important control over the 
whole subject of religion, and over a nation. 

The word rendered laws here ( * n ~ ), while it might refer to any 
law, would more properly designate laws pertaining to religion. See 
Dan. 6: 6, 9, 13 [5, 8, 12]; Ezra 7: 12, 21. So Lengerke explains it as 
referring to the laws of religion, or to religion. The kind of jurisdiction, 
therefore, referred to in this place, would be that which would pertain 
to the laws and institutions of religion; it would be a purpose to obtain 
the control of these; it would be a claim of right to abolish such as 
existed, and to institute new ones; it would be a determination to exert 
this power in such a way as to promote its own ends. — " Notes on the 
Book of Daniel," Albert Barnes (Presbyterian), pp. 3.13, 314. New York: 
Leavitt & Allen, 1859. 

Sabbath, Change of, Melanchthon on the Prophecy of Dan. 7 : 
25. — He changeth the tymes and lawes that any of the sixe worke 
dayes commanded of God will make them unholy and idle dayes when 
he lyste, or of their owne holy dayes abolished make worke dayes agen, 
or when they changed ye Saterday into Sondaye. . . . They have 
changed God's lawes and turned them into their owne tradicions to he 
kept above God's precepts. — " Exposicion of Daniel the Prophete" Gath- 
ered out of Philipp Melanchthon, Johan Ecolampadius, etc., by George 
Joye, 1545, p. 119. (British Museum Library.) 



SABBATH, CHANGE OF. 



475 



Sabbath, Change of, Roman Catholic Catechisms on. — 
Ques. — Which is the Sabbath day? 
Ans. — Saturday is the Sabbath day. 

Ques. — Why do we observe Sunday instead of Saturday? 

Ans. — We observe Sunday instead of Saturday because the Catholic 
Church, in the Council of Laodicea (a. d. 336), transferred the solem- 
nity from Saturday to Sunday. — " The Convert's Catechism of Catholic 
Doctrine." Rev. Peter Geiermann, C. SS. R., p. 50, 2d edition, 1910. 
(This work received the "apostolic blessing" of Pope Pius X, Jan. 25, 
1910.) 

Note. — The precise year of the holding of the Council of Laodicea is a 
matter of considerable doubt. Some writers place it before the Council of Nicsea 
(325), while the Catholic Encyclopedia suggests that it was probably subsequent 
to the Council of Constantinople (381). Many old writers use a. d. 364. — Eds. 

Ques. — Have you any other way of proving that the church has 
power to institute festivals of precept? 

Ans. — Had she not such power, she could not have done that in 
which all modern religionists agree with her, — she could not have sub- 
stituted the observance of Sunday the first day of the week, for the 
observance of Saturday the seventh day, a change for which there is no 
Scriptural authority. — "A Doctrinal Catechism," Rev. Stephen Keenan : 
approved by the Most Reverend John Hughes, D. D., Archbishop of New 
York, p. 174. New York: Edward Dunigan & Brother, 1851. 

Ques. — By whom was it [the Sabbath] changed? 

Ans. — By the governors of the church, the apostles, who also kept 
it; for St. John was in Spirit on the Lord's day (which was Sunday). 
Apoc. 1: 10. 

Ques. — How prove you that the church hath power to command 
feasts and holy days? 

Ans. — By the very act of changing the Sabbath into Sunday, which 
Protestants allow of; and therefore they fondly contradict themselves, 
by keeping Sunday strictly, and breaking most other feasts commanded 
by the same church. 

Ques. — How prove you that? 

Ans. — Because by keeping Sunday, they acknowledge the church's 
power to ordain feasts, and to command them under sin; and by not 
keeping the rest [of the feasts] by her commanded, they again deny, 
in fact, the same power. — "An Abridgment of the Christian Doctrine " 
(R. C.J, Rev. Henry Tuberville, D. D., p. 58. New York: Edward Duni- 
gan and Brothers, approved 1833. 

Note. — What Roman Catholic authorities mean, when they say the Catholic 
Church changed the day of worship, is that the hierarchy, " the rulers of the 
church," beginning with the apostles and continuing on by councils and popes, 
established the Sunday festival. They freely admit that it is not by authority 
of the Scriptures ; for the Catholic doctrine gives to the hierarchy the power to 
command and appoint in place of Christ. In this claim is involved the whole 
issue of the gospel and of Protestantism vs. Catholicism. The record presented 
(see Apostasy ; Sabbath ; Sunday) shows how the multiplication of rites and cer- 
emonies began immediately after apostolic days, the spirit of the papal apostasy 
being already at work even in the time of the apostles. 2 Thess. 2 : 7. Thus 
when it is said that the Papacy or the Roman Catholic Church changed the day 
of worship, according to the prophecy, the change of necessity includes the earliest 
working of the spirit of lawlessness which was the beginning of the Papacy, and 
which later, in decrees of councils and by action of popes — when the church of 
the " falling away " was fully developed into the Roman Papacy — fully set aside 
the Sabbath of the Lord, and has ever maintained the Sunday festival as supreme, 
and as an institution solely of ecclesiastical authority. The prophecy of Dan. 
7 : 25 describes the rise of an ecclesiastical power that would " think " to do it. 
The fact attested by history is that the change has come about. — Eds. 



476 



SABBATH, CHANGE OF. 



Sabbath, Change of, " Rome's Challenge." — The Catholic Church 
for over one thousand years before the existence of a Protestant, 
by virtue of her divine mission, changed the day from Saturday to 
Sunday. We say by virtue of her divine mission, because he who called 
himself the " Lord of the Sabbath," endowed her with his own power to 
teach, "he that heareth you, heareth me; " commanded all who believe 
in him to hear her, under penalty of being placed with the " heathen 
and publican; " and promised to be with her to the end of the world. 
She holds her charter as teacher from him — a charter as infallible as 
perpetual. The Protestant world at its birth [in the Reformation of the 
sixteenth century] found the Christian Sabbath too strongly intrenched 
to run counter to its existence; it was therefore placed under the neces- 
sity of acquiescing in the arrangement, thus implying the church's right 
to change the day, for over three hundred years. The Christian Sabbath 
is therefore to this day, the acknowledged offspring of the Catholic 
Church as spouse of the Holy Ghost, without a word of remonstrance 
from the Protestant world. — The Catholic Mirror (Baltimore), Sept. 23, 
1893* 

Note. — The Mirror was the official organ of Cardinal Gibbons, and the 
article from which this is taken was one of a series of four, printed Sept. 2, 9. 
16, and 23, 1893, under the general heading: "The Christian Sabbath: the Gen- 
uine Offspring of the Union of the Holy Spirit and the Catholic Church His 
Spouse. The Claims of Protestantism to Any Part Therein Proved to be Ground- 
less, Self-contradictory, and Suicidal." These articles were subsequently printed 
by the Mirror as a tract. The Mirror was discontinued in 1908, and five years 
later was succeeded by the Catholic Review, which is now the organ of the 
archdiocese of Baltimore. — Eds. 

Sabbath, Change of, Claims of Power to Change God's Com- 
mandment. — You will tell me that Saturday was the Jewish Sabbath, 
but that the Christian Sabbath has been changed to Sunday. Changed! 
but by whom? Who has authority to change an express commandment 
of Almighty God? .When God has spoken and said, Thou shalt keep 
holy the seventh day, who shall dare to say, Nay, thou mayest work 
and do all manner of worldly business on the seventh day; but thou 
shalt keep holy the first day in its stead? This is a most important 
question, which I know not how you can answer. 

You are a Protestant, and you profess to go by the Bible and the 
Bible only; and yet in so important a matter as the observance of one 
day in seven as a holy day, you go against the plain letter of the Bible, 
and put another day in the place of that day which the Bible has com- 
manded. The command to keep holy the seventh day is one of the ten 
commandments; you believe that the other nine are still binding; who 
gave you authority to tamper with the fourth? If you are consistent 
with your own principles, if you really follow the Bible and the Bible 
only, you ought to be able to produce some portion of the New Testa- 
ment in which this fourth commandment is expressly altered. — "Li- 
brary of Christian Doctrine: "Why Don't You Keep Holy the Sabbath 
Day?" pp. 3, 4. London: Burns and Oates (R. C.J. 

Sabbath, Change of, Used as Maek of Church Authority. — If, 
however, the church has had power to change the Sabbath of the 
Bible into Sunday and to command Sunday keeping, why should it not 
have also this power concerning other days, many of which are based 
on the Scriptures — such as Christmas, circumcision of the heart, three 
kings, etc. If you omit the latter, and turn from the church to the 
Scriptures alone, then you must keep the Sabbath with the Jews, which 
has been kept from the beginning of the world. — "Enchiridion," Dr. 
Eck (Disputant against Luther), 1533, pp. 78, 79; cited in "History of 
the Sabbath," Andrews and Conradi, p. 587, 4th edition, 1912, 



SACRAMENTS. 



477 



Sabbath, Change of, The Change the Ba.dge of Authority of 
Tradition Above Scripture, — The Council [of Trent] agreed fully with 
Ambrosius Pelargus, that under no condition should the Protestants be 
allowed to triumph by saying that the council had condemned the doc- 
trine of the ancient church. But this practice caused untold tribulation 
without serving as a safeguard. For this business, to be sure, " almost 
divine prudence " was requisite — which was indeed awarded to the 
council on the sixteenth of March, 1562, by the Spanish ambassador. 
Really they could scarcely find their way in the many labyrinthian 
passages of an older and a newer comprehension of tradition, which 
were constantly crossing and recrossing each other. But even in this 
they were destined to succeed. Finally, at the last opening on the eight- 
eenth of January, 1562, their last scruple was set aside; the Archbishop 
of Reggio made a speech in which he openly declared that tradition 
stood above Scripture. The authority of the church could therefore not 
be bound to the authority of the Scriptures, because the church had 
changed Sabbath into Sunday, not by the command of Christ, but by 
its own a'uthority. With this, to be sure, the last illusion was destroyed, 
and it was declared that tradition does not signify antiquity, but con- 
tinual inspiration. — " Canon and Tradition," Dr. H. J. Holtzman, p. 263; 
cited in "History of the Sabbath" Andrews and Gonradi, p. 589, 4th 
edition, 1912. 

Sabbath, Change of, Sunday Observance Held Forth as Hom- 
age to Papal Authority. — It was the Catholic Church which, by the 
authority of Jesus Christ, has transferred this rest to the Sunday in 
remembrance of the resurrection of our Lord. Thus the observance of 
Sunday by the Protestants is an homage they pay, in spite of themselves, 
to the authority of the [Catholic] church. — " Plain Talk About the Prot- 
estantism of Today," by Mgr. Segur, p. 213. Boston: Thomas B. Noonan 
& Co., 1868. Imprimatur, Joannes Josephus. 

Sabbath, Change of, Corruption of Doctrine and Practice in 
Early Centuries. — See Apostasy, the Great. 

Sabbath, Change of, Uniting of Pagan and Christian. — See Sun- 
day; Sunday Laws. 

Sabbath Reform. — See Advent, Second, 22-26. 

Sacraments. — The name " sacrament " is given to seven sacred 
Christian rites in the Roman Catholic and Eastern churches, and to 
two, baptism and the Lord's Supper, in the Protestant churches. The 
Greek word mysterion, " mystery," used in the Eastern Church to des- 
ignate these rites, is taken from the New Testament, and contains a 
reference to the hidden virtue behind the outward symbol. The Latin 
word sacramentum means something that is consecrated, more particu- 
larly an oath, especially a military oath of allegiance to the standard; 
and also the sum of money deposited in court by the plaintiff and 
defendant previous to the trial of a case,' and kept in some sacred place. 
The term was applied to Christian rites in the time of Tertullian, but 
cannot be traced further back by any distinct testimony. Jerome trans- 
lated the Greek word mysterion by sacramentum (Eph. 1: 9; 3: 3, 9; 
5: 32; 1 Tim. 3: 16; Rev. 1: 20), and from the Vulgate the word "sac- 
rament" passed into the Reims Version in Eph. 5: 32, where marriage 
is spoken of, and the translation is, " This is a great sacrament." Tn 
other cases the Reims Version retains the word " mystery." 



478 



SACRAMENTS. 



The doctrine of the sacraments was not fully developed till the 
Middle Ages, and the Schoolmen did for it what the church Fathers did 
for the doctrines of the Trinity and for Christology. With the excep- 
tion of Augustine, none of the Fathers gave more than passing attention 
to the definition and doctrine of sacraments; but the Eastern Church 
held that there were two sacraments, baptism and the eucharist, al- 
though later the number seven was accepted. . . . 

The first blow against the sacramental system of the medieval 
church was given by Luther in his " Babylonish Captivity," in which 
he declared the rights and liberties of the Christian believer to be fet- 
tered by the traditions of men. He rejected all the sacraments except 
baptism and the Lord's Supper, and was followed in this by all the 
Reformers of the continent and Great Britain. All the Protestant con- 
fessions demand active faith as a condition of the efficacy of the sacra- 
ment. Faith apprehends and appropriates the spiritual benefits accru- 
ing from them. — The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious 
Knowledge, Vol. X, art. " Sacrament,'" pp. 141-143. New York: Funk 
and Wagnalls Company. 

Sacraments, Canons on the. — Canon I. If any one saith that the 
sacraments of the new law were . not all instituted by Jesus Christ our 
Lord; or that they are more or less than seven, to wit: Baptism, con- 
firmation, the eucharist, penance, extreme unction, order, and matri- 
mony; or even that any one of these seven is not truly and properly 
a sacrament; let him be anathema. 

Canon IV. If any one saith that the sacraments of the new law are 
not necessary unto salvation, but superfluous; and that without them, 
or without the desire thereof, men obtain of God through faith alone 
the grace of justification; though all (the sacraments) are not indeed 
necessary for every individual; let him be anathema. 

Canon VI. If any one saith that the sacraments of the new law do 
not contain the grace which they signify; or that they do not confer 
that grace on those who do not place an obstacle thereunto; as though 
they were merely outward signs of grace or justice received through 
faith, and certain marks of the Christian profession, whereby believers 
are distinguished amongst men from unbelievers; let him be anathema. 

Canon VIII. If any one saith that by the said sacraments of the 
new law grace is not conferred through the act performed, but that 
faith alone in the divine promise suffices for the obtaining of grace; 
let him be anathema. 

Canon IX. If any one saith that in the three sacraments, baptism, 
to wit, confirmation, and order, there is not imprinted in the soul a 
character, that is, a certain spiritual and indelible sign, on account of 
which they cannot be repeated; let him be anathema. 

Canon XL If any one saith that in ministers, when they effect and 
confer the sacraments, there is not required the intention at least of 
doing what the church does; let him be anathema. 

Canon XII. If any one saith that a minister, being in mortal sin,— 
if so be that he observe all the essentials which belong to the effecting 
or conferring of the sacrament, — neither effects nor confers the sacra- 
ment; let him be anathema. — " Dogmatic Canons and Decrees," pp. 
59-62. New York: The Devin- Adair Company, 1912. 

Sacraments, Definition of. — That the sacraments are amongst the 
means of obtaining salvation and righteousness no one can doubt. But 
although there are many ways that may seem apt and appropriate to 
explain this matter, none points it out more plainly and clearly than 



SACRAMENTS. 



479 



the definition given by St. Augustine, which all scholastic doctors have 
since followed: "A sacrament," says he, "is a sign of a sacred thing; " 
or, as has been said in other words, but to the same purport: " A sac- 
rament is a visible sign of an invisible grace, instituted for our justi- 
fication." — " Catechism of the Council of Trent''' J. Donovan, D. D. 
(R. CJ, p. 127.. Dublin: James Duffy, Sons d- Co. 

Sacraments, Number of. — The sacraments, then, of the Catholic 
Church are seven, as is proved from the Scriptures, is handed down to 
us by the tradition of the Fathers, and is testified by the authority of 
councils. 

But why they are neither more nor less in number may be shown, 
with some probability, even from the analogy that exists between nat- 
ural and spiritual life. In order to live, to preserve life, and to con- 
tribute to his own and to the public good, these seven things seem 
necessary to man — namely, to be born, to grow, to be nurtured, to be 
cured when sick, to be strengthened when weak; next, as regards the 
commonwealth, that magistrates, by whose authority and power it may 
be governed, be never wanting; and, finally, to perpetuate himself and 
his species by the propagation of legitimate offspring. 

Analogous, then, as all those things obviously are to that life by 
which the soul lives to God, from them will be easily inferred the num- 
ber of the sacraments. For the first is baptism, the gate, as it were, 
to all the rest, by which we are born again to Christ. The next is 
confirmation, by virtue of which we grow up, and are strengthened in 
divine grace; for, as St. Augustine bears witness: " To the apostles, who 
had been already baptized, the Lord said: 'Stay you in the city till 
you be endued with power from on high.' " The third is the eucharist, 
by which, as by a truly celestial food, our spirit is nurtured and sus- 
tained; for of it the Saviour has said: "My flesh is meat indeed, and 
my blood is drink indeed." John 6:56 [55]. Penance follows in the 
fourth place, by the aid of which lost health is restored, after we have 
received the wounds of sin. The fifth is extreme unction, by which the 
remains of sin are removed, and the energies of the soul are invigor- 
ated; for, speaking of this sacrament, St. James has testified thus: " If 
he be in sins, they shall be forgiven him." James 5: 15. Order follows, 
by which power is given to exercise perpetually in the church the public 
ministry of the sacraments, and to perform all the sacred functions. 
Lastly, is added matrimony, that, by the legitimate and holy union of 
man and woman, children may be procreated, and religiously brought 
up to the worship of God, and the conservation of the human race. 
Eph. 5: 31, sq — Id., pp. 135. 136. 

Sacraments, Efficacy of. — A sacrament is defined, by the cate- 
chism of the Council of Trent, to be an outward sign, which, in virtue 
of the divine ordinance, not only typifies, but works, the supersensual; 
to wit, holiness and justice. — " Symbolism," John Adam Moehler, D. D. 
(R. C), p. 202. London: Thomas Baker, 1906. 

As regards the mode in which the sacraments confer on us sanc- 
tifying grace, the Catholic Church teaches that they work in us, by 
means of their character, as an institution prepared by Christ for our 
salvation (ex opere operato, scilicet a Christo, in place of quod operatus 
est Christus), that is to say, the sacraments convey a divine power, 
merited for us by Christ, which cannot be produced by any human dis- 
position, by any spiritual effort or condition; but is absolutely, for 
Christ's sake, conferred by God through their means. — Id., p. 203. 



480 



SAINTS, WORSHIP OF. 



Sacraments, Reformers* Views of the. — Different as the views of 
the Reformers at this time still were in regard to the import of the sac- 
raments, and especially of the Lord's Supper, the leaders of the Refor- 
mation, consistently with their doctrine concerning the Word of God and 
faith, agreed in maintaining that a mere outward participation in the 
sacraments was in itself insufficient for salvation; they opposed the doc- 
trine of the opus operatum, and insisted, in this connection as in others, 
upon the requisiteness of a living faith. In rejecting the sacrifice of the 
mass as a repetition of Christ's sacrifice, and in abolishing masses for 
departed souls, the Reformers acted in harmony, under the influence 
both of the Scriptural principle, which is ignorant of such sacrificial 
transactions under the new covenant, and of the material principle of 
reform, which beholds in the death of Jesus a perfect sacrifice, and 
regards the forgiveness of sins as dependent on faith in that one offer- 
ing. — "History of the Reformation in Germany and Switzerland 
Chiefly," Dr. K. R. Hagenbach, Vol. II, p. 149. Edinburgh: T. & T. 
Clark, 1879. 

Sacred Books, of the East. — See Bible, 92, 93. 
Safe-Conducts. — See Heretics, 205. 

Saints and Images, Decree of Trent Concerning. — The Holy 
Synod enjoins on all bishops and others who sustain the office and 
charge of teaching that, agreeably to the usage of the catholic and apos- 
tolic church, received from the primitive times of the Christian reli- 
gion, and agreeably to the consent of the holy Fathers, and to the 
decrees of sacred councils, they especially instruct the faithful diligently 
concerning the intercession and invocation of saints; the honor (paid) 
to relics; and the legitimate use of images; teaching them that the 
saints, who reign together with Christ, offer up their own prayers to 
God for men; that it is good and useful suppliantly to invoke them, 
and to have recourse to their prayers, aid, and help for obtaining bene- 
fits from God, through his Son, Jesus Christ our Lord, who is our alone 
Redeemer and Saviour. . . . Also that the holy bodies of holy martyrs, 
and of others now living with Christ, which bodies were the living 
members of Christ and the temple of the Holy Ghost, and which are by 
him to be raised unto eternal life and to be glorified, are to be vener- 
ated by the faithful, through which (bodies) many benefits are bestowed 
by God on men. . . . Moreover, that the images of Christ, of the 
Virgin Mother of God, and of the other saints are to be had and to 
be retained particularly in temples, and that due honor and veneration 
are to be given them; not that any divinity or virtue is believed to 
be in them, on account of which they are to be worshiped; or that 
anything is to be asked of them; or that trust is to be reposed in 
images, as was of old done by the Gentiles who placed their hope in 
idols; but because the honor which is shown them is referred to the 
prototypes which those images represent; in such wise that by the 
images which we kiss, and before which we uncover the head, and pros- 
trate ourselves, we adore Christ; and we venerate the saints whose 
similitude they bear; as, by the decrees of councils, and especially the 
second Synod of Nicsea, has been defined against the opponents of 
images. — "Dogmatic Canons and Decrees," pp. 167-169. New York: The 
Devin-Adair Company, 1912. 

Saints, Worship of. — By the rod of persecution the Christians 
were in some degree kept in the right path: but in the times of Con- 
stantine, when public persecution had ceased, worldliness and super- 



SAINTS, WORSHIP OP. 



481 



stition openly took the lead. The effusion of the Spirit was small, and 
the standard of piety became proportionally low. Then priestly power 
and monkery asserted their sway, and Mariolatry began to come into 
prominence. And, while glorying in the faith of their martyred prede- 
cessors, the early Christians soon passed from venerating their mem- 
ories to worshiping their bones. Then, as Jortin remarks: " Itinerant 
monks, as peddlers, hawked their relics about the country, and their 
graves became the haunts of superstition. The Fathers of those times 
— Athanasius, Gregory Nazienzen, and others, but particularly Chrysos- 
tom with his popular eloquence — contributed to the utmost of their 
power to encourage the superstitious invocation of saints, the love of 
monkery, and the belief in miracles wrought by monks and relics. 
Some of these Fathers were valuable men; but this was the disease of 
their age, and they were not free from it. In the fourth century they 
usually introduced an irregular worship of saints on the following 
plea: ' Why should not we Christians show the same regard to our 
saints as the pagans do to their heroes? ' The transition from lawful 
to unlawful veneration was easily made. As the pagans from honoring 
their heroes went on to deify them, so it was easy to see that, unless 
restrained, the Christians would conduct themselves in much the same 
manner towards their saints. And the Fathers gave the evil encour- 
agement by their many indiscretions. Praying at the tombs of the 
martyrs was one of those fooleries which the Fathers should have re- 
strained. What an idea did it give of the Almighty to weak Chris- 
tians! As if he would show more favor to their petition because it 
was offered at a place where a good man lay buried! " — "Remarks on 
Ecclesiastical History,'" Vol. Ill, pp. 7-17 ; quoted in "Rome: Pagan and 
Papal" Mourant Brock. M. A., pp. 15, 16. London: Hodder and Stough- 
ton, 1883. 

Saints, Worship of, a Modern Teaching. — It may be just re- 
marked here, as showing how modern this sort of thing is, that the 
most popular of all devotions to the Blessed Virgin, the Angelus, does 
not appear to have been used at all till Pope John XXII instituted it 
in 1316; while its latter clause, " Holy Mary, Mother of God, pray for us 
sinners now and in the hour of our death," cannot be found earlier than 
1507, and was first sanctioned for general use by a bull of Pius V, July 
7, 1568: while the use of the Ave Maria before sermons is due to St. 
Vincent Ferrer (1419). — "Plain Reasons Against Joining the Church of 
Rome," Richard Frederick Littledale, LL. D., D. C. L., p. 33. London: 
Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1905. 

Saints, Worship of, Refused. — We have only four examples in the 
New Testament of acts of reverence being done to saints, and all in these 
cases they were promptly rejected and forbidden, showing that they 
were offensive to the saints, as savoring of disloyalty to that God whom 
they love and serve. 

" And as Peter was coming in, Cornelius met him, and fell down at 
his feet, and worshiped him. But Peter took him up, saying, Stand up: 
I myself also am a man." Acts 10: 25, 26. 

" Then the priest of Jupiter . . . would have done sacrifice with the 
people; which when the apostles, Barnabas and Paul, heard of, they 
rent their clothes, and ran in among the people, crying out, and saying. 
Sirs, why do ye these things? We also are men of like passions with 
you, and preach unto you that ye should turn from these vanities to 
serve the living God." Acts 14: 13-15. 

" And I [John] fell at his [the angel's] feet to worship him. And 
he said unto me, See thou do it not; I am thy fellow servant, and 
31 



482 



SAINTS, WORSHIP OF. 



of thy brethren that have the testimonv of Jesus: worship God." 
Rev. 19: 10. 

" I fell down to worship before the feet of the angel which showed 
me these things. Then saith he unto me, See thou do it not, for I am 
thy fellow servant: . . . worship God." Rev. 22: 8, 9. — "Plain Rea- 
sons Against Joining the Church of Rome'' Richard Frederick Little- 
dale, LL. D., D. C. L., p. 29. London: Society for Promoting Christian 
Knowledge, 1905. 

Saints, Worship of, a Profane Spectacle. — If, in the beginning of 
the fifth century, Tertullian or Lactantius had been suddenly raised 
from the dead, to assist at the festival of some popular saint or martyr, 
they would have gazed with astonishment and indignation on the pro- 
fane spectacle which had succeeded to the pure and spiritual worship 
of a Christian congregation. As soon as the doors of the church were 
thrown open, they must have been offended with the smoke of incense, 
the perfume of flowers, and the glare of lamps and tapers, which dif- 
fused, at noonday, a gaudy, superfluous, and, in their opinion, a sacri- 
legious light. If they had approached the balustrade of the altar, they 
would have had to make their way through the prostrate crowd, con- 
sisting for the most part of strangers and pilgrims, who resorted to the 
city on the vigil of the feast; and who already felt the strong intoxica- 
tion of fanaticism, and perhaps of wine. Their devout kisses were im- 
printed on the walls and pavement of the sacred edifice; and their fer- 
vent prayers were directed, whatever might be the language of their 
church, to the bones, the blood, or the ashes of the saint. . . . When- 
ever they undertook any distant or dangerous journey, they requested 
that the holy martyrs would be their guides and protectors on the road; 
and if they returned without having experienced any misfortune, they 
again hastened to the tombs of the martyrs to celebrate, with grateful 
thanksgivings, their obligations to the memory and relics of those 
heavenly patrons. The walls were hung round with symbols of the 
favors they had received: eyes, and hands, and feet of gold and silver; 
and edifying pictures, which could not long escape the abuse of indis- 
creet or idolatrous devotion, represented the image, the attributes, and 
the miracles of the tutSlar saint. — "Rome: Pagan and Papal," Mourant 
Brock, M. A., p. 21. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1883. 

Saints, Effect of Worship of. — That the exclusive worship of 
saints, under the guidance of an artful, though illiterate priesthood, de- 
graded the understanding and begot a stupid credulity and fanaticism, 
is sufficiently evident. But it was also so managed as to loosen the 
bonds of religion and pervert the standard of morality. . . . This mon 
strous superstition grew to its height in the twelfth century. — " History 
of Europe During the Middle Ages" Henry Hallam, Vol. Ill, pp. 31, 32. 
New York: The Colonial Press, 1900. 

St. Bartholomew. — See Massacre of St. Bartholomew; Papal Su- 
premacy, 364; Persecution, 374. 

Samaritans, Origin of. — See Ten Tribes. 

Sanctuary.— See Advent, Second, 17, 21, 22; Priesthood, 393. 
Saracens. — See Seven Trumpets, 507-513. 
Sardican Canon. — See Forgeries, 171. 
Sargon n. — See Ten Tribes, 557. 



SCHISM, THE GREAT. 



483 



Satan. — See Azazel. 

Saxons. — See Rome, 438, 441, 442. 

Schism, The Great, Protestant View of. — Only once after this 
period [twelfth century] did a papal schism occur in the Roman Church, 
and it agitated and shattered the church as no other. Because of its 
long duration (1378-1429), it was styled the "Great Papal Schism." 
After the death of Gregory XI, 1378, who had restored the papal resi- 
dence to Rome, the sixteen cardinals then present in Rome elected, 
April 8, Archbishop Bartholomew of Bari as Pope Urban VI. However, 
he had embittered some of the cardinals through gross harshness and 
indiscriminate censure of. prevalent abuses in the college of cardinals 
and in the Curia. Therefore a quota of cardinals, thirteen in number, 
who had betaken themselves to Avignon, elected, September 20, Cardi- 
nal Robert of Geneva as Pope Clement VII, affirming that the election 
of Urban VI was invalid on account of the coercion brought to bear 
against them by the population of Rome. In Italy, nevertheless, public 
sentiment continued overwhelmingly in favor of Urban VI, while Ger- 
many, England, Denmark, and Sweden also sided with him. On the 
other hand, Clement VII soon became acknowledged by France; and 
after he had transferred his residence to Avignon, French influence also 
contrived to draw Scotland, Savoy, and later Castile, Aragon, and 
Navarre to his cause. Thus two popes were arrayed one against the 
other. Each had his own college of cardinals, thus affording a protrac- 
tion of the schism by means of new papal elections. Urban VI was 
followed by Boniface IX (1389-1404); Innocent VIII (1404-06); and 
Gregory XII (1406-15). After Clement VII, in 1394, came Benedict XIII. 

The Papacy having shown itself incapable of abating the schism, 
the only expedient was the convening of a general council. This assem- 
bled at Pisa, in 1408, and the delegates sat from the start in common 
accord. Though the council deposed both Gregory XII and Benedict 
XIII, and elected in their place Alexander V, who was succeeded in 
1410 by John XXIII, this procedure failed to stop the schism. The two 
former popes asserted themselves so that the church now had three 
popes. The futility of the Council of Pisa led to the convocation of the 
Council of Constance (1414-18). In 1415 this declared that, as repre- . 
sentative organ of the ecumenical church, it possessed the supreme 
ecclesiastical authority, and every one, even the Pope, must yield obe- 
dience. In the same year, accordingly, it deposed John XXIII, and 
again declared Benedict XIII as a schismatic to have forfeited his right 
to the papal see. With the election of Martin V, which took place 
Nov. 11, 1417, by action of the duly appointed conciliar deputation, the 
schism was practically terminated, though not absolutely ended until 
1429; for Benedict XIII, though almost wholly forsaken, defied the 
sentence of deposition as long as he lived (d. 1424); and Canon ^Egi- 
dius Munoz of Barcelona, whom the few cardinals that lingered with , 
Benedict elected as Clement VIII, did not relinquish his dignity until 
five years after. — The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious 
Knowledge, Vol. X, art. " Schism," pp. 238, 239. 

Schism, The Great, Roman Cathoeic View of. — The Western 
Schism was only a temporary misunderstanding, even though it com- 
pelled the church for forty years to seek its true head; it was fed by 
politics and passions, and was terminated by the assembling of the 
Councils of Pisa and Constance. — The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. XIII. 
art. " Schism" p. 539. 



484 



SCRIPTURES. 



Schism, The Great, Effects of. — But, at any rate, this much can 
be said in palliation, that all these disputes were settled somehow; and, 
right or wrong, one pope always obtained final recognition, except in 
the schism of 1046, when three rival popes were all set aside, and a 
new one, Clement II, appointed. Not so when we come to the " Great 
Schism," which broke out in 1378, after the death of Gregory XI, and 
lasted till 1409, or rather till 1417. It is needless to go into the details 
of this prolonged strife, and it will be enough to say that during its 
continuance there were two (and sometimes three) rival lines of 
pontiffs kept up, severally followed by whole nations on entirely politi- 
cal, not theological, grounds, and that no one can say now which claim- 
ant at any time was the true Pope; while canonized saints were found 
• on opposite sides of the question, St. Catharine of Siena, for instance, 
holding to the Italian succession, and St. Vincent Ferrer to the com- 
peting line; so that St. Antoninus of Florence has remarked that per- 
sons illustrious for miracles took opposite sides in the controversy, 
and that the question cannot be settled now. Since this " Great Schism," 
whose lessons were severe, only one anti-pope, Felix V, is on record. — 
■' Plain Reasons Against Joining the Church of Rome" Richard Fred- 
erick Littledale, LL. D., D. C. L., pp. 194, 195. London: Society for 
Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1905. 

Schism, The Great, Consequences of. — Hardly had the first storm 
which assailed the Papacy during the long residence of the popes at 
Avignon [1309-1378), depriving it of its political supremacy, passed 
away, when a new storm broke over its head, depriving it of still more 
of its greatness, and nearly obliterating its existence altogether. This 
time the storm was not occasioned by a residence in a foreign country, 
which brought the popes into political dependence on a foreign sov- 
ereign; but it was a storm gathered in a purely ecclesiastical atmos- 
phere, and hence inflicting damage on another side of the Papacy — 
the ecclesiastical independence of the popes. It was, in short, no other 
event than that known as the Great Schism of the West [1378-1417]. 
Of that event the disastrous effects were far-reaching and widespread. 
The shock which the Schism itself produced on the minds of the clergy 
and the laity was but small part of the result; and most momentous 
were its after-consequences. For that Schism called into being those 
independent councils of the West, which rudely assailed the Sovereign 
Pontiff; during that. Schism, too, those abuses became rife which called 
forth on a large scale, though not for the first time, the demand for 
reform, and thus hastened on the event which involved the Papacy in 
ruin. — " The See of Rome in the Middle Ages," Rev. Oswald J. Reichel, 
B. C. L., M. A., pp. 439, 440. London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1870. 

Schoolmen. — See Sacraments, 478. 

Scriptures, Roman Catholic Claims Concerning. — Roman Catho- 
lics hold that the church is older than the Holy Scriptures, that these 
proceed from her, and that Protestantism arbitrarily reverses this re- 
lation. They teach that the canon of Scripture itself was collected and 
fixed by the church, and that therefore the interpretation of the written 
Word of God remains the express prerogative of the church, with the 
help of tradition. — "Modernism and the Reformation" John Benjamin 
Rust, Ph. D., D. D., pp. 44, 45. New York: Fleming H. Revell Company. 

Scriptures, Roman Catholic Writers on the. — In order to make 
us believe that if we would believe anything, we must believe in the 



SERVETUS. 



485 



Pope, your Romish doctors strain every nerve to persuade us that 
Scripture is imperfect, uncertain, ambiguous, and unintelligible: and 
that in many cases the reading of it is unnecessary and unprofitable, 
if not dangerous. For example, " Scripture is insufficient," says Staple- 
ton; Scripture is a "dead judge," says Melchior Canus. Ludovicus, a 
canon of the Lateran, in a speech at the Council of Trent, " Scripture 
is only lifeless ink: " and Pighius, in his third book of Controversies, 
calls it a mute judge, a " nose of wax, which allows itself to be pulled 
this way and that, and to be molded into any form you please; " and 
the Church of Rome, so far from regarding the reading of Scripture as 
necessary, has declared in her last council, " that if any one presumes 
to read or possess the Bible without a license, he cannot receive 
absolution." — " Letters to M. Gondon." Chr. Wordsicorth, D. D.. p 81. 
London: Francis & John Rivington, 1848. 

Scriptures, Knowledge of. Not Encouraged by Rome. — It cannot 
be claimed for the medieval church that she ever encouraged a knowl- 
edge of the vernacular Scriptures even for her priests. The utmost 
she did was to tolerate a knowledge of the psalter, of service books, and 
in the fifteenth century, of the Plenaria, which were made up of 
paragraphs from the Gospels and Epistles along with legends and 
popular tales. Increasingly, too, as Romanism developed on the lines 
it still follows, and sacerdotalism was casting its baleful shadow all 
over Europe, a knowledge of the vernacular Scriptures was regarded 
with suspicion by the ecclesiastical authorities. As mutterings of 
dissatisfaction began to be heard among the awakening nations, the 
influence of the Bible was rightly felt to be hostile at once to the op- 
pressor and the priest. — " The Arrested Reformation,'" William Muir, 
M. A., B. D., B. L., pp. 37, 38. London: Morgan and Scott, 1912. 

Scriptures. — See Bible; Canon; Daniel; Revelation, Book of; Two 
Witnesses. 

Second Advent. — See Advent, Second. 

Seneca. — See Advent, First, 5. 

Separatists. — See Religious Liberty, 413. 

Septuagint. — See Bible, Versions, 89, 90. 

Sermon on the Mount. — See Law of God. 283. 

Servetus, Calvin's Responsibility for the Burning of. — Calvin's 
influence in Geneva amounted to less during the trial of Servetus than 
at any other time, and it is therefore absolutely unhistorical to rep- 
resent Calvin as the chief figure in the proceedings against the Span- 
iard. After the arrest and arraignment of Servetus, the process took 
its course according to law, and Calvin was simply an important 
witness and instrument in the case. After the trial had ended Calvin 
did everything in his power to effect a commutation of the horrible 
sentence, but without avail, for neither Servetus nor the city au- 
thorities would yield a single step. Stahelin says it may sound para- 
doxical, but is nevertheless true, that Rome is responsible also for the 
Protestant stakes and scaffolds, because for centuries it inculcated prin- 
ciples and practices among Christians, in relation to heresy, which 
emanated from a world view whose sole object was dominion, unity, 
uniformity, conformity, and ownership of conscience. 



486 



SERVETUS. 



The Reformers could not at once free themselves from the aims 
and influence of ecclesiastical power under which they grew up, and 
which controlled them to an amazing degree, in spite of all the light 
they had attained through the new learning and from the Scriptures. 
To us the thought that any one should be burned to death for opinion's 
sake is horrifying, and our sense of justice and freedom is outraged 
by the crime itself. It is to be deplored that Servetus died through 
such causes, under such circumstances, and in the midst of such 
surroundings. It is impossible to change men's minds, ideas, or opinions 
by mutilations and burnings. A man may be frightened into a recanta- 
tion by the horror of such a punishment, but he cannot thus be forced 
to erase his mental impressions, and alter an inwrought temperament or 
disposition. By the threatened torture he is merely terrorized into 
telling a lie, into being untrue to himself, however mistaken, at bottom, 
he may be in his fancies and contentions. 

Both Catholics and Protestants looked upon Servetus as we look 
upon the anarchist. There existed a confused overlapping and in- 
termingling of the functions of church and state, which men since then, 
in the onward march of liberty, have cleared away. The Greeks poisoned 
Socrates, the philosopher of the conscience, because they imagined that 
he corrupted the youth of Athens. Brutus and his friends slew Julius 
Caesar, the idol of the populace, because he was ambitious. Jews and 
Romans crucified Jesus of Nazareth, the Saviour of the world, because 
he made himself equal with God and founded a new kingdom. The 
emperors hurled the early followers of Jesus to the lions in the arena, 
and tortured them to death by thousands, because in that kingdom they 
found eternal life. The Roman Catholics and the emperor Sigismund, 
by an act of the Council of Constance, burned John Huss and Jerome 
of Prague because they tried to purify the church. For similar reasons 
blood flowed in Paris on St. Bartholomew's night, the fires were lighted 
on Smithfield Common, and Philip II declared war against the Nether- 
lands. And finally Servetus suffered death at the stake in Protestant 
Geneva because he blasphemed the holy Trinity and befriended the 
seditious Libertines. But men ought to cease to make a mockery of 
historic fact by blaming this terrible deed solely and alone upon the 
Genevan Reformer, John Calvin, who imperiled his own life to defend 
the eternal Sonship of Jesus. — " Modernism and the Reformation" 
John Benjamin Rust, Ph. D., D. D., pp. 139-141. .New York: Fleming H. 
Revell Company. 

Be the matter twisted and turned as it may, the burning of Servetus 
will ever remain a dark spot on the history of the Reformation, and in 
the life of Calvin. We must not, however, charge on Calvin the whole 
odium of an act in which he was supported by the age in which he lived, 
or at least by a large proportion of its representative men. How many 
Anabaptists were beheaded and drowned in the age of the Reformation, 
whom no one ever thinks of mentioning! Why is it that the execution 
of Servetus alone is always harped upon as a misdeed of Calvin's? 
Possibly, because the horrible manner of his death serves, more than 
any other, to recall the horrors of the Inquisition, and the executions 
of Huss and Savonarola. And moreover, Calvin's personal participa- 
tion in the details of the process appears in a manner so conspicuous 
as to enable us to understand how the antipathy of later generations 
to such bloody judgments upon heretics became connected, more closely 
than is consistent with justice, with a previously existent antipathy to 
the harsh and awe-inspiring character of the Genevese Reformer. — 
" History of the Reformation in Germany and Switzerland Chiefly" 
Dr. K. R. Hagenbach, Vol. II, p. 340. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark, 1879. 



SEVEN CHURCHES. 



487 



Seven Churches, Christ the Only Priest,™- Nor was it of unim 
portant use to note the representation of Jesus Christ here given, as 
the priest of the churches, and the designation of their ecclesiastical 
presidents or bishops simply as angels, a term borrowed not from the 
temple, but the synagogue: in token, thus early, that the offices of the 
Levitical priests were to be regarded as fulfilled by Christ; and that the 
functions of the Christian bishop, or minister in the church, were those 
of leading the devotions, and directing and animating the faith of the 
flock; not functions sacrificial or mediatorial, as with the Levitical 
priests of old. — " Hone Apocalypticce," Rev. E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. 1, 
Introduction, chap. 2, pp. 75, 76, 3d edition. London: Seeley, Burnside, 
and Seeley, 1847. 

Seven Churches, Successive Periods. — Under this emblematical 
representation of the seven churches of Asia, the Holy Spirit has de- 
lineated seven different states of the Christian church, which would 
appear in succession, extending to the coming of our Lord, and the 
consummation of all things. — Vitringa, in commentary published in 
1705; cited in " The Comprehensive Commentary," edited by Rev. Wil- 
liam Jenks, on Rev. 2:1. Brattleboro, Vermont, 1838. 

Seven Churches, Early View or. — Let us proceed to that of Coc- 
ceius [1603-69]. 

According to this later author, the church of Ephesus is the apos- 
tolical church, i. e„ that wherein the apostles preached. So that this 
period must be extended to the death of St. John. . . . 

The church of Smyrna signifies the church suffering in all places, 
and especially that of the three first ages. The persecution of ten days, 
according to this, must signify the ten persecutions which the church 
suffered during those three ages under the pagan emperors. This doth 
not fall out ill; but I fear it was chance that made this hit. . . . 

The epistle to the church of Pergamus is the third, and according 
to Cocceius, 'tis the church from Constantine's time to the birth of 
Antichrist. . . . 

The church of Thyatira is the fourth, and signifies, according to 
Cocceius, the church under the reign of Antichrist. Jezebel tnat appears 
in this epistle is the antichristian church. They that suffer Jezebel the 
prophetess are the elect mingled among the antichristian idolaters. 
. . . This falls out pretty well, but 'tis by mere chance; for how can 
that magnificent eulogy be applied to this period of the antichristian 
church, " I know thy worKS, and thy charity, and thy patience, and that 
thy last works are more than the first"? Never was the church so 
void of saints and of good works as in this sad period. 

Sardis is the fifth church and the fifth period, and according to 
Cocceius as well as to Forbes 'tis the reformed church. But I say hereto 
as I said before on occasion of Forbes, why should we say of our Ref- 
ormation, " Thou hast a name to live, and behold thou art dead; 
strengthen the things which remain and are ready to die"? 

Philadelphia signifies brotherly love; this is the sixtn church which 
carries in its name the character of a church yet to come, wherein love 
and charity shall reign, but among a very small number of people. . ... 

Laodicea signifies the church that shall immediately precede the 
time wherein God shall pass that judgment spoken of in the eleventh 
chapter, verse 18, i. e., when the reign of Jesus Christ shall come to 
be established on the earth. — " The Accomplishment of the Scriptural 
Prophecies,'" Peter Jurieu, Part 1, chap. 1, pp. 11-14. London: 1687. 

Commencing this most important revelation by describing the 
things " which are," appears to be done for the purpose of holding up 



488 



SEVEN CHURCHES — SMYRNA. 



a glass or mirror for the church to view itself to the end of time. 
In the seven addresses, therefore, which follow, are described the va- 
rious states in which, at one time or other, in one place or other, 
the church has ever appeared from that time to this. — " An Historical 
Exposition of the Prophecies of the Revelation of 8t. John," Matthew 
Habershon, pp. 7, 8. London: James Nisbet & Co., 1841. 

Note. — The seven churches cover the entire time between the first and the 
second advent of our Lord. Conditions in the actual church at Ephesus, where 
Paul labored and tradition says John lived, were representative of the apostolic 
age, say to about 1UU a. d. : Smyrna, the time of the pagan persecution, to about 
3i2 to 323, the times of the emperor Constantine, who professed Christianity ; 
Pergamos, the time of the " conversion " of tbe empire, to the establisning of 
the Papacy, in the days of 533 to 538 ; Thyatira, the time of papal supremacy, 
during the long Dark Ages, and to a limited extent to the end ; Sardis, the period 
following the papal supremacy, 1798 to 1833 ; Philadelphia, from the rise of the 
advent movement to 1844 ; and Eaodicea, from the opening of the judgment hour 
in 1844 to the end. These conditions do not always begin and end abruptly by 
definite dates ; they telescope or overlap, one blending into another. — Eos. 

Seven Churches, First Period, Character of Early Church. — The 
Christians are not separated from other men by earthly abode, by lan- 
guage, or by customs. They dwell nowhere in cities by themselves; 
they do not use a different language, or affect a singular mode of life. 
They dwell in the cities of the Greeks, and of the barbarians, each as 
his lot has been cast; and while they conform to the usages of the 
country, in respect to dress, food, and other things pertaining to the 
outward life, they yet show a peculiarity of conduct wonderful and 
striking to all. They obey the existing laws, and conquer the laws 
by their own living. — " Letter to Digonet," early second century; cited 
in " General History of the Christian Religion and Church," Dr. Au- 
gustus Meander (translation by Joseph Torrey), Vol. I, sec. 1, p. 69. 
Boston: Crocker and Brewster, 1854. 

The distinguished virtues of the Christians must have shone forth 
the more brightly, as contrasted with the prevailing vices; their se- 
verity of morals, sometimes even carried to excess, as opposed to the 
general deprivation of the age; their hearty fraternal love, in con- 
trast with that predominant selfishness which separated man from man, 
and rendered each distrustful of the other, insomuch that men could 
not comprehend the nature of Christian fellowship, nor sufficiently 
wonder at its fruits. " See," was the common remark, " how they love 
one another." — " General History of the Christian Religion and Church" 
Dr. Augustus Neander ( Torrey' s translation), Vol. I, sec. 1, p. 76. Bos- 
ton: Crocker and Brewster, 1854. 

Seven Churches, Smyrna; The Period of Early Persecution. — 
During the apostolic period, indeed, it would seem as if the providence 
of God interposed to preserve the church from a general persecution, 
in order that its foundations might be well laid throughout the world, 
before the violence of the beathen Roman Empire should be let loose 
against it. . . . But with the new period of the history of the church, 
commenced a new era in its tribulations. — " Seven Ages of the Church," 
Rev. Henry Cotterill, A. M., Theological Tutor in Brighton College, pp. 
56, 57. London, 1849. 

Seven Churches, Smyrna; The " Ten Days " of Tribulation, by 
a Contemporary. — During the whole ten years of the persecution, there 
was no cessation of plots and civil wars among the persecutors them- 
selves. . . . Such was the state of things throughout the whole period 
of the persecution. This, by the goodness of God, had entirely ceased 
in the tenth year, although it had already begun to relax after the 



SEVEN CHURCHES — SMYRNA. 



489 



eighth. . . . But this was not done hy any mere human agency, nor 
was it, as might perhaps he supposed, hv the compassion or the humanity 
of our rulers. For, so far from this, they were daily devising more and 
severer measures aeainst us from the beginning of the persecution 
until then, constantly inventing new tortures from time to time by 
an increasing variety of machinery and instruments for this purpose. 
But the evident superintendence of divine Providence, on the one hand, 
being reconciled to his people, and on the other, assailing the author 
[Galerius] of these miseries, exhibited his anger against him as the 
ringleader in the horrors of the whole persecution. . . . Hence he was 
visited by a judgment sent from God, which beginning in his flesh pro- 
ceeded to his very soul. — " Ecclesiastical History," Eusebius, book S. 
chaps. 15, 16, pp. 325, 326 (translation by Rev. C. F. Cruse). London 
George Bell and Sons, 1889. 

It was not till a. d. 311, eight years after the commencement of the 
general persecution, ten years after the first measure against the Chris- 
tians, that the Eastern persecution ceased. Galerius, the arch-enemy of 
the Christians, was struck down by a fearful disease. His body became 
a mass of loathsome, mortifying, and fetid sores — a living corpse, 
devoured by countless worms, and exhaling the odor of the charnel- 
house. He who had shed so much innocent blood, shrank himself from 
a Roman death. In his extreme anguish he appealed in turn to physi- 
cian after physician, and to temple after temple. At last he relented 
towards the Christians. He issued a proclamation restoring them to 
liberty, permitting them to rebuild their churches, and asking their 
prayers for his recovery. — "History of European Morals" William E. H. 
Lecky, M. A., chap. 3, 3d par. from the end (Vol. I. p. 491). London: 
Longmans, Green &■ Co., 1869. 

Seven Churches, Revocation Edict by Galerius. — When a decree 
of this kind was issued by us, that they TChristiansl should return 
again to the established usages of their forefathers, vast numbers were 
subjected to danger, many, when threatened, endured various kinds of 
death. But though we saw the great mass still persevering in their 
folly, and that they neither gave the honor that was due to the im- 
mortal gods, nor heeded that of the Christians, still having a regard 
to our clemency and our invariable practice, according to which we are 
wont to grant pardon to all, we most cheerfully have resolved to ex- 
tend our indulgence in this matter also: that there may be Christians 
again, and that they may restore their houses in which they are ac- 
customed to assemble, so that nothing be done by them contrary to 
their profession. In another epistle we shall point out to the judges 
what they will be required to observe, whence, according to this con- 
descension of ours, they are obligated to implore their God for our 
safety, as well as that of the people and their own. — Decree of Galerius, 
in " Ecclesiastical History," Eusebius, book 8, chap. 17, p. 328 (trans- 
lation by Rev. C. F. Cruse). London: George Bell and Sons, 1889. 

Seven Churches, Smyrna; A Catholic Writer on. — Smyrna stands 
for the second, or martyrs' age of the church, which extended from 
Nero's persecution to the edict of Milan, a. d. 313. — " The Avocalypse of 
*t. John," J. J. L. Ratton. p. 145. London: Washbourne, 1912. 

Note. — Baalam's counsel to Balak was that Israel should be persuaded to 
>oin in the idolatrous practices : and so was Israel corrupted bv the surrounding 
heathenism. Numbers 22 to 25; 31:13-16. — Eds. 

Seven Churches, Pergamos; Satan's Seat as to Period: Of Com- 
promise with Paganism. — Such was the tendency of the times [fourth 
century] to adulterate Christianity with the spirit of paganism, partly 



490 



SEVEN CHURCHES — PERGAMOS. 



to conciliate the prejudices of worldly converts, partly in the hope of 
securing its more rapid spread. There is a solemnity in the truthful 
accusation which Faustus makes to Augustine: "You have substituted 
your agapae for the sacrifices of the pagans; for their idols your mar- 
tyrs, whom you serve with the very same honors. You appease the 
shades of the dead with wine and feasts; you celebrate the solemn fes- 
tivals of the Gentiles, their calends and their solstices; and as to their 
manners, those you have retained without any alteration. Nothing 
distinguishes you from the pagans, except that you hold your assemblies 
apart from them." — " History of the Intellectual Development of Eu- 
rope," John William Draper, M. D., LL. D., Vol. I, chap. 10, pp. 309, 
310. New York: Harper & Brothers. 

Seven Churches, Pergamos ; Gibbon on Corruption of Christianity. 
— The sublime and simple theology of the primitive Christians was 
gradually corrupted; and the monarchy of heaven, already clouded by 
metaphysical subtleties, was degraded by the introduction of a popular 
mythology, which tended to restore the reign of polytheism. . . . 

The Christians frequented the tombs of the martyrs, in the hope of 
obtaining, from their powerful intercession, every sort of spiritual, 
but more especially of temporal, blessings. . . . Edifying pictures, which 
could not long escape the abuse of indiscreet or idolatrous devotion, 
represented the image, the attributes, and the miracles of the tutelar 
saint. . . . The most respectable bishops had persuaded themselves that 
the ignorant rustics would more cheerfully renounce the superstitions 
of paganism if they found some resemblance, some compensation, 
in the bosom of Christianity. The religion of Constantine achieved, in 
less than a century, the final conquest of the Roman Empire: but the 
victors themselves were insensibly subdued by the arts of their van- 
quished rivals. — " The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman 
Empire," Edward Gibbon, chap. 28, pars. 3, 4 (Vol. Ill, pp. 161-163). 
New York: Harper & Brothers. 

Seven Churches, Pergamos; Repeating Israel's Sin. — Paganism 
could not overcome the church as an enemy: the danger now arises 
from its friendship. The experiment is now tried, whether, by an al- 
liance with Christianity, under the plea of attachment to Christian 
doctrines and practices, and of a desire to conciliate the heathen world, 
this new Israel, which cannot be crushed, may be gradually corrupted. 
The successful result of this attempt may be seen to the present day, 
in the virtual paganism of a large majority of the professedly Christian 
world, in which every abomination which the early church resisted 
unto blood, may be found disguised under Christian titles. . . . The 
martyr worship of the Nicene church was in all respects the counter- 
part of the " offerings of the dead " in the worship of Baalpeor. — " Seven 
Ages of the Church," Rev. Henry Gotterill, A. M. (Theological Tutor, 
Brighton College), pp. 89-91. London, 1849. 

Seven Churches, Pergamos; Appropriateness of City as Repre- 
senting Satan's Seat. — And this [in Crete] is a shrine of Asclepius, 
and just as the whole of Asia flocks to Pergamum, so the whole of 
Crete flocked to this shrine. — " Life of Apollonius," Philostratus, book 
4, chap. 34; LoeVs Classical Library, Vol. I, p. 429. 

Another form of the sun divinity, or Teitan, at Rome, was the Epi- 
daurian snake, worshiped under the name of ^Esculapius [Asclepius], 
that is, " the man-instructing serpent." Here, then, in Rome was Teitan, 
or Satan, identified with the " serpent that taught mankind," that opened 



SEVEN CHURCHES — THYAT1BA. 



491 



their eyes (when, of course, they were blind), and gave them " the knowl- 
edge of good and evil." In Pergamos, and in ail Asia Minor, from 
which directly Rome derived its knowledge of the Mysteries, the case 
was the same. In Pergamos, especially, where pre-eminently " Satan's 
seat was," the sun divinity, as is well known, was worshiped under the 
form of a serpent and under the name of .^Esculapius, "the man-instruct- 
ing serpent." According to the fundamental doctrine of the Mysteries, 
as brought from Pergamos to Rome, the sun was the one only god. — 
" The Two Babylons" Rev. Alexander Hislop, pp. 278, 279. London: 
S. W. Partridge & Co., 1907. 

Seven Churches, Pergamos; City Itself a Center of Idolatry and 
Intolerance. — Since the deified Augustus had not opposed the founding 
at Pergamos of a temple to himself and the city of Rome; I, with whom 
all his actions and sayings have the force of laws, have followed an 
example already approved. — Tiberius (accepting proposition of Spain to 
erect temple to himself J, " Annals," Tacitus, book 4, par. 37 (Vol. 7, 
p. 179). 

Note. — Pergamos was the originator in the West of the deification and 
worship of the emperor. It was refusal of the demand that they offer incense 
before the statue of the emperor that had sent many Christians to death. And, 
let us recall that this Pergamos period of the church was also the age that saw 
the exaltation of the Bishop of Home, who sat on the seat of the Csesai/s, to be 
supreme in the professed church, sitting as God in the temple of God. — Eds. 

Seven Churches, Pergamos; Catholic Writer on. — The third stage 
of the church, called Pergamos, extended from the edict of Milan, 
a. d. 313, to the fall of the Roman Empire in the beginning of the sixth 
century. — "The Apocalypse of St. John," J. J. L. Ratton, p. 149. Lon- 
don: Washbourne, 1912. 

Seven Churches, Pergamos: Doctrine of Balaam. — See Apostasy; 
Babylon. 

Seven Churches, Thyatira; Early English Expositor on. — This 
state of the corruption of the church of Christ, by the popish doctrines 
of the Church of Rome, and the Pope's tyrannizing over the consciences 
of men, most plainly mark this era of the church, which began at the 
time when the Pope was declared supreme over all other bishops, and 
lasted till his power and reign met with a check at the Reformation, 
when began the Sardian church-state, which still continues. — " Letter 
upon the Downfall of Antichrist," Rev. A. Maddock. London, 1779. 
(Bound with "Fleming's Tracts" British Museum Library.) 

Seven Churches, Thyatira; Catholic Writer on. — Thyatira, the 
fourth age of the- church, began when the downfall of pagan Rome was 
accomplished and the devil was chained up for a thousand years. . . . 
The body of the church, freed from the tonic of persecution, fell away 
from its high calling and embraced luxury. This message reveals the 
interior condition of the church of the Middle Ages, which extended 
from the sixth to the sixteenth century, [p. 155] . . . 

If we apply this letter to the fourth, or millennial, age of the 
church, which lasted about a thousand years, it may be said to coincide 
with it from the historic point of view in a remarkable manner. This 
period has been called by the church " the age of faith," and by the 
world " the Dark Ages." What the world calls " dark " from a spiritual 
point of view, generally means " light." But both the church and the 
world speak of this period as " the Middle Ages." In this it may be that 
we have built better than we knew; for Thyatira is the middle church 



492 



SEVEN CHURCHES — SAUDIS. 



of the seven, and consequently stands as the symbol of the church of 
" the Middle Ages." [p. 158] . . . 

The material prosperity of the church culminated in the Middle 
Ages. Its revenues from lands and property of all kinds, from endow- 
ments and bequests, increased enormously. It became one of the richest 
institutions of the world. In the train of wealth came luxury, and in 
the lap of luxury lay vice. " Then the concupiscence of the flesh, and 
of the eyes, and the pride of life, extended to the clergy of the church. 
These, secure of the indulgence of a corrupt age and thinking it safe to 
do so, gave themselves up to voluptuous living, and fell into presump- 
tion, as ordinarily happens in such cases. But these were the vices of 
Jezebel, the wife of Achab." (Holzhauser, Vol. I, p. 145.) 

Many of the Popes struggled in vain against the evils which afflicted 
the church. . . . The church makes no claim to impeccability, or sin- 
lessness, either as to its head, the Pope, or as to its members individ- 
ually. It is in this book revealed that many of the hierarchy would 
fall into gross sins in the Middle Ages. History tells us that they did 
so." — " The Apocalypse of St. John" J. J. L. Ratton, pp. 155-159. ("Im- 
primatur Edm. Can. Surmont Vicarius Gen") London: Washbourne, 
1912. 

Note. — How true it is, as Wylie says : " The noon of the Papacy was the 
midnight of the world." — " The History of Protestantism," chap. 4. 

This Catholic author (Ratton) fails to note that this epistle was not ad- 
dressed to the great ruling body represented by Jezebel and her ways, but to 
the church of believers suffering under this period — " the rest in Thyatira," the 
remnant who kept the light of faith burning through the Dark Ages. — Eds. 

Seven Churches, Saedis; Reformation Times and Later. — This 
fifth great scene in the Christian drama has been faithfully exhibited 
on the stage of time; and it will be readily identified, in what is em- 
phatically called the Reformation, and the consequences that flowed 
from it in that and the succeeding ages. — "An Historical Exposition of 
the Prophecies of the Revelation of St. John," Matthew Habershon, p. 79. 
London: James Nisbet & Co., 1841. 

Seven Churches, Sardis; Reformation to be Continuous. — I 
charge you before God and his blessed angels, that you follow me no 
farther than you have seen me follow the Lord Jesus Christ. The 
Lord has more truth yet to break forth out of his Holy Word. I cannot 
sufficiently bewail the condition of the reformed churches, who have 
come to a period in religion, and will go at present "no farther than the 
instruments of their reformation. Luther and Calvin were great and 
shining lights in their times, yet they penetrated not into the whole 
counsel of God. I beseech you, remember it — 'tis an article of your 
church covenant — that you be ready to receive whatever truth shall be 
made known to you from the written Word of God. — John Robinson, 
pastor at Ley den, Holland, in Farewell to Pilgrims sailing for New 
World, July, 1620; cited in "A History of the United States," George 
Bancroft, Vol. I, chap. 8, pp. 306, 807. Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 

Although the Reformation began well and threatened to sweep Ro- 
manism to the sea, winning seemingly the favor and overwatching prov- 
idence of the Lord, it came, nevertheless, to a sudden and mysterious 
halt, failing to complete its work in the very countries where it began. 
Some of the " things which remain " in Protestantism " are ready to 
die," and the exhortation to Sardis to be " watchful and strengthen " 
them was never more pertinent and appropriate than now. 



SEVEN CHURCHES — SARDIS. 



493 



The forecast of Sardis and the history of Protestantism fit each 
other like hand and glove. With the page of history closed and the facts 
of Protestantism ignored, the prophecy remains as the declaration of 
the continued failure and departure of the professing church. — " The 
Coining of Christ, Pre-Millennial and Imminent,'" I. M. Haldeman f Bap- 
tist), p. 101. New York: Charles C. Cook, 1906. 

Seven Churches, Sardis; Catholic Writer on. — As a symbol of 
the fifth age of the church, it [Sardis] extended from the Council of 
Trent to the first half of the nineteenth century, a period of about 280 
years. During the greater part of this time the church suffered persecu- 
tion in one direction or another. 

The Sardian age is commonly known as the Reformation period. — 
'The Apocalypse of St. John," J. J. L. Ratton, p. 166. London: Wash- 
bourne, 1912. 

Seven Churches, Sardis; Condition Recognized in Period Itself. — 
If it should be asked, What time it is with us now? whereabout we are? 
and what is yet to come out of the night? as a faithful watchman, I will 
give you the best account I can. I take it, we are in the Sardian 
church state, in the last part of it, which brought on the Reformation, 
and represents that. We are in the decline of that state, and there are 
many things said of that church which agree with us, as that we have 
a name that we live, and are dead, etc. It is a sort of twilight with us, 
between clear and dark, between day and night. — Sermon by Dr. Thomas 
H. Gill, 1748, " Second Advent Library, No. 1," p. 209, Jan. 1, 1842. 

The epistle to the church of Sardis is so strongly characteristic of 
the reformed churches at this day, that little more need be done than 
to read that epistle to see our own likeness. [Rev. 3:1.]... We have the 
name of a purely reformed church, who protests against the errors of 
popery, doctrinal and practical; but are we not dead as to faith and 
good works? ... As the downfall of the Pope and the Turk is an event 
wherein all Christians are greatly interested, so it is what all earnestly 
desire should be speedily accomplished. The near approach of that 
happy time is a pleasing, prospect. It cannot be far off. . . . 

Before the fall of Antichrist there will be, it is reasonable to believe, 
... a removing of our candlestick towards the close of the Sardian 
church-state; a setting of it up, in all probability, in America, which 
will form the commencement of the Philadelphia church-state. These 
events will be brought about gradually; therefore will, in all proba- 
bility, take up some years to complete them. — " Letter upon the Down- 
fall of Antichrist," Rev. A. Maddock (1777). London, 1779. (Bound 
with " Fleming's Tracts" British Museum Library.) 

Note. — As the end of the long period of papal supremacy was drawing near, 
the dead formalism of that time was stirred by the great revival of the eighteenth 
century, under Wesley and his Methodist associates, and Whitefleld and others, 
growing into the general evangelical and missionary awakening as the time of the 
end came, with the revival of interest in prophetic study that prepared the 
way for the advent movement. (See Increase of Knowledge; Advent Move- 
ment of 1844.) Britain and Europe were the scenes of this wonderful rebirth of 
missionary activity : but as the flame caught in the West, the New World, with its 
mixture of all nations and tongues, was evidently to be the providential base for 
the development of the definite advent movement, for which the great awaken- 
ing of the time of the end was a preparation. This forecast, of 1777, from a view 
of the prophecies, seems a remarkable one. and shows how truly the book of 
prophecy was being unsealed as the time referred to in Daniel 12 : 4 came. — Eds. 

Seven Churches, Philadelphia; As Seen Shaping by Observer in 
Britain. 1777. — A general stupor and carelessness concerning the things 



494 



SEVEN CHURCHES — PHILADELPHIA. 



of God, the great and foundation truths of the gospel, and our own souls, 
have seized upon Protestants in general; we have lately fallen in love 
with, or, at least, have ceased to hate, popish tenets. . . . These signs 
declare the times. They show the Sardinian church-state to be draw- 
ing toward its period. The light of our candlestick is extinguishing, 
and America seems to be the happy land where God will set it up 
chiefly in the next church-state. This was the opinion of the divine 
Herbert, among others, who about one hundred and fifty years ago, 
could sing, in his " Church Militant," 

" Religion stands on tiptoe in our land, 
Ready to pass to the American strand." 

It was our Lord's command that the gospel should be first preached 
at Jerusalem. From thence it spread; and the sound thereof went out 
into all parts of the known world, but especially westward of Jerusalem 
churches were established, as all the particular epistles of the New Tes- 
tament testify, the churches to which they were written all lying to the 
west. The course of the gospel was from Jerusalem to Greece, from 
thence to Italy, France, Great Britain, Germany, and all over Europe; 
Egypt, Abyssinia, and if not all, yet the greatest part of Africa, have 
heard the joyful sound. It therefore seems to be very probable at the 
least, and the present appearance of things corroborates the opinion, that 
from Great Britain the gospel will proceed to America, and the candle- 
stick of the Philadelphian church be set up and spread there. . . . It is 
very probable, the gospel continuing his course still further towards the 
west, . . . that the candlestick of the next church-state will be set up, 
and the chief seat of the Philadelphian church, be in that country, as 
the chief seat of the Sardinian church is in Britain. — " Letter upon the 
Downfall of Antichrist,'" Rev. A. Maddock, of Creaton, Guilsborough. 
Northamptonshire, England, Oct. 4, 1777, to the Rev. Mr. M. Browne. 
(Bound with " Fleming's Tracts," British Museum Library.) 

Seven Churches, Philadelphia. — See Advent Movement of 1844. 

Seven Churches, Thyatira; Age of Papal Supremacy and Perse- 
cution. — See Papacy; Papal Supremacy; Persecution; Reformation. 

Seven Churches, Laodicea; Christ the Lord of Creation. — 
'Apxv is often used for pre-eminence, princedom, and also (very nat- 
urally) for rulers, princes. Luke 20: 20; 12: 11; Titus 3: 1; Eph. 1: 21; 
3: 10; 6: 12; Col. 2: 10, 15; 1 Cor. 15: 24; Rom. 8: 38; Col. 1: 16. . . . 
Why, then, when we have the &<txo»> t&v pao-iXtwp [" ruler of the kings "] 
before us of 1: 5 where such a sense is certain, should we hesitate to 
give the like sense here, viz., Head or Lord of the creation of God? — 
"A Commentary on the Apocalypse," Moses Stuart, Vol. II, pp. 99, 100. 
Andover: Allen, Morrill, and Wardwell. 1845. 

Note. — The appeal of Christ to his people in the Laodicean period, the last 
church, in the name of the Lord of creation, is parallel with the call of the last 
message of reform in Revelation 14, for men to give glory to him as Creator, 
" and worship him that made heaven, and earth." The time of the last church is 
the judgment hour, and the message for the hour is to prepare men to meet the 
judgment. To give this message and to meet the test of tbe judgment, the ex- 
perience called for by the True Witness is essential, — a turning from formalism 
and self-righteousness, partaking of Christ's righteousness, with the blessed as- 
surance of overcoming grace and the overcomer's reward. — Eds. 

Seven Seals, First Period, The Apostolic Age. — The commence- 
ment of the time occupied by this seal, may be dated from our Saviour's 
ascension, when he gave his final commission to the disciples to go forth 



SEVEN SEALS — FIRST PERIOD. 



495 



with his doctrines and heavenly proclamation to the world. The dura- 
tion of this period cannot be so precisely ascertained, because the change 
in the church, from original purity to corrupt doctrine, worship, and 
morals, was gradual. — " Annotations on the Apocalypse," Archdeacon 
J. C. Woodhouse, D. D., p. 125. London, 1828. 

Note. — The seven seals naturally suggest a line of prophecy covering the 
same general period as that of the seven churches, bringing out a different phase 
of history. The series of the seven churches gives a view of the church of Christ 
in the midst of apostasy and through the experiences of the centuries, to the end. 
The series of the seven seals gives a view of the falling away, and the history of 
the apostate church in alliance with the world, to the close of papal supremacy, 
while the sixth in the series of the seven churches brings us to the advent move- 
ment of 1843-44. The sixth seal, by an abrupt change from symbolic to literal 
prophecy, deals with the signs of the second advent and the scenes of the end. 
Thus there is a distinct parallel in the idea of the approaching advent in the 
sixth period of each series, while the seventh in each touches eternity. — Eds. 

The white color of the horse indicates that the conquests of his 
rider are holy and pure, and are therefore such as cannot be attributed 
to any earthly warrior. White is everywhere used as a symbol of holi- 
ness. Thus in Dan. 11: 35, "to purge and make white," and in Rev. 
3: 4, "they shall walk with me in white, for they are worthy." The 
rider on the white horse has a bow, the well-known instrument for dis- 
charging arrows; and from Ps. 45: 5, we learn that wounds inflicted 
by arrows are emblematical of the conquests of Messiah. The crown, 
(TT€(pavos also, with which this rider is invested, is nowhere in this book 
used as the hieroglyphical mark of kingly authority upon earth, but 
uniformly the diadem, dtadrj/xa. . . . 

The rider on the white horse being therefore without the diadem, 
is certainly not what many have supposed him to be, an emperor of 
Rome; and being invested with the crown, is no less certainly the sym- 
bol of a spiritual or heavenly warrior, and the whole complex hiero- 
glyphic denotes the host of the lord, i. e., his church militant, shining 
with its primitive purity and going forth in a career of victory. — "A 
Dissertation on the Seals and Trumpets of the Apocalypse," William 
Guninghame, pp. 3, 4, 4th edition. London: Thomas Gadell, 1843. 

Seven Seals, Second Period, Age of Apostasy. — When the Roman 
Empire became Christian; when a Christian emperor bore the sword 
[a. d. 323 onward], (with which, in the imagery of this seal the Chris- 
tian power seems invested); when, relieved from the terrors of pagan 
persecution, the Christians became possessed of civil influence, their ani- 
mosities increased. Worldly prosperity is corruption; and instead of 
those halcyon days of peace and happiness which the church promised 
to itself from the acquisition of power, a period succeeded from which 
history is seen to date its degeneracy and corruption. This degeneracy 
was at this time manifested in the mutual enmities and feuds of Chris- 
tians, which were so notorious in the fourth century. ... It is a change 
powerfully expressed by fire color succeeding to white. — "Annotations 
on the Apocalypse," J. C. Woodhouse, D. D„ p. 128. London, 1828. 

Note. — It will be noted that writers often use the terms " church " and 
" Christian " without discriminating between profession and possession. The 
seven seals give the history of the church of the apostasy ; while we should re- 
member that all along there were genuine believers maintaining the continuitv 
of the church of Christ. — Eds. 

The fiery color of the second horse (the symbol of the body of the 
visible church), when joined to the description of the office of his rider 
(denoting the rulers of the church), and of the dreadful weapon with 



49 6 SEVEN SEALS — SECOND AND THIRD PERIODS 



which he was armed, indicate to us that, after the first and purest 
age of Christianity, the spirit of love and peace should recede from the 
visible church, and be succeeded by a spirit of discord, of dissension 
and controversy, a fierce and fiery zeal, instigating Christians to de- 
stroy one another. The ecclesiastical history of the fourth and fifth 
centuries, sufficiently evinces that such a change did take place. — "A 
Dissertation on the Seals and Tru?npets of the Apocalypse" William 
Cuninghame, p. 5, 4th edition. London: Thomas Cadell, 1843. 

Seven Seals, Second Period, as Gibbon Records It. — The simple 
narrative of the intestine divisions which distracted the peace and dis- 
honored the triumph of the church, will confirm the remark of a pagan 
historian, and justify the complaint of a venerable bishop. The ex- 
perience of Ammianus had convinced him that the enmity of the Chris- 
tians towards each other, surpassed the fury of savage beasts against 
man; and Gregory Nazianzen most pathetically laments that the king- 
dom of heaven was converted, by discord, into the image of chaos, of 
a nocturnal tempest, and of hell itself. — " The History of the Decline 
and Fall of the Roman Empire," Edward Gibbon, chap. 21, par. 40; 
(Vol. II, p. 363 J. New York: Harper & Brothers. 

Seven Seals, Second Period. — See Apostasy. 

Seven Seals, Third Period, to Time of Papal Supremacy. — As the 
stream of Christianity flowed further from its pure fountain, it became 
more and more corrupt; as centuries advanced, ignorance and super- 
stition increased; and unauthorized mortifications and penances, rigor- 
ous fastings, vows of celibacy, monkish retirement and austerities, 
stylitism, the jargon and repetition of prayers not understood, tales of 
purgatory, pious frauds and the worship of saints, relics, and images, 
took the place of pure and simple Christianity: till at length, the book 
of God being laid aside for legendary tales, and " the traditions of 
men," all these corruptions were collected into a regular system of 
superstitious oppression, well known by the name of the papal yoke. — 
" Annotations on the Apocalypse," J. C. Woodhouse, D. D. f p. 133. 
London, 1828. 

Note. — Archdeacon Woodhouse instead of "balance" (verse 5) prefers 
" yoke," the primary meaning of the word " lugos," as used of servitude under 
rules in 1 Tim. 6:1; Acts 15 : 10 ; Gal. 5 : 1. When the word is used for " bal- 
ance," he argues, this secondary meaning is shown by some expression joined. 
Other writers, however, consider the reference to the measures of wheat and 
barley as being such a joined expression, and prefer giving to the word here its 
secondary sense of " balance." — Eds. 

The black color of the horse, the yoke with which his rider was 
armed, the proclamation from the midst of the living creatures, that 
a chcenix of wheat should be sold for a penny, and three chwnices of 
barley for a penny, and the command not to hurt the oil and wine, 
unite in pointing out to us a period when the grossest darkness and 
ignorance should overspread the visible church; when a burthensome 
yoke of rites and ceremonies, and likewise of unscriptural articles of 
faith, should be imposed upon the necks and consciences of men; when 
there should be a great want and a famine of the preaching of the true 
gospel in the church: but when, notwithstanding this complicated train 
of evils, the consolations of the Spirit, his enlightening influences com- 
pared to oil, and his gladdening and comforting influences likened to 
wine, should not be withheld from those who, in the midst of surround- 
ing darkness and superstition, truly set their hearts to seek God. 

This prophecy was accomplished in the rise and prevalence of the 
papal power. Even as early as the fifth century, ignorance and super- 



SEVEN SEALS — FOURTH PERIOD. 



497 



stition had made much progress in obscuring the pure light of the 
gospel; and these evils gradually increased till they ended in almost 
banishing that light from the Christian world. — " A Dissertation on the 
Seals and Trumpets of the Apocalypse" 'William Guninghame, pp. 8, 
9, 4th edition. London: Thomas Gad-ell. 1843. 

Seven Seals, Fourth Period, of Papal Supremacy. — The Christian 
religion, which had begun its benign progress in white array, and under 
the guidance of apostolical teachers, is now not only so changed in 
color and appearance as to be scarcely discernible as the same; but is 
under the direction of deadly and infernal agents, who delight to destroy 
in her all that remains of primitive purity. . . . Ignorance became blind 
submission, and priestcraft advanced into civil tyranny. Thus, under 
the fourth seal, " the mystery of iniquity " was completed. It was 
then that the harsh usurpation, which we call the papal tyranny, was 
extended over the lives and consciences of Christians. To profess reli- 
gion in its purity became a crime. Bloody tribunals were erected, and 
severe and deathly laws enacted against those who departed from the 
standard of doctrine established by the corrupt rulers. Armies were 
raised to enforce obedience to their orders; and entire nations of Chris- 
tians, under the imputed name of heretics, were subjugated, or extir- 
pated by the sword. — "Annotations on the Apocalypse" J. G. Wood- 
house, D. D., pp. 140, 141. London, 1828. 

The pale livid green color of this horse is emblematical of a state 
of things even more dreadful than that of the preceding seal. The 
character of his rider corresponds with this idea; his name is called - 
Death, the king of terrors. He is followed by Hell. . . . 

The whole assemblage of figures constitutes an hieroglyphical rep- 
resentation, of the most horrible and terrific nature, and points out to 
us a period when the rulers of the visible church should seem to lose 
the character of men, and to asume that of malignant demons and 
savage beasts, and of Death himself; and should extirpate, by fire and 
sword, all who dared to prefer death to the sacrifice of a good con- 
science. This seal evidently represents the state of the church during 
those ages when the flames of persecution were kindled by the papal 
power. — " A Dissertation on the Seals and Trumpets of the Apocalypse," 
William Cuninghame, p. 10, 4th edition. London: Thomas Gadell, 1843. 

Seven Seals, Fourth Period, as Erasmus Drew the Picture. — Fur- 
ther, when the Christian church has been all along first planted, then 
confirmed, and since established by the blood of her martyrs, as if 
Christ, her head, would be wanting in the same methods still of pro- 
tecting her, they invert the order, and propagate their religion now by 
arms and violence, which was wont formerly to be done only with * 
patience and sufferings. And though war be so brutish, as that it 
becomes beasts rather than men; so extravagant, that the poets feigned 
it an effect of the furies; so licentious, that it stops the course of all 
justice and honesty; so desperate, that it is best waged by ruffians and 
banditti; and so unchristian, that it is contrary to the express com- 
mands of the gospel; yet maugre all this, peace is too quiet, too inactive, 
and they must be engaged in the boisterousness of war. — " Praise of 
Folly," Erasmus, English translation, p. 173. Published by Brentano. 
Paris, London, Washington, Chicago, 1900. 

Seven Seals, Fifth Period, Reformation Times. — The whole of 
this imagery is explanatory of the nature of the slaughter perpetrated 
under the former seals, and particularly the fourth; and it shows that 
32 



498 



SEVEN SEALS — FIFTH PERIOD. 



the church of Christ was the peculiar object, against which Death and 
Hades in that seal had directed their dreadful weapons of destruction, 
[p. 13] . . . 

The white robes given to these saints may be an emblem of that 
. improved condition of the church on earth which was the consequence 
of the Reformation, when the Protestants in a considerable part of 
Europe obtained not only a complete toleration, but were acknowledged 
as a religious body; and in England, Scotland, and other countries, 
gained even a more signal victory over the Romish Church. But yet 
it is intimated that this state, however improved, was one of hope and 
expectation, rather than of joy. The cause of the church was yet un- 
avenged. The promises of her future glory remained unaccomplished. 
It was therefore necessary that the servants of God should arm them- 
selves with the faith and patience of the saints during the remaining 
period of trial allotted to them, before the triumphant reign of their 
Lord. — "A Dissertation on the Seals and Trumpets of the Apocalypse''' 
William Guninghame, pp. 13, 15, 4th edition. London: Thomas Gadell, 
1843. 

Note. — The author of " Thoughts on Daniel and the Revelation " says : 

" The sixth chapter closed with the events of the sixth seal, and the eighth 
commences with the opening of the seventh seal ; hence the seventh chapter 
stands parenthetically between the sixth and seventh seals, from which it ap- 
pears that the sealing work of that chapter belongs to the sixth seal. 

" Silence in Heaven. — Concerning the cause of this silence, only conjecture 
can be offered, — a conjecture, however, which is supported by the events of the 
sixth seal. That seal does not bring us to the second advent, although it em- 
braces events that transpire in close connection therewith. It introduces the 
fearful commotions of the elements, described as the rolling of the heavens to- 
gether as a scroll, caused by the voice of God, the breaking up of the surface of 
the earth, and the confession on the part of the wicked that the great day of 
God's wrath is come. They are doubtless in momentary expectation of seeing 
the King appear in, to them, unendurable glory. But the seal stops just short 
of that event. The personal appearing of Christ must therefore be allotted to 
the next seal. But when the Lord appears, he comes with all the holy angels 
with him. Matt. 25 : 31. And when all the heavenly harpers leave the courts 
above to come down with their divine Lord, as he descends to gather the fruit of 
his redeeming work, will not there be silence in heaven? 

" The length of this period of silence, if we consider it prophetic time, would 
be about seven days." — On chap. 8, " The Seven Trumpets." — Eds. 

If John Huss, or good Jerome of Prague, or John Wickliff before 
them both, or William Brute, Thorpe, Swinderby, or the Lord Cobham; 
if Zisca with all the company of the Bohemians; if the Earl Reimond, 
with all the Toulousians; if the Waldois, or the Albigenses, with in- 
finite others, had either been in these our times now, or else had seen 
then this ruin of the Pope, and revealing of Antichrist, which the Lord 
now hath dispensed unto us, what joy and triumph would they have 
made! Wherefore, now, beholding that thing which they so long time 
have wished for, let us not think the benefit to be small, but render 
therefore most humble thanks to the Lord our God, who by his mighty 
power, and the brightness of his Word, hath revealed this great enemy 
of his so manifestly to the eyes of all men, who before was hid in the 
church so colorably, that almost few Christians could espy him. — " Acts 
and Monuments," John Foxe, Vol. IV, oooTc 7, p. 555, 556. 

Note. — It was in 1506 that John Foxe sounded this note of joy for de- 
liverance, and of longing that the martyrs of Jesus might have foreseen the 
cutting short of papal power. His truly monumental work, preserving the mem- 
ory of those witnesses of the period of papal supremacy, well stands, with many 
others, as a comment on the prophecy that the tribute of the white robes of 
honor should be given to those who had been slain for the truth. — Eds. 

Seven Seals, Sixth Period. — See Dark Day; Earthquakes; Falling 
Stars. 



SEVEN TRUMPETS — FIRST FOUR. 



499 



Seven Seals, Seventh Period. — See Advent, Second. 

Seventh-day Adventists. — See Advent, Second, 22-26; Sabbath, 
Change of, 473. 

Seventh-day Baptists. — See Advent, Second, 23 ; Sabbath, 469. 
Seventh-day Sahbath. — See Sabbath. 

Seven Trumpets, Meaning of Symbols (Rev. 8: 3-5). — After "the 
smoke of the incense had ascended with the prayers of the saints, from 
the hand of the angel before God," the angel took the censer, and filled 
it with fire. In Psalm 18: 8, the wrath of God is compared to fire; and 
the effects of his wrath, which are war, famine, and other scourges, are 
described under the same simile. And thus it is explained by Sir Isaac 
Newton, who says, " burning anything with fire is put for the consuming 
thereof by war." Such a fire was cast upon " the earth," the Roman 
world, the territorial platform of prophecy; " and there were voices, and 
thunderings, and lightnings," wars and hostile invasions; "and an 
earthquake," or a complete overturning of the established order of 
things. So complete indeed was the change effected by the first four 
trumpets alone, that new forms of government, new manners, new laws, 
new dresses, new languages, new names of men and countries, were 
everywhere throughout the Western Empire introduced. — "An Historical 
Exposition of the Prophecies of the Revelation of St. John'' Matthew 
Habershon, pp. 121, 122. London: James Nisbet & Co., 1841. 

Seven Trumpets, The Fiest Four; Events of Western Rome's 
Downfall Summarized. — At this point in writing [notes on Rev. 8: 7], 
I looked on a chart in history, composed with no reference to this 
prophecy, and found a singular and unexpected prominence given to 
four such events extending from the first invasion of the Goths and 
Vandals at the beginning of the fifth century, to the fall of the Western 
Empire, a. d. 476. The first was the invasion of Alaric, king of the 
Goths, a. d. 410; a second was the invasion of Attila, king of the Huns, 
" scourge of God," a. d. 447; a third was the sack of Rome by Genseric, 
king of the Vandals, a. d. 455; and the fourth, resulting in the final 
conquest of Rome, was that of Odoacer, king of the Heruli, who as- 
sumed the title of King of Italy, a. d. 476. We shall see, however, on 
a closer examination, that although two of these — Attila and Genseric 
— were, during a part of their career, contemporary, yet the most 
prominent place is due to Genseric in the events that attended the 
downfall of the empire, and that the second trumpet probably related 
to him; the third to Attila. These were, beyond doubt, four great 
periods or events attending the fall of the Roman Empire. — "Notes on 
the Book of Revelation," Albert Barnes (Presbyterian), p. 224. New 
York: Harper & Brothers. 

Seven Trumpets, on the " Third Part " of the Empire. — These 
three parts of the Roman Empire [speaking of early imperial time] the 
really Roman, the Greek, and the Oriental. — " Historical Geography of 
Europe," E. A. Freeman, p. 72. 

In the time of Constantine, the Roman Empire was divided into 
three great sections: to Constantine was assigned Gaul, Spain, Britain, 
Italy, Africa; to Licinius, the Illyrian Prefecture; to Maximin, the 
Asiatic Provinces and Egypt. — "Apocalyptic Sketches," Gumming, Vol. 
II, p. 63. 



500 



SEVEN TRUMPETS — FIRST. 



Each one included its third of the Mediterranean or Roman sea, as 
well as its third of the land: and each one also its own characteristic 
stream of the three great frontier rivers, the Rhine, Danube, and Eu- 
phrates. — " Horce Apocalypticw," Rev. E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. I, p. 342. 
London: Seeley, Burnside, and Seeley, 1847. 

Note. — The division of Constantine's time is usually adhered to by students, 
the blows under the trumpets falling first upon the western third, then, under 
the Saracens, and especially the Turks, upon the Eastern third part. The middle 
third, according to this division, may be counted as having suffered with the 
others, the blows that overturned the empire being really dealt in the West and 
in the East of which Rome and Constantinople were the capitals. 

It may be remarked that there was another threefold division sometimes 
reckoned, from ancient times referred to by Jordanes, who wrote about 551, in 
the closing days of the fourth trumpet. Speaking of the uprooting of the Van- 
dals, he says : " Thus after a century Africa, which in the division of the earth's 
surface is regarded as the third part of the world, was delivered from the yoke 
of the Vandals." — " The Origin and Deeds of the Goths," chap. 88. 

Habershon takes this geographical division in his comments on the " third 
part " in the first four trumpets : 

" It here refers altogether to the western part of the empire ; as being that 
of the greatest extent, that of which the city of Rome itself was the capital, 
and that which alone answers to the symbols. The other two portions of it were 
that of the East, of which Constantinople, called by many ' New Rome,' was the 
capital ; and that of the South, of which the metropolis was Carthage, called by 
contemporary writers ' the Rome of the African world.' This was the most 
remarkable and eminent division of the universal and extensive Roman Empire, 
and one that was recognized even in St. John's days." — "Historical Exposition 
of the Prophecies of the Revelation of St. John," pp. 12b, 1%5. 

It is suggestive to note again in this division how while the blows fell upon 
the western and eastern thirds, the southern third was also broken off and sep- 
arated by the Vandal invasion. — Eds. 

Seven Trumpets, The First; Out of the North. — The first 
trumpet, we see, brings a terrible storm from the north, the region of 
hail; and the nature of the storm shows the nature of the judgment. 
Hail and fire, mingled with blood, can certainly denote nothing but such 
irruptions from the north as should cause terrible blood-shedding and 
slaughter; and this confined to the third part of the earth, with its con- 
tents, the trees and grass, i. e., on the continent part of Europe, in con- 
tradistinction from the maritime parts, and from those abounding with 
rivers and waters. — " Essay on the Revelation," William Whiston, M. A. 
(Sir Isaac Newton's successor in Mathematics at Cambridge University), 
2d edition, p. 176. London, 1744. 

Seven Trumpets, The First; Like Hail and Fire — Phi lostorgius, 
who lived in and wrote of these times, saith that " the sword of the 
barbarians destroyed the greatest multitude of men; and among other 
calamities dry heats with flashes of flame and whirlwinds of fire occa- 
sioned various and intolerable terrors; yea, and hail, greater than could 
be held in a man's hand, fell down in several places, weighing as much 
as eight pounds." (Philostorgii Hist. Eccles., lib. 11, cap. 7.) Well 
therefore might the prophet compare these incursions of the barbarians 
to " hail and fire mingled with blood." Claudian, in like manner, com- 
pares them to a storm of hail in his. poem on this very war: 
" Where'er the furies drive, the scattered host 

Rush through dark paths and labyrinths unknown; 

Like showering hail, or pestilential breath." 
— " Dissertations on the Prophecies," Thomas Neivton, D. D. (1754), pp. 
536, 537. London: William Tegg & Co., 1849. 

Note. — How remarkably the picture drawn by the pen of Gibbon corre- 
sponds to the picture of the prophecy, — " hail," " fire," " blood," desolation of 
fertile lands — is shown by the following phrases from the " History of the De- 
cline and Fall of the Roman Empire" (Harper's 6 vol. ed.) : 



SEVEN TRUMPETS — FIRST. 



501 



Chapter 26 : " He [Valens, a. d. 375] was informed that the North was 
agitated by a furious tempest." — Page 80, par. 13. 

" A formidable tempest of the barbarians of Germany seemed ready to burst 
over the provinces of Gaul." — Page 57, par. 26. 

Chapter 30 : " The Gothic nation [a. d. 395] was in arms. . . . Deserted 
their farms at the first sound of the trumpet." — Page 190, par. i. 

" Flaming villages. . . . The deep and bloody traces of the march of the 
Goths." — Page 192, par. 2. 

•'His trees, his old contemporary trees [said Claudian, the poet of Verona, 
Italy], must blaze in the conflagration of the whole country." — Page 200, par. 5. 

" The dark cloud, which was collected along the coast of the Baltic, burst in 
thunder upon the banks of the Upper Danube." — Page 216, par. 15. 

" This scene of peace and plenty was suddenly changed into a desert ; and 
the prospect of the smoking ruins could alone distinguish the solitude of nature 
from the desolation of man. . . . The consuming flames of war spread from the 
banks of the Rhine over the greatest part of the seventeen provinces of Gaul. 
That rich and extensive country, as far as the ocean, the Alps, and the Pyrenees, 
was delivered to the barbarians.'* — Pages 223, 22k, i>ar. 19. — Eds. 

The north poured down from it her flood of warriors. From the 
extremity of Scandinavia to the frontiers of China, nation after nation 
appeared, the new pressing upon the older-settled, crushing it, and mark- 
ing its onward passage with blood and devastation. The calamities 
which afflicted the human race at that period exceed, in extent of deso- 
lation, in number of victims, in intensity of suffering, all that has ever 
been presented to our affrighted imagination. We dare not calculate the 
millions upon millions of human beings who perished before the down- 
fall of the Roman Empire was accomplished. — " The Fall of the Roman 
Empire," De Sismondi, Vol. I, chap. 1, p. 18. 

Seven Trumpets, The First; Elliott on. — And then the first 
trumpet sounded. His [Alaric's] course was to Italy. As he told an 
Italian monk afterwards, " he felt a secret and preternatural impulse, 
which directed, and even impelled, his march to the gates of Rome/' 
As his trumpet sounded and his march advanced, terrible omens and 
prognostications, we read, preceded him. " The Christians," says Gib- 
bon, " derived comfort from the powerful intercession of the saints and 
martyrs." So he notes again the very cause, prefigured in the Apoca- 
lypse, of the coming judgments. Thrice, in fulfilment of his destiny, he 
descended from the Alps on the Italian plains; marking his course each 
step, as the awe-struck historians of the times tell us, in country and in 
town, with ravage, conflagration, and blood; till the gates of Rome itself 
were opened to the conqueror, and the Gothic fires blazed around the 
capitol. 

In the meantime other destroyers, of a kindred race and origin, had 
extended their ravages to the trans-rhenane provinces. Between Alaric's 
first and second invasions of Italy, Rhadagaisus, from the far north of 
Germany, with a host of Vandals, Suevi, and Burgundians, burst, " like 
a dark thundercloud from the Baltic," as Gibbon graphically describes 
it, on the Rhsetian and Italian valleys. With slaughter and difficulty 
they were repulsed by the Roman general from near Florence. But it 
was only to bend the course of the vast remnant westward; and over- 
whelm the provinces, till then flourishing and fertile, of Gaul and 
Spain. . . . 

" The consuming flames of war," says Gibbon, " spread from the 
banks of the Rhine over the greatest part of the seventeen provinces of 
Gaul. The scene of peace and plenty was suddenly changed into a 
desert." ... A similar description is given of the desolation of Spain. 
And the desolators entered, never to retire. " This passage of the 
Rhine," he adds, " by the Suevi, Vandals, and Burgundians, who never 
afterwards retreated, may be considered as the fall of the Roman Em- 
pire in the countries beyond the Alps. . . . 



502 



SEVEN TRUMPETS — SECOND. 



The era of Alaric and Rhadagaisus, — that is, of the first trumpet, 
— is to be considered as chiefly embracing some ten or twelve years, 
from a. d. 400 to about a. d. 410; though, as tne ravages of the provinces 
were not then discontinued, we may perhaps consider the vision before 
us to embrace a period somewhat longer. In that latter year the Van- 
dals had extended their conquests to the straits of Gades; and Alaric, 
having accomplished his destiny, and reached in his desolating course 
the southernmost coast of Italy, — while meditating still further con- 
quests, which were intended, however, for another hand and another 
trumpet, — was arrested suddenly by the hand of death. — " Horce Apoca- 
lyptical," Rev. E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. I, pp. 351-353. London: Seeley, 
Burnside, and Seeley, 1847. 

Seven Trumpets, The First; Elliott's Helpful Footnote. — The 
chronological intermingling of the invasions of Italy by Alaric and 
Rhadagaisus will appear from the following tabular sketch: 

A. D. 

396 Alaric's invasion of Greece. 
400-403 His first invasion of Italy (Gibbon, V. 190). 

406 Rhadagaisus with 300,000 Vandals from the Baltic, march- 
ing by way of the Upper Danube, invades Italy. 
Defeated and killed under the walls of Florence, the re- 
mains of his army retire from Italy, and cross the Rhine 
into France. 
408 Alaric's first siege of Rome. 

— Id., p. 352, -footnote 1. 

Seven Trumpets, The First; Recognized as a Judgment. — All 
persons of sense were aware that the calamities which this siege [of 
Rome, by Alaric] entailed upon the Romans were indications of divine 
wrath, sent to chastise them for their luxury, their debauchery, and 
their manifold acts of injustice towards each other, as well as towards 
strangers. It is said that when Alaric was marching against Rome, a 
monk of Italy besought him to spare the city, and not to become the 
author of so many calamities. Alaric, in reply, assured him that he did 
not feel disposed to commence the siege, but found himself compelled by 
some hidden and irresistible impulse to accomplish the enterprise. — 
" The Ecclesiastical History of Sozoman," book 9, chap. 6, p. 413 (Bohn's 
Classical Library). London: Henry G. Bohn, 1855. 

The Roman world is falling: yet we hold up our heads instead of 
bowing them. — Jerome (at Bethlehem), Epistles, Letter 60, "To Helio- 

dorus;" cited in " Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers," Vol. VI, p. 130. 

Seven Trumpets, First. — See Rome, Its Barbarian Invaders, Goths, 
444-450. 

Seven Trumpets, The Second; The Burning Mountain Cast into 
the Sea. — To the Vandal Genseric was allotted the conquest of the 
maritime provinces of Africa, and the islands: all in short that be- 
longed to the Western Empire in the Mediterranean; and which Alaric 
(as just alluded to) was prevented attempting by death. It belonged, 
I say, to Genseric; "a name," observes Gibbon, "which, in the destruc- 
tion of the Roman Empire, has deserved an equal rank with the names 
of Alaric and Attila." It was in the year 429 that he entered on it. In 
the course of the eighteen years preceding, no new invasion had broken 
on the Western Empire. . . . Africa, the granary of Rome and Italy, had 
continued to flourish intact, as before. But now its time was come. 



SEVEN TRUMPETS — SECOND. 



503 



Invited, under the influence of temporary infatuation, by Count Boni- 
face, governor of the province, Genseric, in the year above mentioned, 
transported thither his Vandals from Spain across the Afric sea: . . . 
Then was Hippo taken and burnt; and then in 439 Carthage. With the 
capture of which, resistance ended. The whole province was subjected 
to the Vandals, and finally severed from the Western Empire. 

Thus a part of the prefigurations of the second trumpet had been 
fulfilled. But its ships, and the insular provinces of Sicily and Sar- 
dinia, still remained to the Western Empire; of the destruction of 
which the prophecy seemed to speak also. For it said, " The third part 
of the creatures which were in the sea, and had life, died; and the third 
part of ships was destroyed." Was this too fulfilled by Genseric? Mark 
what followed after the capture of Carthage. Finding himself shut in 
to the south by the desert, Genseric, we are told, cast his eyes to the 
sea, and determined to create a naval power. And then " the fleets [the 
Vandal fleets] that issued from the port of Carthage again claimed the 
empire of the Mediterranean. Sicily was conquered by them, and Sar- 
dinia, and the other Western isles; all that was in the third part of the 
sea. . . . 

Twice, on occasion alike memorable, the Roman navies, with vast 
preparations, were collected to destroy the Vandal power. But sud- 
denly and most disastrously, in the harbors of Carthagena and Bona, 
when the eyes of the Romans were fixed on them with hopes raised to 
the highest, they were utterly destroyed; in the latter case by fire-ships 
driven among them in the obscurity of night. So that the remainder of 
the prediction was fulfilled also. The fire of the Vandal volcano might 
not spend itself, until not only what was habitable in the Western sea 
was destroyed, but "the third part of the ships" also; those that navi- 
gated the sea-third of the Western Empire. — " Horce Apocalyptical" Rev. 
E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. I, pp. 353-356, 3d edition. London: Seeley, Burn- 
side, and Seeley, 1847. 

Seven Trumpets, The Second; but One Barbarian Sea Power. — 
The Vandals were unique among the German nations by the fact that 
they maintained a fleet. — "History of the Later Roman Empire," J. B. 
Bury, Vol. I, p. 162. 

Note. — Again mark how Gibbon's pen describes the transfer of the attacks 
upon Western Rome from the land portions to the maritime parts. ("Decline and 
Fall of the Roman Empire," Vol. Ill of Harper's 6 vol. ed.) : 

Chapter 36 : " The loss or desolation of the provinces, from the ocean to the 
Alps, impaired the glory and greatness of Rome: her internal prosperity was 
irretrievably desti'oyed by the separation of Africa. . . . After an interval of six 
centuries, the fleets that issued from the port of Carthage again claimed the 
empire of the Mediterranean." — Page ! t 59, par. 1. 

" Genseric boldly advanced from the port of Ostia to the gates of the de- 
fenseless city [Romel. . . . The pillage lasted fourteen days and nights; and alt 
that yet remained of public or private wealth, of sacred or profane treasure, was 
diligently transported to the vessels of Genseric." — Page if6S, par. 4. 

" The Vandals repeatedly visited the coasts of Spain, Llguria, Tuscany. 
Campania. Lucania, Bruttium, Apulia. Calabria. Venetia. Dalmatia. Epirus, 
Greece, and Sicily : they were tempted to subdue the island of Sardinia, so 
advantageously placed in the center of the Mediterranean ; and their arms 
snread desolation, or terror, from the Columns of Hercules to the mouth of the 
Nile." — Page 486> par. 15. 

"After the failure of this great expedition THome's attempt by fleet to de- 
stroy the Vandal power, a. d. 468. — Eps.1. Genseric again became the tyrant of 
the sea : the coasts of Italy. Greece, and Asia, were again exposed to his revenge 
and avarice : Tripoli and Sardinia returned to his obedience : he added Sicily to 
the number of his provinces : and before he died, in the fulness of years and of 
glory, he beheld the final extinction of the Empire of the West." — Pages 497, 
1,98, par. 21. 



504 



SEVEN TRUMPETS — THIRD. 



When Genseric carried away the spoils of Rome in his ships, he took the 
golden candlestick and other treasures from the temple at Jerusalem, which 
Titus had carried off to grace his triumph. — fins. 

Seven Trumpets, The Second; Gen seeks Accounting Himself as 
Agent of Weath. — Now that the fleets, the arsenal, the docks of Car- 
thage were all their own, now that its harbor — one of the finest in the 
Old World — reflected everywhere the Vandal flag, they became under 
Gaiseric's guidance the first naval power on the Mediterranean. . . . 
At length the work [of ravaging the coasts] became almost monotonous, 
and the choice of a victim, hard. Once when the fleet had weighed 
anchor and was sailing forth from the broad harbor of Carthage, the 
helmsman turned to the king and asked for what port he should steer. 
" For the men with whom God is angry," answered the Vandal king, 
and left the winds and the waters to settle the question who were the 
proper objects of the wrath of Heaven. — " TJie Dynasty of Theodosius,'' 
Thomas Hodgkin, pp. 219, 220. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1889. 

Seven Trumpets, The Second; Vandals Sweep the Mediteeeanean. 
— This great city [Carthage] the Rome of the African world (as a 
contemporary calls it), opened its gates to the Vandals on the 9th of 
October, 439. . . . After a sea of blood had been shed, every kind of 
property was pillaged. . . . The loss of Africa was, perhaps, one of the 
greatest calamities which could have overtaken the Western Empire. — 
" The Fall of the Roman Empire,'" J. C. L. DeSismondi, Vol. J, chap. 
7, pp. 155, 156. 

Seven Trumpets, Second. — See Rome, Its Barbarian Invaders, Van- 
dals, 456, 457. 

Seven Trumpets, The Third; "There Fell a Great Star . . . 
Burning." — But after a short space of time, as Orosius relates, the race 
of the Huns, fiercer than ferocity itself, flamed forth. — " The Origin and 
Deeds of the Goths,'" Jordanes, chap. 24, p. 38, Mierow's translation. 
Princeton, 1908. 

Seven Trumpets, The Thied; Attila's Invasion of the Rivees. — 
About a. d. 450, in fulfilment of a treaty with Genseric, he [Attila] moved 
against the Western provinces along the Upper Danube; reached and 
crossed the Rhine at Basle, and thence tracing the same great fron- 
tier stream of the West down to Belgium, made its valley one scene of 
desolation and woe. ... He was repulsed in the tremendous battle of 
Chalons. And whither then, when thus forced to retrace his steps, did 
he direct them? Whither but to fall on another destined scene of rav- 
age, " the European fountains of waters," in the Alpine heights and 
Alpine valleys of Italy. . . . 

But what further of his course of devastation? Surely, with Italy 
all defenseless before him, one might have expected that, like his prede- 
cessor Alaric, it would have continued on to Rome and the far coast of 
Bruttium. Instead of this, behold an embassy from the Western em- 
peror Valentinian, accompanied by the venerable Romish bishop Leo 
the First, was successful at this point in deprecating his wra'th: and 
having granted them peace, and leaving bands only of Heruli and Ostro- 
goths in the Tyrolese country intermediate, he repassed the Alps, and 
retired. 

Wherefore a result, humanly speaking, so unlikely? Methinks we 
may see the reason. The prediction had expressly marked the term of 
Attila's desolating progress, — "the third of the rivers, and the foun- 
tains of waters." Already Attila had made bitter, besides the surplus- 



SEVEN TRUMPETS — FOURTH. 



505 



age of more Eastern scenes, the river line of the upper Danube and 
Rhine, and the Alpine fountains of waters. Many had died, and still 
continued to die, that drank of the waters, through famine, disease, and 
pestilence. This being done, his course was to end. " Thus far shalt 
thou go, and no further." 

Returned from Italy, he recrossed the Danube; reached the royal 
village between it and the Teiss; and there, the very next year, was sud- 
denly cut off by apoplexy. This occurred a. d. 453. So the meteor was 
extinct; the empire and power of the Huns broken. The woe of the 
third trumpet had passed away. — " Horce Apocalypticw," Rev. E. B. El- 
liott, A. M., Vol. I, pp. 357, 358. London: Seeley, Burnside, and Seeley, 
1847. 

Seven Trumpets, The Third; Meteoric Career of Attila. — When 
in wrath he was like an embodied volcano, his eyes becoming like 
points or fire. No one in all history has imbued millions of mankind 
with such an amount of terror as this hideous little Tartar. — " East 
and West Through Fifteen Centuries," C. F. Young, Vol. 11, p. 85 * 

His vast empire thereupon [at his death] broke up, his numerous 
sons fighting together over it; and in these contests, happily for Eu- 
rope, the Huns exterminated themselves. — Id., p. 116* 

The rise of the great Hunnic power, which threatened European 
civilization in the fifth century, was as sudden and rapid as its fall. — 
" History of the Later Roman Empire,'" J. B. Bury,. Vol. I, chap. 7, p. 161. 

Seven Trumpets, The Third; Bitterness of Attila's Visitation. 
— Being styled " Metus Orbis," and Flagellum Dei; the Scourge of God 
and Terror of Men. — " Essay on the Revelation," William Whiston, p. 
184. Cambridge: B. Tooke, 1706. 

This invasion is the most celebrated in our people's discourses, of 
all those which the barbarians have ma*de upon us; and is the most 
talked of among the vulgar. ..." And now all the countries which 
were within the Appennine Mountains and the Alps were full of flight, 
of depopulation, of slaughter, of slavery, of burning, and despair."' — 
Sigonius (a contemporary); cited in "Essay on the Revelation" William 
Whiston, p. 184. Cambridge : B. Tooke, 1706. 

Seven Trumpets, The Third; Attila Recognized as Agent of Ven- 
geance. — It was during the retreat from Orleans that a Christian her- 
mit is reported to have approached the Hunnish king and said to him, 
" Thou art the Scourge of God for the chastisement of Christians." 
Attila instantly assumed this new title of terror, which thenceforth 
became the appellation by which he was most widely and most fearfully 
known. — " Decisive Battles of the World," Sir Edward S. Creasy, " Cha- 
lons," chap. 6, p. 162. New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1898. 

Not merely the degenerate Romans, but the bold and hardy war- 
riors of Germany and Scandinavia, were appalled at the numbers, the 
ferocity, the ghastly appearance, and the lightning-like rapidity of the 
Huns. . . . His own warriors believed him [Attila] to be the inspired 
favorite of their deities, and followed him with fanatic zeal. His ene- 
mies looked, on him as the preappointed minister of Heaven's wrath 
against them'selves. — Id., p. 7. 



Seven Trumpets, Third. — See Rome, Its Barbarian Invaders, Huns, 

452. 



506 



SEVEN TRUMPETS — FOURTH. 



Seven Trumpets, The Fourth; The Light of Empire Extinguished 
in the West. — Some twenty years or more from the death of Attila, 
and much less from that of Genseric, . . . Odoacer, chief of the Heruli, 
— a barbarian remnant of the host of Attila, left on the Alpine frontiers 
of Italy, — interposed with his command that the name and the office of 
Roman Emperor of the West should be abolished. The authorities 
bowed in submission to him. The last phantom of an emperor, whose 
name Romulus Augustus was singularly calculated to bring in contrast 
before the reflective mind the past glories of Rome and its present deg- 
radation, abdicated: and the senate sent away the imperial insignia to 
Constantinople; professing to the emperor of the East that one emperor 
was sufficient for the whole of the empire. Thus of the Roman imperial 
sun that third which appertained to the Western Empire was eclipsed, 
and shone no more. . . . Thus in the West " the extinction of the em- 
pire " had taken place; the night had fallen. 

Notwithstanding this, however, it must be borne in mind that the 
authority of the Roman name had not yet entirely ceased. The senate 
of Rome continued to assemble, as usual. The consuls were appointed 
yearly, one by the Eastern emperor, one by Italy and Rome. . . . The 
moon and the stars might seem still to shine on the west, with a dim 
reflected light. In the course of events, however, which rapidly followed 
one on the other in the next half century, these too were extinguished. 
. . . The Roman senate was dissolved, the consulship abrogated; . . . 
the statement of Jerome, — a statement couched under the very apoca- 
lyptic figure of the text, but prematurely pronounced on the first taking 
of Rome by Alaric, — might be considered as at length accomplished; 
" Clarissimum terrarum lumen extinction est" ("The world's glorious 
sun has been extinguished' ): or, as the modern poet has expressed it, 
still under the same apocalyptic imagery, 

" She saw her glories star by star expire; " 
till not even one star remained, to glimmer on the vacput and dark 
night. — " Horw Apocalypticce," Rev. E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. I, pp. 358- 
361. London: Seeley, Burnside, and Seeley. 1847. 

Seven Trumpets, The Fourth; Gibbon on the Extinction of the 
Imperial Office. — The submissive people of Italy was prepared to obey, 
without a murmur, the authority which he [Odoacer] should conde- 
scend to exercise as the vicegerent of the Emperor of the West. But 
Odoacer had resolved to abolish that useless and expensive office; and 
such is the weight of antique prejudice that it required some boldness 
and penetration to discover the extreme facility of the enterprise. The 
unfortunate Augustulus [the emperor] was made the instrument of his 
own disgrace: he signified his resignation to the senate; and that assem- 
bly, in their last act of obedience to a Roman prince, still affected the 
spirit of freedom and the forms of the constitution. An epistle was 
addressed, by their unanimous decree, to the emperor Zeno, the son- 
in-law and successor of Leo, who had lately been restored, after a short 
rebellion, to the Byzantine tnrone. They solemnly " disclaim the neces- 
sity, or even the wish, of continuing any longer the imperial succession 
in Italy; since, in their opinion, the majesty of a sole monarch is suffi- 
cient to pervade and protect, at the same time, both the East and the 
West. In their own name, and in the name of the people, they consent 
that the seat of universal empire shall be transferred from Rome to 
Constantinople; and they basely renounce the right of choosing their 
master, the only vestige that yet remained of the authority which had 
given laws to the world. The republic (they repeat that name without a 
blush) might safely confide in the civil and military virtues of Odoacer; 
and they humbly request that the emperor would invest him with the 



SEVEN TRUMPETS — FIFTH. 



507 



title of Patrician, and the administration of the diocese of Italy." — " The 
History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," Edward Gibbon, 
chap. 36. par. 30 (Vol. Ill, p. 512). New York: Harper & Brothers. 

Seven Trumpets, The Foueth; Early Expositor on. — The sun 
shone at Rome as long as the consular dignity and the kingdom was pos- 
sessed of authority over other cities and provinces. The moon and the 
stars shone there as long as the ancient power of the senate, and of the 
other magistrates remained. But these being all taken away (which 
was done by this trumpet), what was there but darkness, and a univer- 
sal failure of light, both diurnal and nocturnal? Namely, what belonged 
to that city, to which a third part of the light of heaven was attributed? 
— " Clavis Apocalyptical Joseph Mede (1627), Cooper's translation, p. 
171. London. 

Seven Trumpets, The Fourth; The Consulship Abolished. — The 
first magistrates of the republic [the consuls] had been chosen by the 
people, to exercise, in the senate and in the camp, the powers of peace 
and war, which were afterwards translated to the emperors. But the 
tradition of ancient dignity was long revered by the Romans and bar- 
barians. A Gothic historian applauds the consulship of Theodoric 
[a. d. 493-526] as the height of all temporal glory and greatness; the 
king of Italy himself congratulated those annual favorites of fortune 
who, without the cares, enjoyed the splendor of the throne. . . . 

The succession of consuls finally ceased in the thirteenth year of 
Justinian [a. d. 541], whose despotic temper might be gratified by the 
silent extinction of a title which admonished the Romans of their an- 
cient freedom. — " The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman 
Empire" Edward Gibbon, chap. 40, par. 30 (Vol. IV, pp. 110, 111). New 
York: Harper & Brothers. 

Seven Trumpets, The Fourth; The August Senate Extinguished. 
— That senate of which he who declared that it was composed of kings, 
alone formed a true idea. — "History of Rome," Livy, book 9, chap. 17; 
Everyman's Library, Vol. II, p. 181. 

After a period of thirteen centuries [in the time of Justinian, about 
553] the institution of Romulus [the senate] expired; and if the nobles 
of Rome still assumed the title of senators, few subsequent traces can 
be discovered of a public council or constitutional order. Ascend six 
hundred years, and contemplate the kings of the earth soliciting an 
audience, as the slaves or freedmen of the Roman senate! — " The His- 
tory of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," Edward Gibbon, 
chap. 43, par. 17 (Vol. IV, p. 273). New York: Harper & Brothers. 

Where is the senate? Where are the people? . . . All the glory of 
earthly dignity has expired from the city. — Pope Gregory the Great 
[A. D. 540-604}, Homilies on Ezekiel (2:6, sec. 22); cited in "Life of 
Gregory the Great" Frederick Homes Dudden. Vol. I. p. 185. 

Seven Trumpets, Fourth. — See Rome, Its Barbarian Invaders, 
Goths, 444-450; Heruli, 450-452. 

Seven Trumpets, Old Expositor on the Fifth and Sixth. — As to 
the two following trumpets, they so evidently refer to the Saracens and 
Turks, that there are scarcely two opinions on the subject. — "Signs of 
the Times: Overthrow of the Papal Tyranny in France," J. Bicheno, p. 
162. London, 1799. 



508 



SEVEN TRUMPETS — FIFTH. 



Seven Trumpets, The Fifth; Symbolism Arabian. — The locust 
form indicated their swarming in numbers numberless; their being in 
their migratory progress rapid, far-ranging, and irresistible. . . . The 
horselike appearance seemed to imply that they would be hordes of 
cavalry; the likeness to the lion, that they would be savage destroyers 
of life; and to the scorpion, that of those in Christendom, whose lives 
they spared, they would be the tormentors, even as with a scorpion's 
poison sting. . . . 

The locust, the ground work of the symbol, is peculiarly Arabic. 
So the sacred history of ancient times informs us. " It was the east 
wind," it says, "which brought the locusts" on Egypt. Ex. 10: 13. . . . 
And indeed the locust simile is one used in other and earlier scriptures, 
with its usual appropriateness, to designate the numbers and character 
of an invading Arab horde. Judges 6: 5. Again, as of the locust, so of 
the scorpion, the native locality was by the Jews considered the Arabian 
desert. Witness Moses' own words to the Israelites, on emerging from 
it, after forty years' wandering: "that great and terrible wilderness 
wherein were fiery serpents and scorpions." And who knows not, if 
facts so notorious be worth mentioning, that it is Arabia, still Arabia, 
that is regarded by naturalists as the original country of the horse; and 
that its wildernesses are the haunts also of the lion? The zoology of the 
hieroglyphic is all Arabian. — " Horce Apocalypticce," Rev. E. B. Elliott, 
A. M., Vol. I, pp. 407-409, 3d edition. London: Seeley, Burnside, and 
Seeley, 1847. 

Seven Trumpets, The Fifth; As Historians Describe the Sara- 
cens. — Onward and still onward, like swarms from the hive, or nights 
of locusts darkening the land, tribe after tribe issued forth, and hasten- 
ing northward, spread in great masses to the east and to the west. — 
" The Caliphate" Sir William Muir, p. 44. London: Religious Tract 
Society, 1892. 

The Persian Empire soon attracted the arms of " these locusts," as 
the swarms of hungry Saracens were not inaptly called.—" The Otto- 
man Empire,'" Edward Upham, Vol. I, p. 40. Edinburgh: Constable d 
Co., 1829. 

Seven Trumpets, The Fifth; The First Caliph of the Saracens. 
— He [Mahomet] was like a star that fell from heaven (Rev. 9: 1), a 
bright and illustrious prince, as if heaven-endowed, but fallen. Would 
anything better characterize the genius, the power, and the splendid 
but perverted talent of Mohammed? Mohammed was, moreover, by 
birth, of the princely house of the Koreish, governors of Mecca, and to 
no one could the term be more appropriate than to one of that family. 
He was a king. That is, there was to be one monarch — one ruling 
spirit to which all these hosts were subject. And never was anything 
more appropriate than this title as applied to the leader of the Arabic 
hosts. — "Notes on the Book of Revelation,'" Albert Barnes (Presbyte- 
rian), on Revelation 9, p. 253. New York: Harper & Brothers. 

Seven Trumpets, The Fifth; Mahomet, Founder of Mohammed- 
anism. — Mohammed, " The Praised," . . . was born at Mecca Aug. 20, 
570, and died at Medina June 8, 632. ... In 609, in consequence of a 
vision in which Gabriel commanded him (though illiterate) to read 
what appears in the Koran as Surah xcvi. 1-5, he began to preach. 

His earliest labors were in his family and among his intimates. 
Hadijah [his wife] was his first convert. Ali and Zaid, his adopted 
children, were next, and then his friend Abu Bekr. Three years of 



SEVEN TRUMPETS — FIFTH. 



509 



preaching gained him about, fifty followers, and then (612) he began to 
teach in public, using a house opposite the Kaaba. His points were 
three: (1) The oneness and absoluteness of Allah who (2) revealed his 
will to men (3) by chosen men who were prophets. ... By this time 
he had abandoned idolatry in consequence of his first principle. . . . 

The rancorous opposition of Meccans continuing and extending even 
to the point of banning him and his supporters, he exiled himself, and 
in the Hejira, " Flight," to Medina he took the step which made the 
Mohammedan era, June 16, 622 a. d. This was the turning-point in his 
career, the beginning of success. . . . 

Citizenship was made dependent not on family but on faith, pre- 
paring the way for a united Arabia and a world religion. For the tri- 
umph of the faith the bonds of kinship had to yield if they stood in its 
way — Mohammed did not blanch at fratricidal war. The idolater, even 
though a brother, was doomed unless he gave up this practice, and to 
the believer belonged the idolater's goods. In this last was manifested 
Mohammed's shrewdness, making capital of the Arab's lust for plunder. 
. . . In self-interest Arabs flocked to him, and he was soon ready to 
march upon Mecca, which he had already fixed upon as the center of 
the faith. . . . Before the prophet's death all Arabia was at his feet; 
Christians and Jewish tribes were permitted to exist, but only upon con- 
dition of paying a heavy tribute. — The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclope- 
dia, Vol. VII, art. "Mohammed" pp. 436-438. New York: Funk and 
Wag?ialls Company. 

Seven Trumpets, The Fifth; Out of the Pit. — The observer could 
scarce be mistaken in interpreting this smoke from the pit of the abyss 
as an emanation from the pit of hell; i. e., as some system of error and 
false religion thence originating: originating, it would seem, all on a 
sudden; and of which the effect would be, almost instantaneously, to 
darken the moral atmosphere, and dim the imperial sun in the firma- 
mental heaven. . . . Who knows not the fact that it was after embrac- 
ing Islamism that the Saracen cavalry hordes burst forth in fury on 
Roman Christendom; and yet more, that they were imbued from this 
very source with the qualities that the symbols in the vision indicated? 
For there is indeed a perfect fitness in the representation of the sym- 
bolic locusts as issuing forth, all formed in character, out of the smoke 
from the pit of the abyss. It was the religion of Mahomet in fact, that 
made the Arabs what they were. It was this that for the first time 
united them in one, in numbers countless as the locusts; this that gave 
them the locustlike impulse to speed forth as its propagandists over the 
world; this which imparted to them, as to lions of the desert, the irre- 
sistible destroying fury of fanaticism; this, further, which . . . had 
already prepared in them a scorpion-like venom of contempt and hatred 
wherewith to torment the subject Christian. — " Horw Apocalyptical 
Rev. E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. I, pp. 415-417, 3d edition. London: Seeley. 
Burnside, and Seeley, 1847. 

So great was the terror which this new power of Lell had already 
struck into the world. — " Philosophy of History" Friedrich von Schlegel, 
Vol. II, Lecture 12, p. 110. 

Note. — The historian comments on the evasive replies, rather than defiance, 
with which Emperor Heraclius, and Chosroes, of Persia, met Mahomet's summons 
to acknowledge him. — Eds. 

Seven Trumpets, The Fifth ; The Supernatural Element. — Even 
though it be admitted that Mahomet laid the foundations of his laws in 
the strongest principles of human nature, and prepared the fabric of 



510 



SEVEN TRUMPETS — FIFTH. 



his empire with the profoundest wisdom, still there can be no doubt 
that no human intelligence could, during his lifetime, have foreseen, 
and no combinations on the part of one individual could have insured, 
the extraordinary success of his followers. — " History of Greece" George 
Finlay, Vol. I, p. 356. 

Seven Trumpets, The Fifth; Old Expositors on the Scorpion 
Sting. — That is, they had not only the power proper to locusts of eating 
up and depopulating the countries through which they passed, but, what 
was a kind of prodigy, they had tails like scorpions, with the stroke of 
which likewise they diffused poison. Wonderful! A locust scorpion. 
But the nature of the evil which it implies, the symbol of a serpentine 
species seems to point out; for the scorpion is of the serpent kind. . . . 
The tail, therefore, of a scorpion, with the sting, denotes the propagation 
of that diabolical false prophecy of Mohammed, with its whole apparatus, 
on which the Arabian locusts relying, not less than on warlike force, 
inflicted hurt, alas! wherever they went. Nay, this train of foulest 
errors, the Saracens first, from the creation of man, drew after them; 
and, I believe, no nation before them, relying on a similar imposture, 
in religion, and under the pretext of destroying the worship of idols, 
ever contended for the empire of the world. — " Clavis Apocalyptica," 
Joseph Mede (1627 J, translation by R. B. Cooper, p. 176. London. 

These locusts had tails like scorpions, and stings in their tails. All 
the world knows that the tail and the sting in the serpent [scorpion] is 
the seat of venom and poison. And poison is the emblem of false doc- 
trine. Which signifies not only that the Arabians should carry desola- 
tion and death everywhere, but also the venom of a detestable religion. 
Therefore 'tis the devil is called a serpent and a dragon, by reason of 
the poison of false religions that he spreads. — "Accomplishment of the 
Scripture Prophecies," Peter Jurieu. part 1, chap. 7, p. 70. London, 
1687. 

Seven Trumpets, The Fifth; Their Leadership. — The King of 
these locusts was the angel of the bottomless pit, being chief governor 
as well in religious as civil affairs, such as was the caliph of the Sara- 
cens. Swarms of locusts often arise in Arabia Felix, and from thence 
infest the neighboring nations: and so are a very fit type of the numer- 
ous armies of Arabians invading the Romans. — " Observations upon the 
Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John," Sir Isaac Newton, 
part 2, chap. 3, p. 304. London, 1733. 

Since the locusts are at once secular conquerors and the propagators 
of a false religion, their king must stand to them in the double relation 
of a temporal and spiritual chief. Such, accordingly, was Mohammed 
and the caliphs his successors. . . . The twofold idea was aptly ex- 
pressed by his single official denomination, " The Commander of the 
Faithful." — " The Sacred Calendar of Prophecy," G. S. Faber, book 4, 
chap. 7. London, 1844. 

Seven Trumpets, The Fifth; Appearance of the Invading War- 
riors. — So Pliny, St. John's contemporary at the close of the first cen- 
tury, speaks of the Arabs as wearing the turban, having the hair long 
and uncut, with the moustache on the upper lip, or the beard; i that 
" venerable sign of manhood," as Gibbon, in Arab phraseology, calls it. 
So Solinus describes them in the third century; 2 so Ammianus Marcel- 



1 " Arabes mitrati degunt, aut intonso crine. Barba abraditur, prwterquam in 
superiore labro. AUis et hmc intonsa." — Nat. Hist., vi, 28. 

2 c. 53 : " Plurimis crinis intonsus, mitrata capita, pars rasd in cutem barba." 



SEVEN TRUMPETS — FIFTH. 



511 



linus in the fourth; a so Claudian, Theodore of Mopsuesta, and Jerome 
In the fifth. ... In regard to the turban crown, it happens most singu^ 
larly that Ezekiel (23: 42) describes the turbans of the Sabseans or 
Keturite Arabs under this very appellation; " Sabaeans from the wilder- 
ness, which put beautiful crowns upon their heads." . . . The Saracen 
policy was the wearing of defensive armor. The breastplate of iron was 
a feature of description literally answering, like the three others, to the 
Arab warriors of the sixth or seventh century. — " Horw Apocalypticw," 
Rev. E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. I, pp. 411-413, 3d edition. London: See- 
ley, Bu inside, and Seeley, 1847. 

Seven Trumpets, The Fifth; Instructions as Saracens Poured 
Out of Arabia. — When you fight the battles of the Lord, .acquit you like 
men, without turning your backs; but let not your victory be stained 
with the blood of women or children. Destroy no palm trees, nor burn 
any fields of corn. Cut down no fruit trees, nor do any mischief to 
cattle, only such as you kill to eat. When you make any covenant or 
article, stand to it, and be as good as your word. As you go on, you will 
find some religious persons who live retired in monasteries, and propose 
to themselves to serve God that way: let them alone, ana neither kill 
them nor destroy their monasteries. And you will find another sort of 
people, that belong to the syLasogue of Satan, who have shaven crowns; 
be sure you cleave their skulls, and give them no quarter till they either 
turn Mahometans or pay " tribute." — Abu-bekr, caliph, to Saracen ar- 
mies; cited in " The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Em- 
pire" Edward Gibbon, chap. 51. par. 10 (Vol. V, pp. 189, 190). New 
York: Harper d- Brothers. 

Seven Trumpets, The Fifth; To Torment, Not to Kill. — Not that 
it could be supposed that the Saracens would not " kill " many thou- 
sands in their incursions. On the contrary, their angel hath the name 
of " the destroyer." Rev.- 9 : 11. They might " kill " them as individ- 
uals, but still they should not "kill" them as a political body, as a 
state or empire. They might greatly harass and " torment " both the 
Greek and the Latin churcnes, but they should not utterly extirpate the 
one or the other. They besieged Constantinople, and even plundered 
Rome: but they could not make themselves masters of either of those 
capital cities. The Greek Empire suffered most from them, as it lay 
nearest to them. — " Dissertations on the Prophecies," Thomas Newton, 
D. D. (1754), p. 544. London: William Tegg & Co., 1849. 

Seven Trumpets, The Fifth; Gibbon on the Mystery of Limita- 
tion of Power. — When the Arabs first issued from the desert, they must 
have been surprised at the ease and rapidity of their own success. But 
when they advanced in the career of victory to the banks of the Indus 
and the summit of the Pyrenees; when they had repeatedly tried the 
edge of their scimeters and the energy of their faith, they might be 
equally astonished that any nation could resist their invincible arms; 
that any boundary should confine the dominion of the successor of the 
prophet. The confidence of soldiers and fanatics may indeed be excused, 
since the calm historian of the present hour, who strives to follow the 
rapid course of the Saracens, must study to explain by what means the 
church and state were saved from this impending, and, as it should 
seem, from this inevitable, danger. — " The History of the Decline and 
Fall of the Roman Empire," Edward Gibbon, chap. 52, par. 1 (Vol. V. 
p. 273). New York: Harper & Brothers. 



" Crinitus quidam a Saracenorum cunco." — Id., xxxi, 1G. 



512 



SEVEN TRUMPETS — SIXTH. 



Note. — The historian " must study to explain," says Gibbon, how it was 
that the swift progress of the Saracens did not extinguish the Eastern Empire. 
But the prophecy had declared that the " locusts " would torment, but not kill. 

— Eds. 

Seven Trumpets, The Fifth; No Mention of " Third Part." — 
What a vast tract of land! How many crowns are here! Whence it is 
worthy of observation, that no mention is here made, as under the other 
trumpets, of the trient, or third part; since the plague fell not less 
beyond the bounds of the Roman Empire, than within it; stretching 
even to the extremest parts of India. — " Clavis Apocalyptica," Joseph 
Mede (1627), translation by R. B. Cooper, p. 181. 

Seven Trumpets, The Fifth; Why the Saracens are Indicated. 

— 1. Because they came from the East, as the locusts did. 2. Because 
of their vast numbers, and their wandering state and condition, living in 
tents, and roaming from place to place. Nahum 3: 15, 16. 3. Because 
they are expressly likened unto grasshoppers or locusts. Judges 7: 3-5. 

4. From the suddenness of their invasions, and the prodigious swiftness 
of their conquests, and the great havoc and ravages made by them. 

5. Because they at this time embodied in their national characters and 
tempers, which Gibbon described to be " armed against mankind, and 
doubly inflamed by the domestic license of rapine, murder, and re- 
venge," the doctrines of the Koran. — "An Historical Exposition of the 
Prophecies of the Revelation of St. John," Matthew Habershon, chap. 8, 
pp. 153, 154. London: James Nisbet & Co., 1841. 

Seven Trumpets, From Saracen to Turk. — With the rise of the 
Abbassides, the aspect of Western Asia alters. The seat of government 
is removed from Syria to Irak [to Bagdad, founded a. d. 672], the Syr- 
ians lose the monopoly of influence and power they had hitherto pos- 
sessed; and the tide of power is diverted from the West to the East. 
But the unity of the Caliphate was gone forever. . . . 

" The reign of the first Abbassides," says a distinguished French 
scholar and historian, " was the era of the greatest splendor of the 
Eastern Saracens. The age of conquest had passed; that of civilization 
had commenced." — "History of the Saracens," Ameer Ali, p. 208. 

Before long the Caliphs drew their bodyguard entirely from the 
Turks about the Oxus. . . . These began to overshadow the noble Arab 
chieftains; and so we soon find the imperial forces officered almost en- 
tirely by Turcomans. — " The Caliphate" Bir William Muir, p. 432. 

The blow which seemed the most crushing of all, the overthrow of 
the caliphate by the Moguls [1258], was part of a chain of events which 
brought on the stage a Mohammedan power more terrible than all that 
had gone before it. We have now come to the time of the first appear- 
ance of the Ottoman Turks. — " Ottoman Power," E. A. Freeman, p. 98. 

In a. d. 1281, Ortogrul took the famous city of Kutahi from the 
Greek emperor; in 1357 Orchan crossed over to Europe; in 1453 Ma- 
homet II took Constantinople, and thus began the downfall of the East- 
ern Empire, the rest of which followed the fate of the capital. — "A New 
Analysis of Chronology and Geography," Rev. William, Hales, Vol. III. 
p. 617. 

Seven Trumpets, The Sixth; The Next Blow at the Eastern 
Empire. — If the first woe trumpet referred to the Saracens, then it 
would be natural that the rise and progress of the Turkish power should 



SEVEN TRUMPETS — SIXTH. 



513 



be symbolized, as tbe next great fact in history; and as that under 
which the empire fell. . . . The Turkish power rose immediately after 
the power of the Saracens had reached its height, and identified itself 
with the Mohammedan religion, and was, in fact, the next great power 
that affected the Roman Empire, the welfare of the church, and the 
history of the world. — " Notes on the Book of Revelation," Albert Barnes 
(Presbyterian), on Revelation 9, p. 263. New York: Harper & Brothers. 

Seven Trumpets, The Sixth; Foxe on this Peophecy. — Among all 
the prophecies both of the Old Testament and of the New, there is none 
that painteth out the antichristian kingdom of the Turks better than 
doth the Revelation of St. John, whose words let us weigh and consider. 
Apocalypse 9. ... By loosing the angels who had rule of the great 
river Euphrates, is signified the letting out of the east kings, that is, 
the Turks, out of Scythia, Tartary, Persia, and Arabia, by whom the 
third part of Christendom shall be destroyed, as we see it this day hath 
come to pass. — Written in 1566, with Turks at gates of Central Europe, 
''Acts and Monuments," John Foxe, Vol. IV, book 6, p. 102. 

Note. — Foxe is said to have been the first writer to recognize the Turks in 
this prophecy. — Eds. 

Seven Trumpets, The Sixth; Loosing of the Turkish Hordes. — 
The reign of Othman is contemporaneous with one of the great periods 
of immigration from Central Asia. The numbers of the Turks were 
yearly augmented by such hordes that the Greek writers continually 
use metaphors derived from the torrent, from floods and inundations, 
to describe their overwhelming force. — " The Destruction of the Greek 
Empire," Sir Edwin Pears, p. 62. 

Seven Trumpets, The Sixth; Still the Poison Sting. — The cap- 
ture of Bagdad [Tartars under Genghis Khan, 1227, swept over the Sara- 
cen empire] entirely annihilated the Saracen name — the cloud from the 
desert was blown back into its pristine insignificance — the bubble of 
fame had collapsed. The name had been banished forever; but the 
faith remained. . . . Thus the valor of the early Saracens is now remem- 
bered only in history; whereas the religion which they enforced pre- 
vails. — " Islamism," F. A. Neale, Vol. I, chap. 81, p. 340. 

He [Bajazed, 1389-1403] was an irreconcilable enemy of the Chris- 
tian name and a passionate follower of Mahomet. During the reign of 
his predecessor, the struggle between the empire and the Turks had 
taken a theological character, and it is beyond reasonable doubt that 
religious animosity of a kind which had not shown itself among the 
first armies of the Turks had now diffused its baneful influence among 
the Ottoman armies. — " The Destruction of the Greek Empire," Sir 
Edwin Pears, p. 132. 

Seven Trumpets, The Sixth; The Myriads of Horsemen. — Myr- 
riads of myriads: a numeral phrase indefinite, but according to its nat- 
ural and not infrequent use in Scripture i expressive of large numbers; 
. . . so that it is not without his usual propriety of language that Gib- 
bon speaks of "the myriads of the (Seljukian) Turkish horse over- 
spreading the Greek frontier from the Taurus to Erzeroum." — " Horce 
Apocalypticce," Rev. E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. I, pp. 478, 479. London: 
Seeley, Burnside, and Seeley, 1847. 



1 Num. 10:36: "Return to thy thousands of myriads (Heb. myriads of thou- 
sands) in Israel ; an example strikingly to the point, as the numbers of Israel 
are mentioned, m the census of Num. 1 : 45, 46, to have been only 600,000 above 
twenty years old. — Eds. 

33 



SEVEN TRUMPETS — SIXTH. 



I well remember that living in the University of Ireland, a gentle- 
man that newly came from Scandrown or Alexandretta told me he saw 
the Turkish army march by to recover Badget or Babylon, and that the 
army was above a week marching by, consisting of fifteen hundred thou- 
sand men, with which he recovered Bagdet from the Persian. — "An Ex- 
position, or Comments upon the Revelation, out of Most Learned Au- 
thors" (Bullinger, Francis, Junius, Brightman, etc.), Hezekiah Holland, 
p. 65. London (Dedicatory Preface, " Vicarage, 1650 "). 

Seven Trumpets, The Sixth; Old Expositors on the Smoke and 
Fire as Weapons. — Brightman [1600] applyes this to the Turks' guns, 
out of which come fire, smoake. — "An Exposition, or Comments upon the 
Revelation, out of Most Learned Authors," Hezekiah Holland, p. 66. 
London, 1650. 

I understand it literally of that new (and previous to this trumpet) 
unheard-of arms, which those Euphratean enemies made use of, imme- 
diately after they had been set loose. I understand it of cannon vom- 
iting fire, smoke, and sulphur. For gunpowder is ignivomous, with 
hyacinthine smoke, and sulphurous matter. — " Clavis Apocalyptica" 
Josepn Mede (1627), translation by R. B. Cooper, p. 204. London. 

This fire, this smoke, and this brimstone seem to be a description 
of gunpowder and its effects. And this may well signify that the Turks 
should make their principal desolations in the empire of the fourth mon- 
archy, after the invention of canons and firearms, whence come forth 
lightnings, flames, sulphur, and smoke; which indeed did come to pass. 

These horses that vomit up flame and smoke have also tails like 
unto serpents, with which they do hurt, viz., in spreading their poison. 
And this is common to them with the locusts of the fifth trumpet. 'Tis 
the venom of the wicked religion of Mahomet, which the Turks have 
established, and spread in all places where they have established their 
dominion. — " The Accomplishment of the Scripture Prophecies," Peter 
Jurieu, part 1, chap. 7, p. 75. London, 1687. 

Seven Trumpets, The Sixth; An Arab Writer Describes the Use 
of Artillery at Constantinople. — At length the Moslems placed their 
cannon in an effectual position, and threw up their intrenchments. The 
gates and ramparts of Constantinople were pierced in a thousand places. 
The flames which issued from the mouths of these instruments of war- 
fare, of brazen bodies and fiery jaws, cast grief and dismay among the 
miscreants. The smoke which spread itself in the air, and ascended 
towards the heavens, rendered the brightness of day somber as night: 
and the face of the world soon became as dark as the black fortune of 
the unhappy infidels. — " Tadg al Tavarikh " (Diadem of Histories), 
Saadeddin; cited from David's " Grammar of the Turkish Language," in 
" The Signs of the Times," Alexander Keith, Vol. I, p. 386. 

Seven Trumpets, The Sixth; The Smoke and Fire. — It was to 
" the fire and the smoke and the sulphur," to the artillery and firearms 
of Mahomet, that the killing of the third part of men, i. e., the capture 
of Constantinople, and by consequence the destruction of the Greek 
Empire, was owing. ..." Canst thou cast a cannon," was his question 
to the founder of cannon that deserted to him, " of size sufficient to 
batter down the wall of Constantinople?" Then the foundry was estab- 
lished at Adrianople, the cannon cast, the artillery prepared, and the 
siege began. 



SEVEN' TRUMPETS — SIXTH. 



515 



It well deserves remark, how Gibbon, always the unconscious com- 
mentator on the Apocalyptic prophecy, puts this new instrumentality 
of war into the foreground of his picture, in his eloquent and striking 
narrative of the final catastrophe of the Greek Empire. — " Horce Apoca- 
lypticw," Rev. E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. I, pp. 483, 484. London: Seeley, 
Burnside, and Seeley, 1847. 

The exact idea, whether that was intended or not, would be con- 
veyed by the discharge of musketry or artillery. The fire, the smoke, 
and the sulphurous smell of such a discharge would correspond pre- 
cisely with this language. . . . One thing is certain, that this is not 
language w T hich would be employed to describe the onset of ancient cav- 
alry in the mode of warfare which prevailed then. No one describing 
a charge of cavalry among the Persians, the Greeks, or the Romans, 
when the only armor was the sword and the spear, would think of say- 
ing that there seemed to be emitted from the horses' mouths fire, and 
smoke, and brimstone. — " Notes on the Book of Revelation," Aloert 
Barnes, on Rev. 9:17, p. 259. Neiv York: Harper & Brothers. 

Seven Trumpets, The Sixth; The Hoese-Tail Bannebs. — It seems 
that in the times of their early warlike career the principal standard 
was once lost, in the progress of battle; and the Turkman commander, 
in its default, cutting off his horse's tail, lifted it on a pole, made it the 
rallying ensign, and so won the victory. Hence the introduction and 
permanent adoption among the Turks throughout their empire of this 
singular ensign; among the Turks alone, if I mistake not, of all the 
nations that have ever risen up on this world's theater: and this as that 
which was thenceforward, — from the vizier to the governors of prov- 
inces and districts, — to constitute their badge, mark their rank, and 
give them name and title. For it is the ensign of one, two, or three 
horse tails that marks distinctively the dignity and power of the Turk- 
ish pasha. — " Horce Apocalyptica '," Rev. E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. I, p. 486. 
London: Seeley, Burnside, and Seeley, 1847. 

Seven Trumpets, The Sixth; The Easteen " Third Part" Now 
to Fall. — The Western Empire had already been exhibited, in the first 
four trumpets, under the figure of a symbolical universe, and its sub- 
version by the Gothic arms was denoted by the destruction of a third 
part of that universe. The Eastern Empire is now placed before us as 
a political community, under the generic appellation of " the men; " 
and its overthrow is in a similar manner signified by the slaughter of 
a third part of " the men." — "A Dissertation on the Seals and Trumpets 
of the Apocalypse,' 9 William Cuninghame, chap. 7, p. 83. London: 
Thomas Gadell, 1843. 

Seven Trumpets, The Sixth; This Time to Kill. — The locusts of 
the foregoing trumpet were sent, not to kill men, but to torment them 
for five months; because the Saracens and Arabians did only gnaw off 
the edges of the Roman Empire, and did not penetrate into its entrails. 
But the Turks pierced even into the very heart of the fourth monarchy, 
and laid it desolate; and they have established their empire in one of its 
capital cities, viz., Constantinople. They are sent to kill the men of this 
third part of the world. ... To kill signifies also a total destruction: 
so that the prophecy seems to signify that the Turks are sent of God 
entirely to destroy the Roman Empire. — " The Accomplishment of the 
Scripture Prophecies;'' Peter Jurieu, part 1, chap. 7, pp. 73, 74. London, 
1687. 



516 



SEVEN TRUMPETS — SIXTH. 



Seven Trumpets, The Sixth; Last Emperors of the East. — In 
the year 1381 he [John V or VI] concluded a treaty with Sultan Murad, 
acknowledging himself a vassal and tributary of the* Ottoman Empire. 
Murad continued to pursue his career of conquest in Europe without 
troubling the despicable fragments of the imperial government, which 
still mock the researches of the historian under the proud title of the 
Roman Empire. — "History of Greece," George Finlay, Vol. Ill, p. 467. 

Best remembered among the tribulations of John is the siege of 
Philadelphia. . . . Murad, wishing to subdue it, compelled John V and 
his son Manuel to march in person against the last Christian stronghold 
in Asia. The emperor submitted to the degradation, and Philadelphia 
surrendered when it saw the imperial banner hoisted among the horse- 
tails of the Turkish pashas above the camp of the besiegers. The 
humiliation of the empire could go no further. — " The Story of the 
Byzantine Empire," G. W. G. Oman, M. A., F. 8 A., pp. 330, 331. New 
York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1892. 

He [John VI or VII, 1425-1448] never forgot that he was a vassal of 
the Ottoman Empire. — "History of Greece" George Finlay, Vol. Ill, 
p. 496. 

Note. — The death of John VI " took place on the last day of October, 1448 " 
("Destruction of the Greek Empire," Pears, p. 178). Constantine, his older 
brother, was in Sparta, Greece, at the time. As he had recently been in conflict 
with the Sultan, it was a question whether he would be an acceptable candidate 
for the throne. Some favored Demetrius, the younger brother. The sultan 
(Mohammed II) signified his willingness, however, that Constantine should take 
the throne, which he did, being crowned at Sparta, Jan. 10, 1449. 

" The arguments of the Prince Demetrius's partisans were based not so 
much on personal as on public grounds — the political interest of the state. At 
last a compromise was made : an embassy was to be sent at once to the sultan 
to ask him. Would he acknowledge Despot Constantine as emperor or not? This 
course was perhaps the only one to prevent civil war, or eventually an attack on 
the part of the Turks, but it shows more than anything else the growing weak- 
ness of the empire, and tbe failing sense of dignity." — Constantine, " Last Em- 
peror of the Greeks," by Chedomil Mijatovich, p. 8$; cited in " The Eastern Ques- 
tion," p. 26. England: The International Tract Society, Stanborough Park, Wat- 
ford, Herts. — Eds. 

Seven Trumpets, The Sixth; The Last Blow at Hand. — The Ro- 
man world [a. d. 1395-1402] was now contracted to a corner of Thrace, 
between the Propontis and the Black Sea, about fifty miles in length and 
thirty in breadth. — " The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman 
Empire" Edward Gibbon, chap. 64, par. 20 (Vol. VI, p. 242). New York: 
Harper and Brothers. 

Every province was in turn subdued, every city opened her gates 
to the conqueror; the limbs were lopped off one by one; but the pulse 
still beat at the heart, and the majesty of the Roman name was ulti- 
mately confined to the walls of Constantinople. Before Mahomet II 
planted his cannon against them, he had completed every smaller con- 
quest and deprived the expiring empire of every hope of succor or de- 
lay. — " History of Europe During the Middle Ages," Henry Hallam, Vol. 
II, book 6, p. 69, revised edition. London: The Colonial Press, 1900. 

Seven Trumpets, The Sixth; The Eastern Empire Fallen at 
Last. — The Ottoman artillery thundered on all sides; and the camp and 
city, the Greeks and the Turks, were involved in a cloud of smoke which 
could only be dispelled by the final deliverance or destruction of the 
Roman Empire. . . . 

The immediate loss of Constantinople may be ascribed to the bullet, 
or arrow, which pierced the gauntlet of John Justiniani. The sight of 



SEVEN TRUMPETS — SIXTH. 



517 



his blood, and the exquisite pain, appalled the courage of the chief, 
whose arms and counsels were the firmest rampart of the city. As he 
withdrew from his station in quest of a surgeon, his flight was per- 
ceived and stopped by the indefatigable emperor. " Your wound," ex- 
claimed Palseologus, "is slight; the danger is pressing: your presence 
is necessary; and whither will you retire?" "I will retire," said the 
trembling Genoese, " by the same road which God has opened to the 
Turks; " and at these words he hastily passed through one of the 
breaches of the inner wall. . . . His example was imitated by the great- 
est part of the Latin auxiliaries, and the defense began to slacken. . . . 
The victorious Turks rushed through the breaches of the inner wall. 
... In the first heat of the pursuit, about two thousand Christians were 
put to the sword. ... It was thus, after a siege of fifty-three days, 
that Constantinople, which had defied the power of Chosroes, the 
Chagan, and the caliphs, was irretrievably subdued by the arms of Ma- 
homet the Second [a. d. 1453]. — " The History of the Decline and Fall 
of the Roman Empire," Edward Gibbon, chap. 68, pars. 17, 18 (Vol. VI, 
pp. 400-403). New York: Harper & Brothers. 

With the fall of Constantinople was extinguished forever the last 
vestige of the majesty of Rome. — Lord John Russell; cited in " Turkey 
and the Balkan States," Esther Singleton, p. 10. New York: Dodd, Mead 
d Co., 1908. 

All Europe and Asia knew the end was come of the longest tale of 
empire that Christendom has yet seen. — " The Story of the Byzantine 
Empire," C. W. C. Oman, M. A., F. S. A., p. 850. New York: G. P. Put- 
nam's Sons,- 1892. 

The age-long fight which the imperial East had waged over bar- 
barism was over. The city of the Caesars and the church was in the 
hands of the infidel. — " Constantinople," W. H. Hutton, p. 150. 

For the Turks Byzantium and its lord had long been the center of 
the universe and the zenith of human grandeur. They felt that, in 
conquering it, they and their sovereign had for practical purposes be- 
come masters of the world. — " Turkey in Europe," Sir Charles W. Eliot, 
p. 115. 

As being a continuation of the Roman Empire whose capital was 
New Rome, the empire is correctly called Roman, and the name has the 
advantage of always keeping in view the continuity of Roman history. 
It was the Eastern Roman Empire which declined and fell in 1453. — 
" The Destruction of the Greek Empire," Sir Edwin Pears, Preface. 

Seven Trumpets, The Sixth; Images to the Last. — The sacred 
eikons and relics were brought from the churches, were taken to the 
neighborhoods where the walls were most injured, and paraded with 
the procession in the hope — to people of northern climes and the pres- 
ent century inexplicable and almost unthinkable — that their display 
would avert the threatening danger. — Id., p. 362. 

Note. — This was the last idolatrous procession in Constantinople before its 
fall; and as the prophecy says (Rev. 9:20), the survivors, whether in East or 
West, failed to recognize the judgment upon the idols or images and all the 
works of men's hands. — Eds. 

Seven Trumpets, The Sixth; As the Scourge of Idolatry. — I 
promise to the only God, Creator of all things, by my vow and my oath, 
that I will not give sleep to my eyes, that I will not eat any choice 
viands, that I will not seek out that which is pleasant, nor touch that 



518 



SEVENTY WEEKS. 



which is beautiful, that I will not turn my face from the west to the 
east, till I overthrow and tread under the feet of my horses the gods of 
the nations; these gods of wood, of brass, of silver, and of gold, or of 
painting, which the disciples of Christ have made with their hands. — 
Vow of Mahomet II, published in all the mosques, March 11, 1470; cited 
in " The Two Later Visions of Daniel," Rev. T. R. Birks, M. A., p. 319. 
London: Seeley, Burnside, and Seeley, 1.846. 

Seven Trumpets, Agreement as to Sixth. — It may indeed be said 
that there is no one part of the Revelation in which there exists so 
unanimous an agreement as that the Turks were the second woe. It 
is a point which even the Polish interpreter, Dr. Wamsley, admits; it 
is likewise a fact, that in the whole range of political speculation, there 
is no subject on which there exists so unanimous an opinion, as that 
the empire which they founded on the ruins of the Eastern Roman Em- 
pire, is now on the point of extinction! Must therefore the third woe 
not soon follow? Will not God indeed be as good as his word; and will 
not the event of Constantinople falling out of the hands of its present 
possessors, be the certain signal of the almost immediate approach, to 
say the least, of as great calamities coming upon the nations of the 
earth, as were brought about by the Saracens or the Turks? — "An His- 
torical Exposition of the Prophecies of the Revelation of St. John," 
Matthew Habershon, p. 297. London: James Nisbet & Co., 1841. 

Seventy Weeks, " Determined " — " Cut Off." — " Are determined." 
The word here used, t]-?"^ , from ?jn ±i , occurs nowhere else in the Scrip- 
tures. It properly means, according to Gesenius, to cut off, to divide; 
and hence, to determine, to destine, to appoint. — " Notes on the Book of 
Daniel," Albert Barnes (Presbyterian), on Dan. 9:24, p. 372. New York: 
Leavitt and- Allen, 1859. 

Note. — As the angel came to explain " the vision " — naturally the vision 
of the preceding chapter, of which the time period was the portion left unex- 
plained — the only possible inference is that the period from which this 490 
years was to be " cut off," was the 2300 years of " the vision." Dan. 8 : 14. 
The two periods therefore begin together. Probably the failure in the past to 
connect the visions of these two chapters, was due to a faulty chronology, ac- 
cording to which the visions were separated by a period of fifteen years. It is 
now thought that the latter was given only a few months after the former. — Eds. 

Seventy Weeks, The Famous French Bishop of Meaux on Period. 
— In the reign of Cyaxeres, Daniel, already honored under the pre- 
ceding reigns with several heavenly visions, wherein he saw in manifest 
figures so many kings and empires pass before him, learned by a new 
revelation those seventy famous weeks, in which the times of Christ and 
the destiny of the Jewish people are unfolded. It was weeks of years, 
so that they contained 490. — " Universal History," Jacques B. Bossuet 
(1627-1704), p. 39. 

Seventy Weeks, Artaxerxes' Commission to Ezra. — In the same 
year, and seventh of his reign, b. c. 457, he issued a decree, empowering 
Ezra, the Scribe of the Law of the God of heaven, to go to Judea, with 
full powers to preside there in all ecclesiastical and civil concerns; to 
restore and enforce the law of Moses, to appoint magistrates and judges 
throughout the land, and to punish all transgressors of the law with con- 
fiscation of goods, banishment, or death. Ezra 7: 12-26. — "A New Analy- 
sis of Chronology and Geography," Rev. William Hales, D. D., Vol. IV, 
p. 186. London: C. J. G. & F. Rivington, 1830. 



SEVENTY WEEKS, CHRONOLOGY OF. 



519 



The only decree which was capable of any wider application than 
the temple merely, and the text of which is preserved to us in the his- 
toric records of Scripture, is the edict which was given to Ezra in the 
seventh year of Artaxerxes, or b. c. 457. This decree in its express 
terms provided not only for the embellishment of the temple, which had 
been completed since the sixth year of Darius, but also for the political 
organization and government of the nation. ... To it are to be referred 
not only all the reconstructive operations of Ezra, but those also of 
Nehemiah, who was furnished with subsequent authority by the same 
king in the spirit of his former decree. As far, therefore, as the sacred 
history of the Jews enables us to determine when the commandment 
went forth to restore and to build Jerusalem, there seems little doubt 
that we must refer it to the decree of the seventh year of Artaxerxes. ©f 
which the original Aramaic text is preserved to us in the book of Ezra. 
— " Old Testament Prophecy,'" Rev. Stanley Leathes, D. D., pp. 219, 220. 
London: Rodder and Stoughton, 1880. 

Seventy Weeks, The Commandment of Artaxerxes' Seventh Year. 
— It was, in fact, as Sir Isaac Newton, Pusey, Birks, and other high au- 
thorities have pointed out, a decree which was practically the restora- 
tion of the Jewish polity, and which involved the restoration of its 
metropolis. It seems evident that Ezra so regarded it, and we could 
wish no better authority, for in his prayer, recorded in Ezra 9:9, he 
thus expresses himself: "God hath not forsaken us in our bondage, but 
hath extended mercy to us in the sight of the king of Persia, to give us 
a reviving, to set up the house of our God, and to repair the ruins 
thereof, and to give us a wall \marg., fence] in Judah and Jerusalem." 
Moreover, this accounts for the disappointment of Nehemiah when, some 
thirteen years afterwards, he learned, by inquiring from some Jews who 
had recently come from Jerusalem, that these hopes of the restoration 
of the capital had not yet been fulfilled, and that the walls and gates 
had not yet been repaired. This led to his being sent by Artaxerxes as 
a second special commissioner, to carry out more fully and completely 
that work of national " reviving " which had been initiated by Ezra. 
Wordsworth remarks that Nehemiah does not ask for a commission to 
build the city; he assumes that this had previously been given: and, as 
it remained unexecuted, he asks that he may go and execute it. — 
" Daniel and the Revelation," Rev. Joseph Tanner, B. A. (Church of 
England), p. 38. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1898. 

Seventy Weeks, Chronology of First Seven Weeks. — Ezra came 
to Jerusalem b. c. 457; he labored in restoring the Jewish polity, within 
and without, for thirteen years before Nehemiah was sent by Artaxer- 
xes, b. c. 444. Nehemiah, as governor, labored together with Ezra for 
twelve years. . . . Then he returned to the king, and after an undefined 
time, "at the end of days" (Neh. 13: 6), he says, "obtained I leave of 
the king, and came to Jerusalem." The interval probably was not 
short. . . . The mention of Eliashib's son, Joiada, being high priest 
then, in place of his deceased father, fixes this second visit probably in 
the reign of Darius Nothus, in whose eleventh year Eliashib is said to 
have died (Chron. Alex., Olymp. 78, pp. 162, 163). . . . Now from the 
seventh year of Artaxerxes to the eleventh year of Darius Nothus are 45 
years. But it was in the period of the high priesthood of Joiada, not 
precisely in the very first year, that this reform took place. We have 
anyhow for the period of the two great restorers of the Jewish polity, 
Ezra and Nehemiah conjointly, a time somewhat exceeding forty-five 
years; so that we know that the restoration was completed in the latter 



520 



SEVENTY WEEKS, CHRONOLOGY OF. 



part of the seventh week of years, and it is probable that it was not 
closed until the end of it. — "Daniel the Prophet," Rev. E. B. Pusey, 
D. D., Lecture 4, pp. 174, 175. Oxford: James Parker & Co., 1868. 

Seventy Weeks, The Second Period of Sixty-two Weeks. — From 
these seven weeks, or forty-nine years, reckoning sixty-two weeks, or 
four hundred and thirty-four years more (which is the term of the 
second period), this will lead us down to the coming of Christ the 
Messiah, who is here in the prophecy predicted to come at the end of 
the said sixty-two weeks. For the words of the prophecy are, " From 
the going forth of the commandment to restore and to build Jerusalem 
unto the Messiah the Prince, shall be seven weeks and threescore and 
two weeks; " that is, there shall be seven weeks for the completing and 
finishing of the work for which that commandment or decree was 
granted, and from thence sixty-two weeks more to the coming of Christ 
the Messiah here intended, that is, to the time of his first appearance on 
the ministry of the gospel. — "An Historical Connection of the Old and 
New Testaments" Humphrey Prideaux, D. D., revised, (2 vol. edition) 
Vol. I, p. 256. London: William Tegg & Co., 1858. 

Seventy Weeks, Prophecy and History Correspond. — This rebuild- 
ing of the city and reorganization of the polity, begun by Ezra and car- 
ried on and perfected by Nehemiah, corresponds with the words in Dan- 
iel, " From the going forth of a commandment to restore and to build 
Jerusalem." 

The term also corresponds. Unto " Messiah the Prince," shall be 
" seven weeks and threescore and two weeks," i. e., the first 483 years of 
the period, the last seven being parted off. But 483 years from the 
beginning of b. c. 457 were completed at the beginning of 27 a. d., which 
(since the nativity was four years earlier than our era) would coincide 
with his baptism, " being about 30 years of age," when .the descent of 
the Holy Ghost upon him manifested him to be the anointed with the 
Holy Ghost, the Christ. — " Daniel the Prophet," Rev. E. B. Pusey, D. D. 
(Church of England), 2d edition, Lecture 4, p. 172. Oxford: James 
Parker & Co., 1868. 

Seventy Weeks, "The Anointed" — "The Prince." — Christ did come 
forth at the time of his baptism in just this twofold character. John 
the Baptist — the herald who went before the King — thus speaks, in a 
manner exactly corresponding to this prophecy in Daniel: "The king- 
dom of heaven is at hand [i. e., in the sense of the king presenting him- 
self to the nation for acceptance]. . . . There cometh One mightier than 
I after me." Then follows the scene of Christ's baptism, and his official 
anointing by the Holy Ghost visibly descending upon him. Anointing 
was the rite appointed for the official inauguration of priests and kings. 
Thus Aaron and his descendants were anointed as high priests. Simi- 
larly Saul and David were anointed as kings by having oil poured over 
their heads, and were afterwards spoken of as " the Lord's anointed." 
Hence it is evident that the descent of the Holy Ghost upon Christ, 
when he entered upon his public career at his baptism by John, consti- 
tuted the official anointing of him who was both Priest and King in one 
person. — "Daniel and the Revelation," Rev. Joseph Tanner, B. A. 
(Church of England), p. 40. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1898. 

Seventy Weeks, Date of John the Baptist's Appearance. — The 
fifteenth year, therefore, of the reign of Tiberius [Luke 3: 1], in which 
John the Baptist began to preach, must be reckoned from that time 



SEVENTY WEEKS, WITNESS OF COINS. 



521 



when he began to reign jointly with Augustus. . . . And this happened, 
as the most learned Archbishop Usher observes, in the year of the Julian 
period 4725 [a. d. 12]; and the fifteenth year from thence brings us to 
the year of the Julian period 4739 [a. d. 26], in which (as is above 
noted) the word of God came to John the Baptist, and the preaching of 
the gospel first began. And then it was that Christ, by this his fore- 
runner, manifested his coming, and made his first appearance in that 
great work of our salvation on which he was sent. And from the sev- 
enth year of Artaxerxes Longimanus, when the commandment went 
forth from that king for the restoring of the church and state of the 
Jews, to this time, were just seven weeks and sixty-two weeks, that is, 
sixty-nine weeks, or four hundred and eighty-three years in all, exactly 
as this prophecy predicted. — "An Historical Connection of the Old and 
New Testaments," Humphrey Prideaux, D. D., revised, (2 vol. edition) 
Vol. I, p. 257. London: William Tegg & Co., 1858. 

Note. — Accurately, the fifteenth year of Tiberius was at the earliest, from 
the latter part of a. d. 26 to the latter part of a. d. 27, in which came John the 
Baptist. — Eds. 

Seventy Weeks, Roman Historians on Tibeeitjs's First Year. — 
Augustus, because he was growing- old, wrote a letter commending Ger- 
manicus to the senate and the latter to Tiberius. — Under "A. U. 765, 
A. D. 12," marginal dates, "History of Rome," Cassius Dion (wrote 
A. D. 210-229), book 56, chap. 26, translation by Herbert Baldwin Foster. 
Troy, N. Y.: PafraeVs Book, Company, 1905. 

Note. — The less is blessed of the greater ; so Germanicus was commended to 
the senate, but the senate to Tiberius, suggesting that Tiberius was recognized 
as having imperial authority in a. d. 12. — Eds. 

At the desire of Augustus there was a law passed by the senate and 
people of Rome, that Tiberius might have equal power with him in all 
the provinces and armies. — Velleius Paterculus (who lived under Au- 
gustus and Tiberius), lib. 2, cap. 121; cited in Lardner's Works, Vol. I, 
p. 374. 

There was a law made that Tiberius should govern the provinces 
jointly with Augustus, and make the census with him. — " The Lives of 
the Twelve Ccesars," C. Suetonius Tranquillus, " Tiberius," chap. 21. 

Tiberius Nero was the only survivor of his [Augustus's] stepsons. 
On him every honor was accumulated (to that quarter all things in- 
clined) ; he was by Augustus adopted for his son, assumed colleague in 
the empire, partner in the tribunitian authority, and presented to the 
several armies; not from the secret machinations of his mother, as 
heretofore, but at her open suit. For over Augustus, now very aged, she 
had obtained such absolute sway that he banished into the isle of Plan- 
asia his only surviving grandson, Agrippa Posthumus. — " The Works 
of Tacitus," Vol. I, " The Annals," book 1, chap. 3, pp. 3, 4. New York: 
Harper & Brothers, 1863. 

Seventy Weeks, The Witness of the Coins of Tiberius. — From 
the evidence of coins struck at this date it is shown that it was cus- 
tomary to regard Tiberius's reign as beginning a. d. 12, or a. it. c. 765. — 
A Dictionary of the Bible, James Hastings, M. A., D. D., art. " Tiberius," 
Vol. TV,, p. 760. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1902. 

There are coins from Antioch in Syria of the date a. u. 765, with 
the head of Tiberius and the inscription, Kaurap 2e/3a<rros (Augustus). 
— "History of the Christian Church," Philip Schaff, Vol. I, p. 120, foot- 
note. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1891. 



SEVENTY WEEKS, TIME OF. 



Note. — The events of a. d. 12 are so full that some authorities fix upon a. d. 
13 as the year In which Tiberius was made imperial colleague. But the history 
and the dated coins are proofs that a. d. 12 is the year, though evidently the 
latter part. The first year of Tiberius would therefore be from the latter part 
of a. d. 12 to the latter part of a. d. 13 ; and his fifteenth year would be from the 
latter part of a. d. 26 to the latter part of a. d. 27. — Eds. 

Seventy Weeks, Recognition of Tiberius (a. d. 12), Shown Other- 
wise. — While a young soldier in' the camp, he [Tiberius] was so re- 
markable for his excessive inclination to wine, that, for Tiberias, they 
called him Biberius; for Claudius, Caldius; and for Nero, Mero. And 
after he succeeded to the empire, and was invested with the office of 
reforming the morality of the people, he spent a whole night and two 
days together in feasting and drinking with Pomponius Flaccus and 
Lucius Piso; to one of whom he immediately gave the province of 
Syria, and to the other the prefecture of the city. — " The Lives of the 
Twelve Cwsars," C. Suetonius Tranquillus, " Tiberius," chap. 42, transla- 
tion by Alexander Thomson, M. D., revised and corrected by T. Forester, 
Esq., A. M. London: Henry G. Bohn, 1855. 

About the same time [consulate of Domitius and Camillus, a. d. 32] 
died Lucius Piso, the Pontiff. . . . Messala Corvinus was the first in- 
vested with this authority, and in a few days dismissed, as a man in- 
competent to discharge it. It was then filled by Taurus Statilius, who, 
though very aged, sustained it with signal honor. After him, Piso held 
it for twenty years, with equal credit; so that he was distinguished with 
a public funeral, by a decree of the senate. — " The Works of Tacitus," 
Vol. I, "The Annals," book 6, chaps. 10, 11, pp. 219, 220. New York: 
Harper & Brothers, 1863. 

Note. — Lardner ("Works," Vol. I, p. 376) shows that the consulate of 
Camillus and Domitius was the year a. u. 785, or a. d. 32. Piso was appointed 
by Tiberius when " prince," and died in a. d. 32, after twenty years in office. 
Therefore his appointment (32 less 20) was in a. d. 12, showing that Tiberius 
was then recognized as " prince," of royal honor. — Eds. 

Seventy Weeks, "Pilate Being Governor of Jctdea " (Luke 3: 1). 
— The Samaritan senate sent an embassy to Vitellius, a man that 
had been consul, and who was now president of Syria, and accused 
Pilate of the murder of those that were killed; for that they did not 
go to Tirathaba in order to revolt from the Romans, but to escape the 
violence of Pilate. So Vitellius sent Marcellus, a friend of his, to take 
care of the affairs of Judea, and ordered Pilate to go to Rome, to answer 
before the emperor to the accusations of the Jews. So Pilate, when he 
had tarried ten years in Judea, made haste to Rome, and this in obedi- 
ence to the orders of Vitellius, which he durst not contradict; but before 
he could get to Rome, Tiberius was dead. — "Antiquities of the Jews," 
Josephus, book 18, chap. 4, par. 2. 

Tiberius died March 26 [16], a. d. 37; and Pilate might be out of 
his office a month or six weeks before, suppose it was February; from 
thence we must count ten years backward for the beginning of Pilate's 
government, which will therefore fall into February, a. d. 27. — " Short 
View of the Harmony of the Four Evangelists," William Whiston, M. A., 
p. 139; cited in Lardner' s "Works," Vol. I, p. 393. 

The mission of the Baptist in the 15th year of Tiberius, calculated 
from a. d. 11, will fall in a. d. 25-26; the baptism of Christ may be 
assigned to a. d. 26-27. — "A Dictionary of the Bible," James Hastings, 
art. " Chronology of the New Testament," Vol. I, p. 406, 1st col. New 
York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1898. (See also the same work complete 
in one volume, 1909, art. " Baptism of Our Lord.") 



SEVENTY WEEKS, LAST OF. 



523 



Pilate was procurator of Judeea, in succession to Gratus, and he 
held office for ten years. Josephus tells ("Antiquities," book 18, chap. 
4, par. 2) that he ruled for ten years; that he was removed from office 
by Vitellius, the legate of Syria, and traveled in haste to Rome to 
defend himself before Tiberius against certain complaints. Before he 
reached Rome the emperor had passed away. Josephus adds that Vi- 
tellius came in the year 36 a. d. to Judaea to be present at Jerusalem at 
the time of the Passover. It has been assumed by most authorities that 
Pilate had departed before this visit of Vitellius. They accordingly 
date the procuratorship of Pilate as lasting from 26 to 36 a. d. As 
against this view, Von Dobschiitz points out that by this reckoning 
Pilate must have taken at least a year to get to Rome; for Tiberius died 
on March 16, 37 a. d. Such delay is inconceivable in view of the cir- 
cumstances; hence Von Dobschiitz rightly dates the period of his proc- 
uratorship 27-37 a. d. — The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, 
Vol. IV, art. "Pilate" sec. 2, p. 2396. Chicago: The Hoioard-Severance 
Co., 1915. 

Note. — Thus in the case of Pilate, the evidence points to early a. d. 27 as 
the beginning of his governorship, at the earliest, the very last of a. d. 26. 
Accused of murder to Caesar, and sent to answer at Rome, Josephus says he 
•' made haste," as well he might. Yet he had not reached Rome March 16, A. D. 
37, when Tiberius died. The natural inference is that he started early in the 
year, and that his ten years in Judea, therefore, began early in a. d. 27. — Eds. 

Seventy Weeks, " The Time is Fulfilled." — We have our Lord's 
own testimony to show that his entrance upon his official career was the 
time when this prophecy of Daniel concerning the appearance of the 
Anointed, the Prince, was fulfilled; for when he began his ministry, we 
are told that the burden of his preaching was, " the time is fulfilled. 
The kingdom of God is at hand," in the sense that the Prince was then 
offering himself to his people, as already explained. That our Lord, in 
thus speaking of " the time," referred to the term of 69 weeks foretold in 
this prophecy as reaching " unto the Messiah, the Prince," is recognized 
in our reference Bibles, and has been pointed out by the ablest com- 
mentators. — "Daniel and the Revelation''' Rev. Joseph Tanner, B. A. 
(Church of England), p. 41. London: Rodder and- Stoughton, 1898. 

Note. — It is suggestive that the year of John's proclamation was a Sab- 
batical year, when the land had rest. " The year from Tishri (Autumn) 779 
I a. d. 26] to Tishri 780 [a. d. 27] was a sabbatic year." — Edersheim's - Life and 
Times of the Messiah," book 2, chap. 12 (Vol. I, p. 27S), 8th edition, footnote. On 
rhe stillness of the year, when more Jews were free to gather and to listen, broke 
the voice of one crying in the wilderness, " Prepare ye the way of the Lord." — 
Eds. 

Seventy Weeks, Catholic Bishop on Last Week. — In the fifteenth 
year of Tiberius, St. John Baptist appears; Jesus Christ receives bap- 
tism from that divine harbinger; the eternal Father acknowledges his 
well-beloved Son by a voice from heaven; the Holy Ghost descends upon 
the Saviour, under the harmless figure of a dove: the whole Trinity 
manifests itself. There begins, with the seventieth week of Daniel, 
the preaching of Jesus Christ. This last week was the most important 
and the most noted. Daniel had distinguished it from the rest, as the 
week wherein the covenant was to be confirmed, and in the middle of 
which the old sacrifices were to lose their efficacy. We may call it 
the week of mysteries. In it Jesus Christ establishes his mission and 
doctrine by numberless miracles, and afterwards by his death. This 
happened in the fourth year of his ministry, which was also the fourth 
year of the last week of Daniel; and after this manner is that great week 
found exactly intersected by the suffering of our Saviour. — "A Universal 
History," Jacques B. Bossuet, Bishop of Meaux (1681-1704), p. 96. Lon- 
don: T. Evans, 1778. 



524 



SEVENTY WEEKS, LAST OF. 



Seventy Weeks, The Midst of the Week. — It seems to me abso- 
lutely certain that our Lord's ministry lasted for some period above 
three years. For St. John mentions by name three Passovers (John 
2: 13; 6: 4 and the last); and St. Matthew's mention of the disciples' 
rubbing the ears of corn (Matt. 12: 1 sqq.) relates to a time near upon 
a Passover, later than the first (for John had been cast into prison, 
Matt. 11: 2), yet earlier than the last but one, for it preceded the feed- 
ing of the 5,000, which itself preceded that Passover (Matt. 14: 15; 
John 6: 4-10 ).i This bears out the opinion, which in itself is nearly cer- 
tain, that the intermediate feast, mentioned by St. John, is the Passover 
(John 5:1). Our Lord's parable of the fig tree virtually asserts that a 
period of some three years of special culture of God's people had pre- 
ceded. " Behold these three years I come seeking fruit on this fig tree 
and find none; " and that one year remained, " let it alone this year 
also." The cursing of the barren fig tree and its instant withering, 
just before his Passion and the final pronunciation of its sentence, 
seems to be the symbolical declaration that that year of respite was 
over, and its doom was fixed. — " Daniel the Prophet," Rev. E. B. Pusey, 
D. D., pp. 176, 177, 3d edition. Oxford: James Parker & Co., 1869. 

Note. — In the form of a table, Dr. Hales outlines the events between the 
first and last Passovers of Christ's ministry : 

A. D. 

I. Passover 28 

Christ purges the temple — Opens his ministry in Judea — John 
imprisoned by Herod Antipas — Christ's Ministry in Galilee — 
Sermon on the Mount. 

II. Passover 29 

12 Apostles sent to proclaim Christ — John beheaded. 

III. Passover 30 

70 Disciples sent to proclaim Christ — Christ's transfiguration. 

IV. Passover 31 

Christ's crucifixion, resurrection, ascension. 

— " A New Analysis of Chronology and Geography," Rev. William Hales, 
D. D., Vol. Ill, p. 2. London: G. J. G. & F. Rivington, 18S0. 

Seventy Weeks, Eusebius on the Half Week. — It is recorded in 
history, that the whole time of our Saviour's teaching and working mir- 
acles was three years and a half, which is the half of a week [of years]. 
This John the Evangelist will represent to those who critically attend 
to his Gospel. . . . Moreover, " in the half of this one week," in which 
he confirmed the covenant disclosed to the many, " was the sacrifice 
taken away," and the libation, and " the abomination of desolation " 
began; since, in the midst of this week, after the three years and half 
of his teaching, at the time of his Passion, " the veil of the temple was 
rent from top to bottom; " so that from that time, the libation and the 
sacrifice was virtually taken away from them, and the abomination of 
desolation began to take place in the temple, that tutelary power which 
watched over and guarded the [holy] place from the beginning to that 
season, leaving them desolate. — " Demonstratio Evangelica," Euseoius 
(A. D. 300), p. 400; cited in "A New Analysis of Chronology and Geog- 
raphy," Rev. William Hales, D. D., Vol. I, pp. 94, 95. London: C. J. G. & 
F. Rivington, 1830. . 

Seventy Weeks, Secondary Evidence on Date of Christ's First 
Passover. — And now Herod, in the eighteenth year of his reign, and 
after the acts already mentioned, undertook a very great work, that is, 
to build of himself the temple of God. — "Antiquities of. the Jews," Jose- 
phus, book 15, chap. 11, par. 1, p. 471. 



1 Susskind brought out the argument (in Bengel's Archiv. i. 186-194), and 
observed that, even if the corn were ripe before the Passover, it would not have 
been ripe some weeks before it, yet the history in St. Matthew 12 must have been 
at least some weeks before that in St. Matthew 14 which was itself before the 
Passover. 



SEVENTY WEEKS, CLOSE OF. 



525 



Herod made this proposal to a general assembly of the people, in 
the eighteenth year of his reign, probably at the Passover, b. c. 19, but 
they were startled thereat, apprehending that when he had pulled down 
the old temple, he might not be able nor willing to build the new; he 
therefore promised them that he would not attempt to demolish the pres- 
ent, until he had provided all the materials for immediately rebuilding 
it. And he kept his word; for he employed a thousand carts to draw 
stones and materials, ten thousand of the most skilful workmen, and a 
thousand priests, whom he had instructed to be masons and carpenters; 
and, after two years' preparation, pulled down the old temple, and began 
the new, in the twentieth year of his reign, b. c. 17. . . . 

This determines the date of our Lord's first Passover, a. d. 28, 
which was forty-five years complete, or the forty-sixth current, from the 
foundation of the temple, b. c. 17. And leads us to an emendation of 
the English translation of John 2: 20: "Forty and six years hath this 
temple been in building [and is not finished yet], and wilt thou erect it 
in three days? " For such is the proper rendering of the Greek aorist, 
( f }KoSo/j.f]dTj . — "A New Analysis of Chronology and Geography" Rev. Wil- 
liam Hales, D. D„ Vol. II, p. 601. London: C. J. G. & F. Rivington, 1830. 

Seventy Weeks, Jewish Authorities on the Sacrifices Ceasing. 
Rabbi Phineas, Rabbi Levi, and Rabbi Jochanan, from the authority of 
Rabbi Menachiin of Galilee, said, " In the time of the Messiah all sac- 
rifices, except the sacrifice of praise, should cease." — Rabbi Tanchum, 
Vol. LV; cited in Clarke's Commentary, on Heb. 13:15 (Vol. VI, p. 455), 
edition, 1834. 

Seventy Weeks, The Time Known to the Jews. — Daniel's weeks 
had so clearly defined the time of the true Messias his coming, that the 
minds of the whole nation were raised into the expectation of him. 
Hence it was doubted of the Baptist, whether he was the Messias. Luke 
3 : 15. Hence it was that the Jews were gathered together from all coun- 
tries unto Jerusalem (Acts 2), expecting, and coming to see, because at 
that time the term of revealing the Messias, that had been prefixed by 
Daniel, was come. Hence it was that there was so great a number of 
false Christs (Matt. 24: 5, etc.), taking the occasion of their impostures 
hence, that now the time of that great expectation was at hand, and ful- 
filled: and in one word, " They thought the kingdom of God should pres- 
ently appear." Luke 19 : 11. " But when those times of expectation were 
past, nor did such a Messias appear as they expected (for when they 
saw the true Messias, they would not see him), they first broke out into 
various, and those wild, conjectures of the time; and at length, all 
those conjectures coming to nothing, all ended in this curse (the just 
cause of their eternal blindness), [gives Hebrew] "May their soul be 
confounded, who computeth the times! " — Bishop Lightfoot; cited in 
Clarke's Commentary, on Matthew 2 (Vol. V, p. 33), edition 1834. 

Note. — As the time drew near, the joyful expectation of the Messiah stirred 
the hearts of the Jewish people. In a work, " Fsalms of Solomon," composed 
from about b. c. 70 to 40, it was written, as cited in " The New Archeological 
Discoveries and the New Testament," Cobern, p. 612 : 

" Behold, O Lord, and raise up unto them their king, the Son of David. . ." . 
He shall have the heathen nations to serve him under his yoke. . . . Nations 
shall come from the ends of the earth to see his glory. . . . All nations shall 
be in fear before him. . . . For God will make him mighty by means of his 
Holy Spirit." — Eds. 

Seventy Weeks, The Temple Left Desolate. — Goode (Warb. Lect. 
pp. 304-7) also quoted the remarkable Jewish tradition that "for 40 
years before the destruction of Jerusalem," a. d. 70, i. e., from the day 



52G 



SK'iXS OF THE TIMES. 



of atonement after the crucifixion, what they held to be a sign of 
acceptance, never took place. (See Rosh. hashahnah, p. 31; in Lightfoot, 
min. tempi., c. 15, Opp. i. 746, 2d. ed.) — "Daniel the Prophet," Rev. E. B. 
Pusey, D. D., Lecture 4, p. 173, footnote. Oxford: James Parker & Co., 
1869. 

Seventy Weeks, Close of Last Week. — The one week, or Passion 
week, in the midst of which our Lord was crucified, a. d. 31, began with 
his public ministry, a. d. 28, and ended with the martyrdom of Stephen, 
a. d. 34. — "A New Analysis of Chronology and Geography," Rev. William 
Hales, D. D., Vol. II, p. 518. London: C. J. G. & F. Rivington, 1830. 

Eusebius dates the first half of the Passion week of years as begin- 
ning with our Lord's baptism, and ending with his crucifixion. The 
same period precisely is recorded by Peter, as including the duration of 
our Lord's personal ministry: "All the time that the Lord Jesus went 
in and out among us, beginning from the baptism of [or by] John, 
until the day that he was taken up from us," at his ascension, which 
was only 43 days after the crucifixion. Acts 1: 21, 22. And the re- 
maining half of the Passion week ended with the martyrdom of Ste- 
phen, in the seventh or last year of the week. For it is remarkable, 
that the year after, a. d. 35, began a new era in the church, namely, 
the conversion of Saul, or Paul, the apostle, by the personal appearance 
of Christ to him on the road to Damascus, when he received his mission 
to the Gentiles, after the Jewish Sanhedrin had formally rejected 
Christ by persecuting his disciples. Acts 9: 1-18. And the remainder 
of the Acts principally records the circumstances of his mission to the 
Gentiles, and the churches he founded among them. — Id., Vol. I, p. 100. 

The number seven implies completion, and the completion of the 
term of probation of the Jewish nation in possession of their city and 
temple, and also the complete establishment of the Christian church 
in the Gentile world, may be said to have been accomplished during 
the few years that elapsed between the cutting off of the Messiah and 
the martyrdom of Stephen. There are no certain data for fixing posi- 
tively the time of Stephen's death, but it is admitted to have taken 
place within a few years after the crucifixion. The three and a half 
years therefore of respite to the Jewish nation after the perpetration 
of their great crime, — the period during which the door of national re- 
pentance and forgiveness, ere the sentence of judgment should be ir- 
revocably pronounced, was still left open, — may fitly be taken as the 
epoch which marked the close of 490 years. — " Daniel and the Revela- 
tion" Rev. Joseph Tanner, B. A., p. 64. London: Hodder and Stough- 
ton, 1898. 

Seventy Weeks. — See Artaxerxes, Seventh Year of; Ptolemy's 
Canon; Year-day Principle. 

Signs of the Times, Spirit of Irreligion. — A minister of our church 
in the Middle West was pastor in a city with a population of 100,000. 
The Ministerial Alliance caused a religious survey to be made. It found 
the entire numerical strength of all denominations, Protestant, Jews, 
and Catholics, to be 15,000. There were 85,000 souls in that city living 
as if there were no God, no heaven, no hell, no church. In the same 
city Christian Science, Spiritualism, Theosophy, and secret societies 
flourished like green bay trees. . . . There were twenty-eight secret so- 
cieties, each having from three to five different chapters, camps., and 
lodges, that met every week, not to speak of labor unions, gentlemen's 



SIGNS OF THE TIMES. 



527 



clubs, and ladies' whist, euchre, and literary societies. — Editorial in 
Baltimore Southern Methodist, May. 25, 1916* 

Signs of the Times, Unrestrained Passion for Pleasure. — " Unre- 
strained passion for pleasure," said M. Comte, editor of the French 
Relevement Social, writing just before the European war, is bringing a 
terrible train of evils into modern society. Along with it he put " the 
hunt for money without regard for means," adding: 

" This is the theme which manufacturers, business men, men in the 
public administration, continually harp on with ever the same convic- 
tion and ever the same wealth of proof. The note is ever the same, and 
the conclusion identical: Nous sommes perdus! [We are lost!]." — 
Quoted in Record of Christian TVork (interdenominational ) , East North- 
field, Mass., July, 1914* 

Signs of the Times, Increase of Wealth. — Million-dollar incomes 
are almost as numerous now as were million-dollar fortunes not more 
than two generations ago. We have millionaires in a new sense: those 
whose annual returns — not whose whole fortunes — equal or exceed a 
million dollars. . . . 

" There were not five men in the United States worth as much as 
five million dollars each twenty years before the Civil War," says a 
historical writer; "and there were not more than twenty millionaires, 
all told. When the war was over, they had increased by hundreds, and 
there were several men with twenty million dollars apiece." — Albert 
W. Atwood, in Saturday Evening Post, June, 24, 1916, p. 12. 

On one hand, it can be shown that the richest two per cent of the 
people own sixty per cent of the wealth; that the poorest sixty-five per 
cent of the people own but five per cent of the wealth; and that one or 
two men are as rich as several million of their fellow countrymen. — 

ma. 

Signs of the Times, Justice Brewer on Capital and Labor. — A 
capital combine may, as is claimed, produce better, cheaper, and more 
satisfactory results; . . . but too often the combine is not content with 
the voluntary co-operation of such as choose to join. It grasps at 
monopoly, and seeks to crush out all competition. If any individual 
prefers his independent business, however small, and refuses to join the 
combine, it proceeds to assail that business. ... It thus crushes or 
swallows the individual, and he is assaulted as though he were an 
outlaw. 

So it is with organizations of labor; the leaders order a strike; the 
organization throws down its tools and ceases to work. No individual 
member dare say, "I have a family to support; I prefer to work," but 
is forced to go with the general body. . . . 

Are we going to drift along until this contest ends in a bloody 
struggle? Must our children pay for securing the real liberty of each 
individual the price that the nation paid a score of years ago to abolish 
human slavery? — David Brewer, Justice of the Supreme Court; cited in 
" The Laborer and the Capitalist:' Freemmi Otis Willey, pp. 27, 28. 
New York: Equitable Publishing Co. 

Note. — The prophecy of James 5 foretold just this condition, warning both 
the capitalist and the laborer that the day of God is at hand. — Eds. 

Signs of the Times, Strikes and Lockouts in America. — Since 
1880 statistics of strikes and lockouts occurring in the United States 
have been collected by the United States Bureau of Labor. . . . During 



528 



SIGNS OF THE TIMES. 



the period of twenty-five years [1881-1905] there were 36,757 strikes and 
1,546 lockouts in the United States, making a total of 38,303 disturbances 
of this character, not including disturbances of less than one day's dura- 
tion. Strikes occurred in 181,407 establishments and lockouts in 18,547 
establishments, making a total of 199,954 establishments affected. The 
total number of persons who went out on strike during the period was 
6,728,048 and the number of persons locked out was 716,231, making a 
total of 7,444,279 persons striking or locked out. — Nelson's Encyclopedia, 
Vol. XI, art. " Strikes and Lockouts," p. 499 A. 

Note. — As shown by the tenth census, there were in 1880 only 610 reported 
strikes and lockouts in the entire United States, while for the five years ending 
1905, the average was 2,792.8, or an increase of more than 457 per cent, while 
the increase in population was only about 50 per cent. — Eds. 

Signs of the Times, Growth of Social Discontent. — Fifty years 
ago there was scarcely a voice of protest; indeed, there was hardly any- 
thing to protest against. Twenty-five years ago the protest was clear 
and distinct, and we understood it. Ten years ago the protest found 
expression in a dozen weekly publications, but today the protest is cir- 
culated not by hundreds or thousands of printed copies of books, pam- 
phlets, magazines, and newspapers, but actually by the million. . . . 
Only a fool sneers at such a volume of publicity as that. . . . 

The warnings that hundreds of us are uttering may be ignored. 
The squandering may go on, the vulgar bacchanalia may be prolonged, 
the poor may have to writhe under the iron heel of the iron lord — the 
dance of death may go on until society's " E " string snaps, and then 
the Vesuvius of the underworld will belch forth its lava of death and 
destruction. . . . 

This is not the voice of a pessimist. It is the voice of one who 
finds himself a part of that which he condemns; of one who would avert 
the catastrophe that, unless we change our ways, will come and come as 
inevitably as comes night after day! — " The Morality of the Idle Rich," 
by Frederick Townsend Martin, in Hearst's Magazine (New York), Sep- 
tember, 1913, pp. 384-336. 

Signs of the Times, Syndicalism, a New Symptom of Industrial 
Unrest. — Syndicalism was born of the growing differences and contro- 
versies within labor and trade unions. The first symptoms appeared in 
France [about 1902], whence the doctrine soon spread to Italy, to Eng- 
land, and thence to America. Syndicalism is antagonistic to govern- 
ment, to existing labor unions, and to capital alike, and is even designed 
to supplant socialism. . . . 

Syndicalism demands that social revolution come through labor 
unions in order to abolish capitalism, whereas Socialists expect to work 
reform by political agitation through parliamentary majorities. . . . 

Prior to the war France had approximately 600,000 avowed Syndi- 
calists. Agricultural Italy was a veritable hotbed of Syndicalism. Or- 
ganized farm laborers controlled over 200,000 acres of tillable land, 
which was farmed on the co-operative plan, and the entire Italian rail- 
way sytsem was under the influence of advanced Syndicalism. 

At a conference of Syndicalists held in England in November, 1910, 
60,000 professed followers attended, since which date their doctrine has 
spread considerably, especially among the more intelligent of the indus- 
trial workers. 

Here in America Syndicalism first showed its head during the labor 
troubles at Lawrence, Mass., under direction of the Industrial Workers 
of the World [1912]. — " The World Almanac and Encyclopedia," 1917, 
p. 129. 



SPIRITUALISM, ORIGIN OF. 



529 



Signs of the Times. — See Advent, Second, 13-15; Dark Day; Earth- 
quakes; Falling Stars; Increase of Knowledge; Spiritualism. 

Silence in Heaven. — See Seven Seals, 498. 

Society of Jesus. — See Jesuits. 

Spiritualism, Birth of Modern Form of. — Modern Spiritualism 
dates from March, 1848, it being then that, for the first time, intelligent 
communications were held with the unknown cause of the mysterious 
knockings and other sounds similar to those which had disturbed the 
Mompesson and Wesley families in the seventeenth and eighteenth cen- 
turies. — " On Miracles and Modern Spiritualism " Prof. Alfred Russel 
Wallace, p. 146. London, 1875. 

Spiritualism, Encyclopedia Britannica on Rise of. — A complete 
examination into it [Spiritualism] would involve a discussion of the 
religions of all ages and nations. In 1848, however, a peculiar form of 
it, believed to be based on abundant experimental evidence, arose in 
America and spread there with great rapidity, and thence over the civ- 
ilized world. . . . The movement began in a single family. In 1848 a 
Mr. and Mrs. J. D. Fox and their two daughters, at Hydesville (Wayne 
County), New York, were much disturbed by unexplained knockings. 
At length Kate Fox (b. 1839) discovered that the cause of the sounds 
was intelligent and would make raps as requested. ... It was, however, 
at Rochester, where Kate and her sister Margaret (1836-93) went to 
live with a married sister (Mrs. Fish), that modern Spiritualism as- 
sumed its present form, and that communication was, as it was believed, 
established with lost relatives and deceased eminent men. . . . The 
" spiritualistic " movement spread like an epidemic. — Encyclopedia 
Britannica, Vol. XXV, art. " Spiritualism," p. 705, 11th edition. New 
York: The Encyclopedia Britannica Co., 1911. 

Spiritualism, Origin and Adherents of. — Modern Spiritualism 
claims as its birthday March 31, 1848, and the place of its birth Hydes- 
ville, Wayne County, New York, U. S. A.; but it is in reality almost as 
old as the world's history, and will go on to its close. 

That the number of adherents of modern Spiritualism is amazingly 
large is borne out by Dr. F. Maack, of Hamburg, writing so recently as 
1910. As an antagonist of Spiritualism, he is not likely to overstate the 
numbers. In Berlin alone, he says, there are probably 10,000 Spirit- 
ualists, among them exalted and court personages; 400 mediums, and 
from fifteen to twenty societies. In North America there are said to be 
16,000,000 adherents; while in the whole world it was computed that 
in 1894 there were 60,000,000 modern Spiritualists, with 200 journals 
exclusively devoted to the propaganda of this awful system. The num- 
ber has grown considerably since. Add to these the demonized races of 
the heathen world; the millions of China, Japan, and India; the count- 
less tribes of Africa; the savage hordes of the Sudan; the cannibal 
inhabitants of the South Sea Islands; and you complete roughly the pic- 
ture of Spiritualism covering the earth with darkness — ancient Spirit- 
ualism in the East, and modern Spiritualism in the West, bringing in 
its train wickedness of every hideous kind. — Algernon J. Pollock, in 
" The Fundamentals," Vol. X, p. 111. 

Spiritualism, Rapid Spread of. — Never before in the history of the 
race has any belief of a religious character obtained so wide and deep 
a foothold amongst men, or established its standards of faith at so many 
34 



530 



SPIRITUALISM, SPREAD OF. 



distant points at once, appealed successfully to so many classes of 
society, and wrought such a vast revolution in human opinion, — and 
that in less than half a century of time. — " Nineteenth Century Mira- 
cles," Emma Hardinge Britten, pp. 554, 555. Published by William Brit- 
ten; printed by Lovell & Co., New York, 1884. 

Spiritualism, Spread of, in Great Britain. — All classes of society 
have been induced to dabble with these mysteries. Among the intel- 
lectuals there are thousands of men and women who, after abandoning 
Christianity, have, in the search for some kind of spiritual life, which 
is an essential craving of the human heart, plunged into the dark laby- 
rinths of occult science with little knowledge and less discretion. So- 
ciety women and shop girls, scientists and city clerks, clergymen in large 
numbers, and young men with a smattering of self-taught culture, are 
indulging in seances, crystal gazing, table turning, automatic writing, 
and the invocation of spirits by one means and another, to an extent 
which is incredible to those who, so far, have not come within this 
sphere of influence. — Lecture delivered in London by Mr. Rampert, Eng- 
lish clergyman and psychic expert; reprinted in the New York Times, 
Feb. 1, 1914.* 

Spiritualism, Reality of Ancient Spiritism. — Magic and sorcery, 
though they lay outside of religion and were forbidden arts in all the 
civilized states of antiquity, were never regarded as mere imposture. — 

" The Religion of the Semites." Prof. Robertson Smith, D. D., p. 90; 
cited in " Semetic Magic," R. C. Thompson, Introduction, p. xvii. Lon- 
don, 1908. 

Spiritualism, Wins over Scientific Investigators. — The phenom- 
ena which have converted to psychicism the greatest scientists of Eu- 
rope, and are now creating widespread comment in every intelligent 
center of the globe, are not, we must remember, the credulous mingling 
of hysteria, darkness, and fraud which we commonly associate with 
spiritualism; they are facts of cold daylight, things of the laboratory, 
weighed, measured, dissected, counted, by the exact methods of calcu- 
lating, unsympathetic science. 

Of course, Crookes, the inventor of the Crookes tube; Curie, the dis- 
coverer of radium; Lombroso, the founder of the science of criminol- 
ogy; Sir Oliver Lodge, the eminent biologist; Morselli, the psychologist, 
and their several hundred brother scientists, may be very much mis- 
taken in what they say they have discovered. That, the author will not 
pretend to decide; but surely, what they consider worthy of credence 
on such a vital subject is at least worthy of our serious consideration. 
— " Are the Bead Alive? " Fremont Rider, Preface, pp. viii, ix. New 
York: B. W. Dodge & Co., 1909. 

Spiritualism, Becomes a Recognized Religion. — This can no longer 
be ignored or simply laughed at. . . . The affair has come out into the 
light of day; its phenomena are in process of being respectfully judged 
by scientists as well as by theologians; and it must take its place at 
last among the recognized religions of the world. — " Spiritualism " 
(pamphlet), Rev. Mgr. R. H. Benson. London: Catholic Truth Society* 

Spiritualism, Seen as Coming World Marvel. — The lowly manifes- 
tations of Hydesville have ripened into results which have engaged the 
finest group of intellects in this country during the last twenty years, 
and which are destined, in my opinion, to bring about far the greatest' 
development of human experience which the world has ever seen. — Sir- 
Arthur Conan Doyle, M. D., in the Metropolitan Magazine (New York), 
■January, 1918, p. 69. 



SPIRITUALISM, CHARACTER OF. 



531 



Spiritualism, Chaeactee No Bae to Spieitist Dealings.— It has 
been asserted by men for whose opinion I have a deep regard, . . . that 
psychical research is quite distinct from religion. Certainly it is so, in 
the sense that a man might be a very good psychical researcher, but a 
very bad man. But the results of psychical research, the deductions 
which we may draw, and the lessons we may learn, teach us of the con- 
tinued life of the soul, of the nature of that life, and of how it is in- 
fluenced by our conduct here. ... To me it is religion — the very es- 
sence of it. — Ibid. 

Spiritualism, Declaees, " Ye Shall Not Sueely Die." — It demon- 
strates, as completely as the fact can be demonstrated, that the so-called 
dead are still alive. — " On Miracles and Modern Spiritualism," Prof. 
Alfred Russel Wallace, p. 212. London, 1875. 

We found beyond a shadow of doubt or peradventure, that death 
had no power over the spirit, could never touch the soul, or destroy one 
attribute or property of soul life. In a word, we found our so-called 
dead were all living, aye, and living so near to us that they breathe our 
very atmosphere, share our very thoughts. — " Nineteenth Century Mir- 
acles," Emma Hardinge Britten, p. 555. Published by William Britten; 
printed by Lovell & Co., Neio York, 1884. 

Spiritualism, Denies the Divine Savioue and Atonement. — One 
can see no justice in a vicarious sacrifice, nor in the God who could be 
placated by such means. Above all, many cannot understand such ex- 
pressions as the " redemption from sin," " cleansed by the blood of the 
Lamb," and so forth. . . . Never was thex^e any evidence of a fall. But 
if there were no fall, then what became of the atonement, of the redemp- 
tion, of original sin, of a large part of Christian mystical philosophy? 
Even if it were as reasonable in itself, as it is actually unreasonable, it 
would still be quite divorced from the facts. Again, too much seemed 
to be made of Christ's death. It is no uncommon thing to die for an 
idea. — Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, M. D., in the Metropolitan Magazine 
(New York), January, 1918, p. 69. 

Spiritualism, an Exeecise of Satanic Powee. — Those Christians 
who treat Spiritualism as a mere imposture are working much harm. 
That many impostures are connected with it, is a fact; and that it 
would be absurd to believe in the occurrence of any alleged manifesta- 
tion without sufficient proof, is self-evident. But the Bible, as we have 
endeavored to show, warrants us in conceding the possibility of an exer- 
cise of Satanic power. Moreover, at the time of the end, false Christs 
and false prophets are to show great signs and wonders: it may be that 
they are even now arising among us. — "Earth's Earliest Ages," G. H. 
Pember, Preface to fifth edition, pp. xxv, xxvi. London: Hodder and 
Stoughton, 1895. 

Spiritualism, a Revival of Ancient Demonology. — Modern Spirit- 
ualism is not only Greek and Roman sorcery, but New Testament de- 
monology. There cannot be found one important point in which they 
differ. This being the case, what is to be thought of this boasted new 
dispensation of Spiritualism? What is to be thought of intelligent men 
going back to Greek and Roman idolatry, and uniting with New Testa- 
ment demons in " What have we to do with thee, Jesus, thou Son of 
God?" Is it not true, that men "love darkness rather than light"? — 
" Spij'itualism," W. MEonald, p. 74. New York: Carlton and Porter, 
1866. 

Spiritualism, a Sign of the Times. — The movement is rapidly ad- 
vancing, and becoming one of the signs of the times. — " Review of 



532 



SPIRITUALISM, REVIVAL OF. 



Spiritual Manifestations," Rev. Charles Beecher, p. 58; cited in "A 
Threefold Test of Modern Spiritualism," William R. Gordon, D. D., p. 80. 
New York: Charles Scribner, 1856. 

Spiritualism, a Fulfilment of Prophecy. — This modern revival of 
Spiritualism, therefore, not only seems to lend evidence that we are 
living in what Paul calls the " latter times," but Paul seems to inti- 
mate rather strongly that the spirits which are around in the seances 
and sittings of the present day, or rather night, are not the spirits of 
our loved ones at all, but spirits whose distinguishing features are a 
cloven hoof and a forked tail and a lying tongue. Demon possession 
does not, of course, always manifest itself in the same way, but always 
with one purpose, and that is to seduce man from the worship of God. 

The old devil is as cunning as ever, and these demons of his, like 
angels of light, often disguise the real purpose of their action by a pre- 
tended zeal for the truth, even by the reading of the Bible and encour- 
agement to the Christian life; but this is only to gain confidence and a 
firmer hold on the victim, and back of it all is the sinister motive of 
enthralling mankind under the dominion of their lord and master, 
Satan, the arch-enemy of God. The Bible says distinctly that the air 
which envelops our earth is full of evil spirits, and, if that is so, we 
cannot be surprised at their attempt to communicate with man and to 
influence him for evil. — " Spiritualism" William Edward Biederwolf, 
pp. 21, 22. Chicago: Glad Tidings Pub. Co. 

Spiritualism, Demonism in Heathenism. — Dr. Ashmore, who has 
spent his whole life in China, says: " I have no doubt that the Chinese 
hold direct communications with the spirits of another world. They 
never pretend that they are the spirits of their departed friends. They 
get themselves into a certain state and seek to be possessed by these 
spirits." — "Ancient Heathenism and Modern Spiritualism," H. L. Has- 
tings, p. 211. Boston: H. L. Hastings & Sons. 

Spiritualism, Accompanying Revival of Doctrines " from the 
East" (Isa. 2: 6). — India has apparently still a mission to fulfil, for 
her thought is slowly beginning to mold the thought of Europe and of 
America; our keenest minds are today studying her philosophy; our 
New Theology is founded upon the old, old Vedanta. — Madame Jean 
Delaire, in the National Review (London), September, 1908, p. 131* 

Spiritualism, What Theosophists Expect. — My message is very 
simple : " Prepare for the coming of Christ." We stand at the cradle of 
a new subrace, and each race or subrace has its own messiah. Hermes 
is followed by Zoroaster; Zoroaster by Orpheus; Orpheus by Buddha; 
Buddha by Christ. We now await with confidence a manifestation of 
the Supreme Teacher of the world, who was last manifested in Pales- 
tine. Everywhere in the West, not less than in the East, the heart of 
man is throbbing with the glad expectation of the new avatar. — News- 
paper report of speech by Mrs. Annie Besant (of India), on tour in 
America, 1909* 

Spiritualism, Viewed as System to Unite All Religions. — If such 
a view of Christianity were generally accepted, and if it were enforced 
by assurance and demonstration from the New Revelation which is, as 
I believe, coming to us from the other side, then I think we should have 
a creed which might unite the churches, which might be reconciled to 
science, which might defy all attacks, and which might carry the Chris- 
tian faith on for an indefinite period. — Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, M. D., 
in the Metropolitan Magazine (New York), January, 1918, p. 75. 



SUNDAY IN THE NEW TESTAMENT. 



533 



Stars, Falling. — See Falling Stars. 

State Religion. — See Religious Liberty. 

Stylites, St. Simeon. — See Monasticism, 314. 

Suevi. ; — See Rome, Its Barbarian Invaders, 456. 

Sunday, New Testament Texts Often Referred to as Authority 
for. — Taken separately, perhaps, and even all together, these passages 
seem scarcely adequate to prove that the dedication of the first day of 
the week to the purposes above mentioned was a matter of apostolic 
institution, or even of apostolic practice. — "A Dictionary of the Bible" 
William Smith, LL. D., art. "Lord's Day," p. 356. New York: Fleming 
H. Revell Company. 

These arguments, however, are not satisfactory to some, and it must 
be confessed that there is no law in the New Testament concerning the 
first day. — Buck's Theological Dictionary, art. "Sabbath," p. 403. 

Note. — This statement of Buck's is reproduced word for word in the later 
standard work, McClintock and Strong's " Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological, 
and Ecclesiastical Literature," art. "Sabbath." — Eds. 

Sunday, " The First Day " Meeting of Acts 20: 7. — It was the eve- 
ning which succeeded the Jewish Sabbath. On the Sunday morning the 
vessel was about to sail. — " Life and Epistles of the Apostle Paul," Gony- 
beare and Howson, chap. 20, p. 520. Nei$ York: Thomas Y. Growell & Go. 

Strength and peace were surely sought and obtained by the apostle 
from the Redeemer as he pursued his lonely road that Sunday afternoon 
in spring among the oak woods and the streams of Ida. — Id., p. 522. 

The Jews reckoned the day from evening to evening, and on that 
principle the evening of the first day of the week would be our Satur- 
day evening. — " Commentary on Acts," Horatio B. Hackett (Professor 
of New Testament Greek, Rochester Theological Seminary), p. 329; 
cited in "History of the Sabbath," Andreios and Conradi, p. 204, foot- 
note, edition 1912. 

It has from this last circumstance [" lights in the upper chamber "] 
been inferred that the assembly commenced after sunset on the Sab- 
bath, at which hour the first day of the week had commenced, accord- 
ing to the Jewish reckoning. — " Cyclopedia of Biblical Literature," Kitto, 
art. "Lord's Day;" cited in "History of the Sabbath;' Andrews andi 
Conradi, p. 204, footnote. 

Sunday, Mention of "First Day," 1 Cor. 16: 2. — From this pas- 
sage it can by no means be concluded that there were collections in 
church assemblies on Sunday; for the intent is that every one lay that 
amount aside, at home. — "Biblical Commentary on All the New Testa- 
ment," Olshausen, on 1 Cor. 16:2; cited in "History of the Sabbath," 
Andrews and Conradi, p. 200, edition 1912. 

All mentioned here is easily explained, if one simply thinks of the 
ordinary beginning of the week in secular life.- — " General History of the 
Christian Religion and Church," Augustus Neander, Vol. I, p. 339 
(German edition); cited in "History of the Sabbath," Andrews and Con- 
radi, p. 200, edition 1.912. 



534 SUNDAY — "FIRST DAY." 



7ra/3 eavTy, at one's home or house, Lat. apud se. — Liddell and ScotVa 
Greek-English Lexicon. 

Note. — It was by misunderstanding the everyday usage of Palestine in this 
matter that Mr. S. W. Gamble was led, some years ago, to come out with the 
theory that the translation " first day of the week " is incorrect, that the word 
" day " is supplied incorrectly, and that the real meaning is that Sunday is the 
first of the Sabbaths, or the original Sabbath of Eden. Opponents of the Sab- 
bath quickly seized upon Mr. Gamble's " discovery," and great was the agitation 
and joy. It was hailed as " the Waterloo of the Saturdarians " — until, in 
cbagrin, Mr. Gamble's own people and others showed the absurdity of it 
all. — Eds. 

Sunday, Me. S. W. Gamble's Theory of " First of the Sabbath " 
Reviewed (1899). — In the contest with the tireless seventh-day Sab- 
batarians, increasingly are certain Methodist writers insisting that the 
resurrection of Christ upon the first day of the week recovered and re- 
enacted the original, creational, and true Sabbath. With hearty sym- 
pathy does the writer view their every legitimate argument to establish 
the sanctity and foster the hallowing of the Lord's day. But when a 
claim on its behalf is distinctly based upon, or forcibly corroborated by, 
a gross wresting of the Holy Scriptures, suspicion as to its validity 
instinctively sets in, to say nothing of mortification and repugnance, . . . 

This widely heralded Klondike discovery as to mian Sabbaton 
turns out to be only the glitter of fool's gold. It rests upon the *pro- 
foundest ignoring or ignorance of a law of syntax fundamental to in- 
flected speech, and especially of the usage and influence of the Aramaic 
tongue, which was the vernacular of Jesus and his apostles. Must 
syntax die that the Sabbath may live? 

Let these affirmations [of the theory] be traversed: "4. No Greek 
word for ' day ' occurs in any of the passages." Made for simple readers 
of English, that statement lacks candor. Said word is there, latent, 
to a much greater degree than it is in our phrase, " The twenty-fifth of 
the month." Upon being asked, " The twenty-fifth what? " the veriest 
child instantly replies, " Day." But stronger yet is the case in hand. 
The adjectival word mian is in the feminine gender, and an immutable 
law requires adjective modifiers to agree with their nouns in gender. 
Sabbaton is of the neuter gender, and out of the question. What femi- 
nine Greek word is latent in this phrase, and yet so patent as to re- 
flect upon this adjectival numeral its feminine hue? Plainly the femi- 
nine word hemera, " day," as analogously it is found in Mark 14 : 12, 
prote hemera ton azumon, " the first day of unleavened bread." Boldly 
to aver that "no Greek word for 'day' occurs in any of the passages," 
is to blind the simple English reader to the fact that an inflected 
language, by its numerous genders and cases, can indicate the presence 
and force of latent words to an extent undreamed of in English. — Dr. 
Wilbur Fletcher Steele, in an article "Must Syntax Die That the Sab- 
bath May Live? " in the Methodist Review, May, 1899 * 

Note. — Speaking of the West Aramaic speech of Palestine in the days of 
Christ, Mr. Steele said : " In that language we have the names of the days of 
the week as Mary taught them to her son Jesus." Then he gives a sample of the 
ancient Aramaic calendar: "One in the Shabba " (Sabbath), "second in the 
Shabba," " third in the Shabba," etc., on to " eve of the Shabba," and " the 
Shabba." Such were the calendars that Matthew and Mark and Luke were 
familiar with, the current language of the street as men or children spoke of 
the days of the week. Mr. Steele concluded his review and exposure of Mr. 
Gamble's theory with the words : 

" As a vital or corroboratory part of any argument for the sanctifying of 
the Lord's day, this travestied exegesis, instead of being a monumental dis- 
covery, is but a monumental blunder. Thereby our foes will have us in derision. 
Tell it not in Gath, 

Publish it not in the streets of Battle Creek, 

Lest the daughters of the Sabbatarians rejoice, 

Lest the daughters of the Saturdarians triumph." — Eds. 



SUNDAY, AUTHORITY FOR. 



Sunday, Not Known as Rest-Day in Early Centuries. — The notion 
of a formal substitution by apostolic authority of the Lord's day for the 
Jewish Sabbath, and the transference to it, perhaps in a spiritualized 
form, of the Sabbatical obligation established by the promulgation of 
the fourth commandment, has no basis whatever, either in Holy Scrip- 
ture or in Christian antiquity. . . . The idea afterwards embodied in 
the title of the " Christian Sabbath," and carried out in ordinances of 
Judaic rigor, was, so far as we can see, entirely unknown in the early 
centuries of Christianity. — " A Dictionary of Christian Antiquities," 
Smith and Cheetham, art. "Sabbath" p. 1823. London: John Murray, 
1880. 

Take which you will, either the Fathers or the moderns, and we 
shall find no Lord's day instituted by any apostolical mandate; no Sab- 
bath set on foot by them upon the first day of the week. — " History of 
the Sabbath," Dr. Peter Heylyn (Church of England), part. 2, chap. 1. 

The Lord's day did not succeed in the place of the Sabbath, but the 
Sabbath was wholly abrogated, and the Lord's day was merely an ec- 
clesiastical institution. It was not introduced by virtue of the fourth 
commandment, because they for almost three hundred years together 
kept that day which was in that commandment. . . . 

The primitive Christians did all manner of works upon the Lord's 
day, even in the times of persecution, when they are the strictest ob- 
servers of all the divine commandments; but in this they knew there 
was none. — " Duct or Dubitantium" Bishop Jeremy Taylor (Church of 
England), part 1, book 2, chap. 2, rule 6, sees. 51, 59; cited in "History 
of the Sabbath" J. N. Andrews, pp. 338, 344, 345, 3d edition. 

Sunday, No Command for, in New Testament. — It is quite clear 
that, however rigidly or devoutfy we may spend Sunday, we are not 
keeping the Sabbath. . . . The Sabbath was founded on a specific, di- 
vine command. We can plead no such command for the observance of 
Sunday. . . . There is not a single sentence in the New Testament to 
suggest that we incur any- penalty by violating the supposed sanctity 
of Sunday. — " The Ten Commandments," R. W. Dale, D. D. (Congrega- 
tionalist), pp. 106, 107. London: Hodder and Stoughton. 

There is no word, no hint, in the New Testament about abstaining 
from work on Sunday. . . . The observance of Ash Wednesday or Lent 
stands on exactly the same footing as the observance of Sunday. . . . 
Into the rest of Sunday no divine law enters. — " The Ten Command- 
ments," Canon Eyton (Church of England). London: Trubner & Co. 

And where are we told in the Scriptures that we are to keep the 
first day at all? We are commanded to keep the seventh; but we are 

nowhere commanded to keep the first day The reason why we keep 

the first day of the week holy instead of the seventh is for the same 
reason that we observe many other things, not because the Bible, but 
the church, has enjoined it. — "Plain Sermons on the Catechism," Rev. 
Isaac Williams, B. D. (Chu?~ch of England), Vol. I, p. 334. London:. 
Longman's cC- Co.* 

It is true there is no positive command for infant baptism, nor is 
there any against it, as there should have been if Christ intended to 
abridge the rights of Jewish parents under the Abrahamic covenant. 
Nor is there any for keeping holy the first, day of the week, or for 
family devotion, or for women to receive the Lord's Supper. The rea- 
sons are obvious; there was no controversy in either case that called 



536 



SUNDAY, AUTHORITY FOR. 



for it. — " Theological Commend," Rev. Amos Binney, pp. 180, 181. New 
York: Methodist Book Concern, 1902. 

You may read the Bible from Genesis to Revelation, and you will 
not find a single line authorizing the sanctification of Sunday. The 
Scriptures enforce the religious observance of Saturday, a day which 
we never sanctify. — " The Faith of Our Fathers'* Cardinal Gibbons, p. 
111. Baltimore: John Murphy & Co., 1893. 

Sunday, Religious Press on. — I hold that, although the Sabbath 
was reinterpreted by the Saviour, he left it to future ages, neither curs- 
ing it nor especially blessing it, using it as he found it, and giving it 
a higher aim and method. . . . You ask me, " Is the old Jewish Sabbath 
continued? " I do not know, and I do not care whether it is or not. — 
Lyman Abbott, in Sermon printed in the Christian Union, Jan. 19, 1882, 
p. 64, middle column. 

The selection of Sunday, thus changing the particular day designated 
in the fourth commandment, was brought about by the gradual concur- 
rence of the early Christian church, and on this basis, and none other, 
does the Christian Sabbath, the first day of the week, rightly rest. — 

The Christian at Work (now Christian Work, New York), Jan. 8, 1885* 

The observance of the first instead of the seventh day rests on the 
testimony of the church, and the church alone. — Hobart (Tasmania) 

Church News (Church of England), July 2, 1894 .* 

Sunday is a Catholic institution, and its claims to observance can 
be defended only on Catholic principles. . . . From beginning to end 
of Scripture there is not a single passage that warrants the transfer 
of weekly public worship from the last day of the week to the first. — 

Catholic Press (Sydney, Australia), Aug. 25, 1900* 

Sunday, The Poet Milton on Applying the Fourth Commandment 
to First-Day Rest. — It is impossible to extort such a sense from the 
words of the commandment; seeing that the reason for which the com- 
mandment itself was originally given, namely, as a memorial of God's 
having rested from the creation of the world, cannot be transferred from 
the seventh day to the first; nor can any new motive be substituted in 
its place, whether the resurrection of our Lord or any other, without 
the sanction of a divine commandment. — " Prose Works of John Milton," 
Bohn edition, Vol. V, p. 70* 

For if we under the gospel are to regulate the time of our public 
worship by the prescriptions of the decalogue, it will surely be far 
safer to observe the seventh day, according to the express command- 
ment of God, than on the authority of mere human conjecture to adopt 
the first. — " A Treatise on Christian Doctrine," John Milton; cited in 
" The Literature of the Sabbath Question," Robert Cox, Vol. II, p. 54. 
Edinburgh: Maclachlan and Stewart, 1865. 

Sunday, Earliest Law for. — The earliest law by which the ob- 
servance of the first day of the week was ordained, is the edict of 
Constantine, 321. — Haydn's u Dictionary of Dates," art. "Sabbath," 
25th edition. London: Ward, Lock & Co., 1910. 

The earliest recognition of the observance of Sunday as a legal 
duty is a constitution of Constantine in 321 a. d., enacting that all courts 
of justice, inhabitants of towns, and workshops were to be at rest on 



SUNDAY, LAWS FOR. 



537 



Sunday (venerabili die solis), with an exception in favor of those en- 
gaged in agricultural labor. — Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. XXVI, 11th 
edition, art. " Sunday," p. 95. 

Unquestionably the first law, either ecclesiastical or civil, by which 
the Sabbatical observance of that day is known to have been ordained, 
is the edict of Constantine, 321 a. d. — Chambers's Encyclopedia, art. 
"Sabbath." * 

Centuries of the Christian era passed away before the Sunday 
was observed by the Christian church as a Sabbath. History does not 
furnish us with a single proof or indication that it was at any time so 
observed previous to the Sabbatical edict of Constantine in a. d. 321. — 
"Examination of the Six Texts," Sir William Domville, p. 291; cited 
in "History of the Sabbath," J. N. Andrews, p. 345, 3d edition, 1887. 

Sunday, Constantine's Sunday Law. — On the venerable day of 
the sun let the magistrates and people residing in the cities rest, and 
let all workshops be closed. In the country, however, persons engaged 
in agriculture may freely and lawfully continue their pursuits; be- 
cause it often happens that another day is not so suitable for grain 
sowing or for vine planting; lest by neglecting the proper moment for 
such operations, the bounty of heaven should be lost. (Given the 7th 
day of March, Crispus and Constantine being consuls each of them for 
the second time.) — Codex Justinian, lib. 3, tit. 12, 3; cited in "History 
of the Christian Church," Philip Schaff, D. D., Vol. Ill, chap. 5, sec. 75, 
p. 380. 

Sunday, Gbotius on Constantine's Law. — He [Grotius] refers to 
Eusebius for proof that Constantine, besides issuing his well-known 
edict that labor should be suspended on Sunday, enacted that the people 
should not be brought before the law courts on the seventh day of the 
week, which also, he adds, was long observed by the primitive Chris- 
tians as a day for religious meetings. . . . And this, says he, " refutes 
those who think that the Lord's day was substituted for the Sabbath — 
a thing nowhere mentioned either by Christ or his apostles." — Hugo 
Grotius (d. 1645), "Opera Omnia Theologica," London: 1679; cited in 
" The Literature of the Sabbath Question," Robert Cox, Vol. I, p. 223. 
Edinburgh: Maclachlan and Stewart, 1865. 

In our received text of Eusebius it is stated that he [Constantine] 
enjoined for Saturday the same cessation of business. But the state- 
ments of both Sozomon and Eusebius are viewed with doubt by the more 
careful critics, not only because the text of both is corrupt, but also 
because no such law concerning Friday or Saturday is found either in 
the Justinian or the Theodosian code. — Franklin Johnson, D. D., in 
" Sabbath Essays," p. 241; cited in " The Sabbath for Man," Rev. Wilbur 
F. Crafts, A. M., p. 555. New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1885. 

Sunday, Begun as Pagan Okdinance, Ends as Chuech Institution. 
— This legislation by Constantine probably bore no relation to Chris- 
tianity; it appears, on the contrary, that the emperor, in his capacity of 
Pontifex Maximus, was only adding the day of the sun, the worship of 
which was then firmly established in the Roman Empire, to the other 
ferial days of the sacred calendar. — " Rest Days," Prof. Hutton Webster, 
Ph. D. (University of Nebraska), p. 122. New York: MacmUlan and 
Company, 1916. 



538 



SUNDAY LAWS, CONSTANTINO'S. 



What began, however, as a pagan ordinance, ended as a Christian 
regulation; and a long series of imperial decrees, during the fourth, 
fifth, and sixth centuries, enjoined with increasing stringency absti- 
nence from labor on Sunday. — Id., p. 270. 

Sunday, Dean Stanley on Constantine's " Day of the Sun." — 
The retention of the old pagan name " Dies Solis," or " Sunday," for 
the weekly Christian festival, is, in great measure, owing to the union 
of pagan and Christian sentiment with which the first day of the week 
was recommended by Constantine to his subjects, pagan and Christian 
alike, as the " venerable day of the sun." ... It was his mode of har- 
monizing the discordant religions of the empire under one common 
institution. — Lectures on the History of the Eastern Church, Arthur 
Penrhyn Stanley, D. D., Lecture 6, par. 15, p. 184. New York: Charles 
Scribner's Sons, 1884. 

Sunday, Dr. Heylyn's Summing Up. — Thus do we see upon what 
grounds the Lord's day stands ; on custom first, and voluntary conse- 
cration of it to religious meetings: that custom countenanced by the 
authority of the church of God, which tacitly approved the same; and 
finally confirmed and ratified by Christian princes throughout their em- 
pires; and as the day for rest from labors, and restraint from business 
upon that day, received its greatest strength from the supreme magis- 
trate as long as he retained that power which to him belongs; as after 
from the canons and decrees of councils, the decretals of popes and or- 
ders of particular prelates, when the sole managing of ecclesiastical 
affairs was committed to them. — "History of the Sabbath" Dr. Peter 
Heylyn, part 2, chap. 3, sec. 12; cited in "History of the Sabbath," 
J. N. Andrews, p. 353, 3d edition. 

Sunday, Called " First Day of the Week " in the Gospels. — See 
Calendar, 95. 

Sunday Laws, Constantine the Father of Sunday Legislation. — 
So long as Christianity was not recognized and protected by the state, 
the observance of Sunday was purely religious, a strictly voluntary serv- 
ice, but exposed to continual interruption from the bustle of the world 
and a hostile community. . . . Constantine is the founder, in part at 
least, of the civil observance of Sunday, by which alone the religious 
observance of it in the church could be made universal and could be 
properly secured. . . . But the Sunday law of Constantine must not be 
overrated. . . . There is no reference whatever in his law either to the 
fourth commandment or to the resurrection of Christ. Besides, he ex- 
pressly exempted the country districts, where paganism still prevailed, 
from the prohibition of labor. . . . Christians and pagans had been ac- 
customed to festival rests; Constantine made these rests to synchronize, 
and gave the preference to Sunday. — "History of the Christian Church" 
Philip Schaff, Third Period, chap. 7, sec. 75 (Vol. Ill, pp. 379, 380). 
New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1889. 

Sunday Laws, Increasing Stringency of. — By a law of the year 
386, those older changes effected by the emperor Constantine were more 
rigorously enforced, and, in general, civil transactions of every kind 
on Sunday were strictly forbidden. — " General History of the Christian 
Religion and Church," Dr. Augustus Neander (translation by Joseph 
Torrey), Vol. II, p. 300. Boston: Crocker and Brewster, 1848. 

Sunday Laws, Religious Worship Enforced in Constantine's 
Army. — For the army, however, he [Constantine] . . . enjoined a cer- 



SUNDAY LAWS, ANCIENT. 



539 



tain positive observance of Sunday, in requiring the Christian soldiers 
to attend Christian worship, and the heathen soldiers, in the open field, 
at a given signal, with eyes and hands raised towards heaven, to recite 
the following, certainly very indefinite, form of prayer: "Thee alone 
we acknowledge as God, thee we reverence as king, to thee we call as 
our helper. To thee we owe our victories, by thee have we obtained the 
mastery of our enemies. — " History of the Christian Religion and 
Church," Philip Schaff, Third Period, chap. 7, sec. 75 (Vol. Ill, pp. 380, 
381). New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1889. 

Sunday Laws, Baneful Fruitage of Church and State Union. — 
To the reign of Constantine the Great must be referred the commence- 
ment of those dark and dismal times which oppressed Europe for a 
thousand years. It is the true close of the Roman Empire, the begin- 
ning of the Greek. The transition from one to the other is emphati- 
cally and abruptly marked by a new metropolis, a new religion, a new 
code, and, above all, a new policy. An ambitious man had attained 
to imperial power by personating [espousing] the interests of a rapidly 
growing party. The unavoidable consequences were a union between 
the church and state; a diverting of the dangerous classes from civil 
to ecclesiastical paths, and the decay and materialization of religion. — 
''History of the Intellectual Development of Europe," John William 
Draper, M. D., LL. D., Vol. I, p. 278. New York: Harper & Brothers, 
1876. 

It was the aim of Constantine to make theology a branch of poli- 
tics: it was the hope of every bishop in the empire to make politics a 
branch of theology. — Id., p. 311. 

Sunday Laws, to Promote Church Attendance (425). — All the 
pleasure of the theaters and of the circus throughout all cities, being 
denied to the people of the same, let the minds of all faithful Chris- 
tians be employed in the worship of God. If any, even now, through 
the madness of Jewish impiety or the error and folly of dull paganism, 
are kept away, let them learn that there is one time for prayer and 
another for pleasure. — " Codex Theodosius," lib. 15, tit. 5, lex. 5; cited in 
" A Critical History of Sunday Legislation," A. H. Lewis, D. D., p. 46. 
New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1888. 

Note. — Schaff ("History of the Christian Church," Vol. Ill, p. 106) shows 
that the Council of Carthage (399 or 401) had insisted upon this legislation. 
The bishops wished to find a way of compelling church attendance. — Eds. 

Sunday Laws, Modern Demands Parallel with Ancient. — Give 
us good Sunday laws, well enforced by men in local authority, and our 
churches will be full of worshipers, and our young men and women will 
be attracted to the divine service. A mighty combination of the 
churches of the United States could win from Congress, the State 
legislatures, and municipal councils all legislation essential to this 
splendid result. — Rev. 8. V. Leech, in Homiletic Review (New York), 
November, 1892.* 

Sunday Laws, Neander on Church Use of Civil Legislation. — 
First, in the year 425, the exhibition of spectacles on Sunday, and on the 
principal feast days of the Christians, was forbidden, in order that the 
devotion of the faithful might be free from all disturbance. In this 
way, the church received help from the state for the furtherance of 
her ends, which could not be obtained in the preceding period. But 
had it not been for that confusion of spiritual and secular interests, 
had it not been for the vast number of mere outward conversions thus 



540 



SUNDAY LAWS, ANCIENT. 



brought about, she would have needed no such help. — " General History 
of the Christian Religion and Church," Dr. Augustus Neander, Vol. II, 
sec. 3, pp. 300, 301, Torrey's translation. Boston: Crocker and Brewster, 



Sunday Laws, Charlemagne's Laws, a. d. 789. — In 789, Charle- 
magne promulgated a law that all should abstain from servile work 
and farm work; . . . and he decreed that women should not weave, 
or cut or sew their garments, or work embroidery, or card wool, or beat 
flax, or wash their clothing in public, or shear sheep, " in order that the 
honor and rest of the day might be observed," and he commanded that 
all should attend mass. The same year the "people were admonished by 
Capitularies of Charlemagne to attend church, and not to invite the 
priests to their homes to celebrate mass. 8 Labbe 990 9. — "Sunday: 
Legal Aspects of the First Bay of the 'Week," James T. Ringgold (of the 
Baltimore Bar), Appendix, p. 268. Jersey City: Frederick, D. Linn & 
Co., Law Publishers, 1891. 

Sunday Laws, The Act of Charles II (England), 1676. — For the 
better observation and keeping holy the Lord's day, commonly called 
Sunday: be it enacted . . . that all the laws enacted and in force con- 
cerning the observation of the day, and repairing to the church thereon, 
be carefully put in execution; and that all and every person and persons 
whatsoever shall upon every Lord's day apply themselves to the ob- 
servation of the same, by exercising themselves thereon in the duties 
of piety and true religion, publicly and privately; and that no trades- 
man, artificer, workman, laborer, or other person whatsoever, shall do 
or exercise any worldly labor or business or work of their ordinary 
callings upon the Lord's day, or any part thereof (works of necessity 
and charity only excepted). . . . 

And it is further enacted that no drover, horse-courser, wagoner, 
butcher, higgler — they or any of their servants shall travel or come into 
his or their inn or lodging upon the Lord's day, or any part thereof, 
upon pain that each and every such offender shall forfeit twenty shil- 
lings for every such offense; and that no person or persons shall use, 
employ, or travel upon the Lord's day with any boat, wherry, lighter, 
or barge, except it be upon extraordinary occasion to be allowed by 
some justice of the peace of the county, or some head officer, or some 
justice of the peace of the city, borough, or town corporate, where the 
fact shall be committed, upon pain that every person so offending shall 
forfeit and lose the sum of five shillings for every such offense. — Act 
of the 29th of Charles II, chap. 7, issued in 1676; cited in "A Critical 
History of Sunday Legislation," A. H. Lewis, D. D., pp. 108, 109. New 
York: D. Appleton & Co., 1888. 

Note. — While it is true that the idea of Sunday legislation goes back to Con- 
stantine's law of 321 a. d., it is also true that nearly all American statutes, since 
the earliest New England legislation of that character, are modeled more or less 
closely after the statute of 29th Charles II. — Eds. 

Sunday Law, Introduced in America by the Puritans. — It was a 
fundamental article of the Brownist creed, that the Brownists were the 
just; and it was written J hat the just should inherit the earth. More- 
over, those who did not agree with them could not be overcome without 
the command of material resources. The acquisition of power, there- 
fore, was a sacred duty, in order that the children of Belial might be 
destroyed and a kingdom of this world erected in the Master's name. 
The spirit of the early bishops, who effected the first union of the Chris- 
tian church with the state, was thus working perfectly among the men 



SUNDAY LAWS IN UNITED STATES. 



541 



who set up an established church on American soil. And it is to those 
men that we owe our American Sunday laws. Every Sunday law in 
America is the work of this spirit, as was that first Sunday law which 
Constantine made for Europe. — " The Legal Sunday," James T. Ring- 
gold, of the Baltimore Bar, pp. 50, 51. Jersey City: Frederick D. Linn 
d Co., 1894. 

Note. — " Brownists," or " Separatists," as they were sometimes called, were 
the radical Puritans who felt that it " meant treason to the headship of Christ 
in his church " to remain in the communion of the Established Church of Eng- 
land. Nearly all the Pilgrims were Brownists. — Eds. 

Sunday Laws, Such Statutes Found in Nearly All the States. — 
Special regulations for the conduct of citizens on the first day of the 
week are usually among the first enactments of an American common- 
wealth. The manner in which such legislation has been treated by the 
courts forms a most curious and interesting chapter in our constitu- 
tional history. . . . The following general statement, made in Louisi- 
ana in 1879, fitly introduces the subject: 

" The Constitution of the United States forbids the Congress from 
making any law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting 
the free exercise thereof. But this is an inhibition to Congress only, 
leaving to the State governments the whole power over the subject of 
religion. There are considerable differences in the various State consti- 
tutions on this subject, but the general provision of the most perfect 
equality before the law of all shades of religious belief is common to 
all of them." — BotVs Case, 31 La. Ann., 663; " Sunday: Legal Aspects of 
the First Day of the Week," James T. Ringgold, of the Baltimore Bar, 
pp. 1, 2. Jersey City: Frederick D. Linn & Co., 1891. 

Sunday Laws, Invade Divine Prerogative. — It is the duty of the 
civil power to protect Christians against disturbance in their Sabbath 
worship. But the power is intruding into the divine prerogative when 
it assumes the right to compel the subject to worship God, or to refrain 
from those pursuits which do not disturb others. The keeping of the 
Sabbath is eminently a moral duty, and hence it must be a voluntary 
service rendered under the pressure of moral suasives only. — " Theo- 
logical Compend," Amos Binney, pp. 173, 174. New York: Methodist 
Book Concern, 1902. 

Sunday Laws, Report of the United States Senate, 1829. — The 
proper object of government is to protect all persons in the enjoyment of 
their religious as well as civil rights, and not to determine for any 
whether they shall esteem one day above another, or esteem all days 
alike holy. . . . Our government is a civil, and not a religious institu- 
tion. . . . 

Among all the religious persecutions with which almost every 
page of modern history is stained, no victim ever suffered but for 
the violation of what government denominated the law of God. . . . 
Extensive religious combinations to effect a political object are, in the 
opinion of the committee, always dangerous. This first effort of the 
kind calls for the establishment of a principle which, in the opinion of 
the committee, would lay the foundation for dangerous innovations 
upon the spirit of the Constitution, and upon the religious rights of the 
citizens. If admitted, it may be justly apprehended that the future 
measures of the government will be strongly marked, if not eventually 
controlled, by the same influence. All religious despotism commences 
by combination and influence; and when that influence begins to oper- 
ate upon the political institutions of a country, the civil power soon 



542 



SUNDAY LAWS, PROTESTS AGAINST 



bends under it; and the catastrophe of other nations furnishes an awful 
warning of the consequence. . . . 

If the principle is once established that religion, or religious ob- 
servances, shall be interwoven with our legislative acts, we must pursue 
it to its ultimatum. . . . 

What other nations call religious toleration, we call religious rights. 
They are not exercised in virtue of governmental indulgence, but as 
rights of which government cannot deprive any portion of citizens, 
however small. Despotic power may invade those rights, but justice 
still confirms them. Let the national legislature once perform an act 
which involves the decision of a religious controversy, and it will have 
passed its legitimate bounds. The precedent will then be established, 
and the foundation laid, for that usurpation of the divine prerogative 
in this country which has been the desolating scourge to the fairest 
portions of the Old World. — From Senate Report on Sunday Mails, 
communicated to the United States Senate, Jan. 19, 1829, and adopted 
by that body* "Register of Debates in Congress," Vol. V, Appendix, 
pp. 24-26; cited in "American State Papers" W. Addison Blakely, of 
the Chicago Bar, pp. 234-244, edition 1911. 

Sunday Laws, Report of House of Representatives, 1830. — A Jew- 
ish monarch, by grasping the holy censer, lost both his scepter and his 
freedom. A destiny as little to be envied may be the lot of the American 
people, who hold the sovereignty of power, if they, in the person of 
their representatives, shall attempt to unite, in the remotest degree, 
church and state. 

From the earliest period of time, religious teachers have attained 
great ascendancy over the minds of the people; and in every nation, an- 
cient or modern, whether pagan, Mahometan, or Christian, have suc- 
ceeded in the incorporation of their religious tenets with the political 
institutions of their country. The Persian idols, the Grecian oracles, 
the Roman auguries, and the modern priesthood of Europe, have all, 
in their turn, been the subject of popular adulation, and the agents of 
political deception. If the measure recommended should be adopted, 
it would be difficult for human sagacity to foresee how rapid would be 
the succession, or how numerous the train of measures which follow, 
involving the dearest rights of all — the rights of conscience, [p. 
252] . . . 

If minor punishments would not restrain the Jew, or the Sabba- 
tarian, or the infidel, who believes Saturday to be the Sabbath, or disbe- 
lieves the whole, would not the same system require that we should 
resort to imprisonment, banishment, the rack, and the fagot, to force 
men to violate their own consciences, or compel them to listen to 
doctrines which they abhor? . . . 

If the Almighty has set apart the first day of the week as a time 
which man is bound to keep holy, and devote exclusively to his wor- 
ship, would it not be more congenial to the precepts of Christians to 
appeal exclusively to the great Lawgiver of the universe to aid them 
in making men better — in correcting their practices, by purifying their 
hearts? — House Report on Sunday Mails, communicated to House of 
Representatives, March 4, 5, 1830; cited in "American State Papers" 
W. Addison Blakely, pp. 252, 265, 266, edition 1911. 

. Sunday Laws, Protest of General Assembly of Indiana, 1830. — 
The memorial of the General Assembly of the State of Indiana, respect- 
fully represents: 



1 This report was submitted from the committee on post offices and post 
roads by Col. Richard M. Johnson, senator from Kentucky, born 1780, died 1850. 



SUNDAY LAWS, AUTHORITIES ON. 



543 



That we view all attempts to introduce sectarian influence into the 
councils of the nation as a violation of both the letter and the spirit 
of the Constitution of the United States and of this State, and at the 
same time dangerous to our civil and religious liberties, inasmuch as 
those charters secure to every man the free exercise of his religion and 
the right to worship the Almighty God according to the dictates of his 
own conscience, and inasmuch as any legislative interference in matters 
of religion would be an infraction of those rights: 

We, therefore, most respectfully remonstrate against any attempt, 
by a combination of one or more sects, to alter the laws providing 
for the transportation of the mail, and against the passage of a law 
to regulate or enforce the observance of religious duties, or which may 
interfere with what belongs to the conscience of each individual. — 
Against proposed law to prohibit carrying of mails on Sunday; cited in 
" American State Papers," W. Addison Blakely, p. 271, edition 1911. 

Sunday Laws, Kentucky's Remonstrance, 1831. — However long 
and generally the functionaries of our government, in their individual 
or corporate capacities, may have conformed to the general and laud- 
able custom of observing the Sabbath, it has been voluntary. But when 
once the Congress shall have assumed the right of deciding by a legis- 
lative act the orthodoxy of this or any other point of religious contro- 
versy, the magic spell will have been broken which has excluded reli- 
gious intolerance from our civil tribunals. . . . Some sect, whose tenets 
shall at the time be most popular, will ultimately acquire the ascendancy. 

The civil and ecclesiastical power once united in the hands of a 
dominant party, the people may bid adieu to that heart-consoling, soul- 
reviving religious liberty, at once the price of the patriot's blood and 
the boon of enlightened wisdom; a liberty nowhere enjoyed but in the 
United States. . . . 

It was to secure the inestimable privilege of worshiping God ac- 
cording to the dictates of conscience, against the misguided zeal of 
even their own representatives, that its enlightened framers ingrafted 
into the Federal Constitution the prohibitory clauses on Congressional 
legislation. — Kentucky Citizens' Remonstrance, communicated to House 
of Representatives, Jan. 31, 1831, against agitation to prevent transporta- 
tion of mail on Sunday, published by authority of Congress, 1834; cited 
in " American State Papers," W. Addison Blakely, pp. 298-300, edition 
1911. 

Sunday Laws, William Lloyd Garrison's Protest, 1848. — The 
right of every man to worship God according to the dictates of his own 
conscience is inherent, inalienable, self-evident. Yet it is notorious 
that, in all the States, except Louisiana, there are laws enforcing reli- 
gious observance of the first day of the week as the Sabbath, and pun- 
ishing as criminals such as attempt to pursue their usual avocations 
on that day. . . . There is, therefore, no liberty of conscience allowed 
to the people of this country, under the laws thereof, in regard to the 
observance of a Sabbath day. 

In addition to these startling facts, within the last five years a reli- 
gious combination has been formed in this land, styling itself, " The 
American and Foreign Sabbath Union," whose specific object it is to 
impose the Sabbatical yoke yet more heavily on the necks of the Ameri- 
can people. In a recent appeal made for pecuniary assistance by the 
executive committee of the union, it is stated that "the secretary (Rev. 
Dr. Edwards) has visited twenty of the United States, and traveled 
more than thirty thousand miles, addressing public bodies of all descrip- 
tions, and presenting reasons why, as a nation, we should keep the 



544 SUNDAY LAWS, SIGNIFICANT PRONOUNCEMENTS. 



Sabbath, — all secular business, traveling, and amusement be confined 
to six days in tne week, — and all people assemble on the Sabbath, and 
worship God." . . . 

That this combination is animated by the spirit of religious bigotry 
and ecclesiastical tyranny — the spirit which banished the Baptists 
from Massachusetts, and subjected the Quakers to imprisonment and 
death, in the early settlement of this country — admits of little doubt. 

We claim for ourselves and for all mankind, the right to worship 
God according to the dictates of our own consciences. This right, in- 
herent and inalienable, is cloven down in the United States; and we call 
upon all who desire to preserve civil and religious liberty to rally 
for its rescue. — William Lloyd Garrison's call " To the Friends of Civil 
and Religious Liberty" for a meeting of Protest against Sunday Legisla- 
tion, to be held in Boston, 1848; cited in "American State Papers," 
W. Addison Blakely, pp. 328-333, edition 1911. 

Of all the assumptions on the part of legislative bodies, that of in- 
terfering between a man's conscience and his God is the most unsupport- 
able and the most inexcusable. For what purpose do we elect men to 
go to the general court? Is it to be our lawgivers on religious mat- 
ters? . . . This passing a law forbidding me or you to do on a particular 
day what is in itself right, on the ground that that day, in the judg- 
ment of those who make the enactment, is more holy than another, — 
this exercise of power, I affirm, is nothing better than usurpation. 
It is the spirit whicb in all ages has persecuted those who have been 
loyal to God and their consciences. It is a war upon conscience, and 
no religious conclave or political assembly ever yet carried on that 
war successfully to the end. You cannot by enactment bind the con- 
sciences of men, nor force men into obedience to what God requires. 

— From Anti-Sunday Law speech by William Lloyd Garrison at a Con- 
vention held in Boston, Mass., 1848; cited in "American State Papers," 
W. Addison Blakely, pp. 335, 336, edition 1911. 

Sunday Laws, Significant Pronouncements. — Let a man be what 
he may — Jew, seventh-day observer of some other denomination, or 
those who do not believe in the Christian Sabbath — let the law apply 
to every one, that there shall be no public desecration of the first day 
of the week, the Christian Sabbath, the day of rest for the nation. — 
David McAllister, D. D., at National Reform Convention, Lakeside, Ohio, 
July, 1887 ; cited in " Religious Liberty in America," C. M. Snow, p. 384. 

It is better that a few should suffer than that the whole nation 
should lose its Sabbath. — Ibid. 

Note. — This pronouncement is an unconscious repetition of that of the high 
priest when the Jewish council was preparing to condemn Jesus for violating the 
law. John 11 : 49, 50. — Eds. 

Sunday Laws, Catholics and National Reformers to Join Hands. 

— There are many Christian issues upon which Catholics could come 
together with non-Catholics and shape legislation for the public weal. 
In spite of rebuff and injustice, and overlooking zealotry, we should 
seek an alliance with non-Catholics for proper Sunday observance. 
Without going over to the Judaic Sabbath, we can bring the masses over 
to the moderation of the Christian Sunday. — From Platform of Catholic 
Lay Congress, Baltimore, Nov. 12, 1889, reported in Daily Inter-Ocean 
(Chicago), Nov. 13, 1889. 

What we should seek is an en rapport with the Protestant Chris- 
tians who desire to keep Sunday holy. — Paper by the editor of the Cath- 



SUNDAY LAWS, AUTHORITIES ON. 



545 



olic Universe, read at Catholic Lay Congress, Baltimore, Nov. 12, 1880; 
cited in " Religious Liberty in America," C. M. Snow, p. 284. 

Common interest ought to strengthen both our determination to 
work and our readiness to co-operate with our Roman Catholic fellow 
citizens. We may be subjected to some rebuffs in our first proffers, 
for the time has not yet come when the Roman Catholic Church will 
consent to strike hands with other churches — as such; but the time 
has come to make repeated advances, and gladly to accept co-operation 
in any form in which they may be willing to exhibit it. — Dr. S. F. 
Scovel, in the Christian Statesman, organ of the National Reform Asso- 
ciation, Aug. 31, 1884; cited in "American State Papers," W. Addison 
Blakely, p. 348. 

Whenever they [the Roman Catholics] are willing to co-operate in 
resisting the progress of political atheism, we will gladly join hands 
with them. — The Christian Statesman, Bee. 11, 1884; cited in " Amer- 
ican State Papers" W. Addison Blakely, p. 348, edition 1911. 

Sunday Laws, Alexander Campbell on. — The gospel commands 
no duty which can be performed without faith in the Son of God. 
" Whatever is not of faith is sin." 

But to compel men destitute of faith to observe any Christian in- 
stitution, such as the Lord's day, is commanding duty to be performed 
without faith in God. 

Therefore, to command unbelievers or natural men to observe, 
in any sense, the Lord's day, is anti-evangelical or contrary to the 
gospel. — " Memoirs of Alexander Campbell," Robert Richardson, Vol. I, 
p. 528. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co., 1868. 

Sunday LaAvs, Spurgeon on. — I am ashamed of some Christians 
because they have so much dependence on Parliament and the laws 
of the land. Much good may Parliament ever do true religion, except 
by mistake! As to getting the law of the land to touch our religion, 
we earnestly cry, "Hands off! Leave us alone! Your Sunday bills and 
all other forms of act-of-Parliament religion seem to me to be all 
wrong. Give us a fair field and no favor, and our faith has no cause to 
fear. Christ wants no help from Ceesar." I should be afraid to borrow 
help from government; it would look to me as if I rested on an arm 
of flesh, instead of depending on the living God. Let the Lord's day 
be respected by all means, and may the day soon come when every shop 
shall be closed on the Sabbath, but let it be by the force of conviction, 
and not by force of policemen; let true religion triumph by the 
power of God in men's hearts, and not by power of fines and punish- 
ments. — Charles H. Spurgeon * 

Sunday Laws, A Pulpit Protest. — In respect to seeking the aid of 
the state in maintaining its pet notions and institutions Protestants are 
scarcely a whit better than Catholics. In seeking the aid of the national 
legislature to prevent worldly men from " desecrating the Sabbath," 
Protestants are doing the same thing they condemn in Catholics. Both 
Protestants and Catholics are wrong in this regard; and if either party 
succeeds, it will bring ruin to both our civil and religious liberties. 
May God defeat them both. Let us fight out the question of religion 
and of observing holy days, and especially the Sunday question, with 
the " sword of the Spirit, which is the word of God," and not with the 
sword of Caesar. — J. L. Parsons, D. D., (pastor of the 'First Christian 
Church of St. Louis), in the Christian Oracle (Chicago), July 13, 1893 * 
35 



546 



SYLLABUS OF ERRORS. 



Sunday Laws, Constantine's Edict of a. d. 321. — See Sunday, 537. 

Sunday Laws. — See Religious Liberty; Sabbath, Change of. 

Sunday Mails. — See Religious Liberty, 416; Sunday Laws, 542, 543. 

Sun Worship .— See Sabbath, Change of, 471-473. 

Supremacy of the Papacy. — See Papal Supremacy. 

Syllabus of Errors, Extracts from. — [The encyclical Quanta Gura, 
published by Pope Pius IX, Dec. 8, 1864, was accompanied by a syllabus 
containing a summary in eighty propositions of various doctrines con- 
demned by that Pontiff. These propositions were based upon ex-cathedrd 
documents put out by the same Pope at various times during his 
pontificate. 

In reading this document it should be remembered that every 
proposition is from the Roman Catholic standpoint an error. In his 
periodical, Der Papst und die Modernen Ideen (Vienna, 1864-67), the 
Jesuit Schrader changes these liberal statements condemned in the Sylla- 
bus into the orthodox form by putting those which the church would 
assert as opposed to those condemned. For example, according to 
Schrader, proposition 55 reads thus: "The church is neither to be sepa- 
rated from the state nor the state from the church." This is the Roman 
Catholic view on the relationship of church and state. The other propo- 
sitions are similarly handled by Schrader. It is therefore legitimate to 
conclude in a general way that the Roman Catholic Church teaches the 
very opposite of the error condemned in every one of these propositions. 

Different Roman Catholic writers of considerable standing take 
varying views upon the authority of this Syllabus of Errors. Two brief 
quotations will illustrate this. Charles Coupe, S. J., writing on " The 
Temporal Power," in the American Catholic Quarterly Review, October, 
1901, asserts that " the Syllabus, if not formally, is at any rate prac- 
tically infallible." In contrast with this is the statement of John Henry 
Newman, the celebrated English convert to Romanism, who in his letter 
to the Duke of Norfolk (pages 79, 80) says: "The Syllabus is not an 
official act, because it is not signed, for instance 4 Datum Romce [given 
at Rome], Pius P. P. IX,' or ' sub annulo Piscatoris [under the ring of 
the fisherman],' or in some other way; it is not a personal, for he does 
not address his ' YeneraMles Fratres [venerable brethren] ' or 4 Dilecto 
Filio [beloved son] ' or speak as 4 Pius Episcopus [Pius Bishop] ; ' it 
is not immediate, for it comes to the bishop only through the cardinal 
minister of state. . . . The Syllabus makes no claim to be acknowledged 
as the word of the Pope." 

The Syllabus is generally acknowledged to be a document of great 
authority, and is doubtless regarded as infallible by the ultramontane 
partisans. We copy the following articles from it. — Editors.] 

15. Every man is free to embrace and profess the religion he shall 
believe true, guided by the light of reason. 

17. We may entertain at least a well-founded hope for the eternal 
salvation of all those who are in no manner in the true church of 
Christ. 

18. Protestantism is nothing more than another form of, the same 
true Christian religion, in which it is possible to be equally pleasing to 
God as in the Catholic Church. 

21. The church has not the power of defining dogmatically that the 
religion of the Catholic Church is the only true religion. 

23. The Roman pontiffs and ecumenical councils have exceeded the 
limits of their power, have usurped the rights of princes, and have even 
committed errors in defining matters of faith and morals. 



SYLLABUS OF ERRORS. 



547 



24. The church has not the power of availing herself of force, or 
any direct or indirect temporal power. 

27. The ministers of the church, and the Roman Pontiff, ought to 
be absolutely excluded from all charge and dominion over temporal 
affairs. 

30. The immunity of the church and of ecclesiastical persons derives 
its origin from civil law. 

31. Ecclesiastical courts for temporal causes, of the clergy, whether 
civil or criminal, ought by all means to be abolished, even without the 
concurrence and against the protest of the Holy See. 

37. National churches can be established, after being withdrawn and 
plainly separated from the authority of the Roman Pontiff. 

38. Roman pontiffs have, by their too arbitrary conduct, contributed 
to the division of the church into Eastern and Western. 

39. The commonwealth is the origin and source of all rights, and 
possesses rights which are not circumscribed by any limits. 

40. The teaching of the Catholic Church is opposed to the well-being 
and interests of society. 

45. The entire direction of public schools, in which the youth of 
Christian states are educated, except (to a certain extent) in the case 
of episcopal seminaries, may and must appertain to the civil power, and 
belong to it so far that no other authority whatsoever shall be recognized 
as having any right to interfere in the discipline of the schools, the 
arrangement of the studies, the taking of degrees, or the choice and 
approval of the teachers. 

47. The best theory of civil society requires that popular schools 
open to the children of all classes, and, generally, all public institutes 
intended for instruction in letters and philosophy, and for conducting 
the education of the young, should be freed from all ecclesiastical 
authority, government, and interference, and should be fully subject to 
the civil and political power, in conformity with the will of rulers and 
the prevalent opinions of the age. 

55. The church ought to be separated from the state, and the state 
from the church. 

77. In the present day, it is no longer expedient that the Catholic 
religion shall be held as the only religion of the state, to the exclusion 
of all other modes of worship. 

78. Whence it has been wisely provided by law, in some countries 
called Catholic, that persons coming to reside therein shall enjoy the 
public exercise of their own worship. 

79. Moreover, it is false that the civil liberty of every mode of wor- 
ship, and the full power given to all of overtly and publicly manifesting 
their opinions and their ideas, of all kinds whatsoever, conduce more 
easily to corrupt the morals and minds of the people, and to the propa- 
gation of the pest of indifferentism. 

80. The Roman Pontiff can and ought to reconcile himself to, and 
agree with, progress, liberalism, and civilization as lately introduced. 

Note. — The eighty propositions in the original Latin are found in the 
" Theoloyia Moralis " of Ligorio, 3d edition, Vol. II, pp. 454-461. — Eds. 

Syllabus of Errors. — See Councils, 124. 

Symbolism — See Seven Trumpets, 499, 508. 

Syndicalism. — See Signs of the Times, 528. 

Syricius, on Celibacy. — See Decretal Letters. 

Tacitus. — See Advent, 5. 



548 



TEMPORAL POWER OF THE POPE. 



Temperance. — See Health and Temperance. 

Temporal Dominion of the Pope. — See Councils; Rome, 455. 

Temporal Power of the Pope, Source of. — First, the exarchate 
of Ravenna, which of right belonged to the Greek emperors, and which 
was the capital of their dominions in Italy, having revolted at the in- 
stigation of the Pope, was unjustly seized by Aistulphus, king of the 
Lombards, who thereupon thought of making himself master of Italy. 
The Pope in this exigency applied for help to Pipin, king of France, 
who marched into Italy, besieged the Lombards in Pavia, and forced 
them to surrender the exarchate and other territories, which were not 
restored to the Greek emperor, as in justice they ought to have been, 
but at the solicitation of the Pope were given to St. Peter and his 
successors for a perpetual succession. Pope Zachary had acknowl- 
edged Pipin, usurper of the crown of France, as lawful sovereign; and 
now Pipin in his turn bestowed a principality, which was another's 
properly, upon Pope Stephen II, the successor of Zachary. "And so," 
as Platina says, " the name of the exarchate, which had continued from 
the time of Narses to the taking of Ravenna by Aistulphus, a hundred 
and seventy years, was extinguished." This was effected in the year 
755, according to Sigonius. And henceforward the popes, being now 
become temporal princes, did no longer date their epistles and bulls 
by the years of the emperor's reign, but by the years of their own 
advancement to the papal chair. 

Secondly, the kingdom of the Lombards was often troublesome, to 
the popes: and now again King Desiderius invaded the territories of 
Pope Adrian I. So that the Pope was obliged to have recourse again 
to the king of France, and earnestly invited Charles the Great, the 
son and successor of Pipin, to come into Italy to his assistance. He 
came accordingly with a great army, being ambitious also himself of 
enlarging his dominions in Italy, and conquered the Lombards, and put 
an end to their kingdom, and gave great part of their dominions to the 
Pope. He not only confirmed the former donations of his father Pipin, 
but also made an addition of other countries to them, as Corsica, 
Sardinia, Sicily, the Sabin territory, the whole tract between Lucca and 
Parma, and that part of Tuscany which belonged to the Lombards: 
and the tables of these donations he signed himself, and caused them 
to be signed by the bishops, abbots, and other great men then present, 
and laid them so signed upon the altar of St. Peter. And this was 
the end of the kingdom of the Lombards, in the 206th year after their 
possessing Italy, and in the year of Christ 774. 

Thirdly, the state of Rome, though subject to the popes in things 
spiritual, was yet- in things temporal governed by the senate and people, 
who after their defection from the Eastern emperors, still retained 
many of their old privileges, and elected both the Western emperor and 
the popes. After Charles the Great had overthrown the kingdom of the 
Lombards, he came again to Rome, and was there, by the Pope, bishops, 
abbots, and people of Rome, chosen Roman patrician, which is the 
degree of honor and power next to the emperor. He then settled the 
affairs of Italy, and permitted the Pope to hold under him the duchy 
of Rome, with other territories. . . . And thus the foundation was 
laid for the absolute authority of the Pope over the Romans, which was 
completed by degrees; and Charles in return was chosen emperor of 
the West. — " Dissertations on the Prophecies," Thomas Newton, D. D., 
pp. 218, 219. London: J. F. Dove, reprinted by J. J. Woodward, Phila- 
delphia, 1835. 



TEMPORAL POWER OF THE POPE. 



549 



Temporal Power of the Pope, Not Divinely Conferred. — All in- 
quiry into the origin and history of the temporal power of the popes 
is necessarily attended with difficulty. ... If it were ^divine, as Pius 
IX asserts, there would be, undoubtedly, some word or act of Christ 
or of his apostles, ... to attest a fact of so much importance, 
especially as it is now required that it shall be accepted as a necessary 
part of the true faith. If conferred by the nations, to preserve them- 
selves from anarchy, some distinct historic record would have been 
made of it, as a guide to future ages. In the absence of any con- 
vincing proof upon these points, the impartial mind will naturally run 
into the conclusion that its origin was, at least, suspicious. And if 
it is found that it had no existence in the apostolic age, and was not 
recognized as a part of the early Christian system, this other conclusion 
must inevitably follow: that it is the product of human ambition, 
resting upon authority which the popes have wrenched from the 
nations by illegitimate means, and not upon any divinely conferred 
upon Peter or the Church of Rome. — " The Papacy and the Civil Power:' 
R. W. Thompson, pp. 320, 321. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1876. 

Temporal Power of the Pope, Founder of. — Innocent III may be 
called the founder of the states of the church. The lands with which 
Pippin and Charles had invested the popes were held subject to the 
suzerainty of the Frankish sovereign and owned his jurisdiction. On 
the downfall of the Carolingian Empire the neighboring nobles, calling 
themselves papal vassals, seized on these lands; and when they were 
ousted in the Pope's name by the Normans, the Pope did not gain by 
the change of neighbors. Innocent III \vas the first Pope who claimed 
and exercised the rights of an Italian prince. He exacted from the 
imperial prefect in Rome the oath of allegiance to himself; he drove 
the imperial vassals from the Matildan domain, and compelled Con- 
stance, the widowed queen of Sicily, to recognize the papal suzerainty 
over her ancestral kingdom. He obtained from the emperor Otto IV 
(1201) the cession of all the lands which the Papacy claimed, and so 
established for the first time an undisputed title to the Papal States. 
— " A History of the Papacy," M. Greighton, D. D., Vol. I, p. 24. London: 
Longmans, Green & Co., 1899. 

Temporal Power of the Pope, Bellarmine on. — There remains the 
last part of the discussion concerning the Pontiff, that which relates to 
his temporal power, concerning which there are found three opinions of 
authors. The first is that the Pope by divine right has full power over 
the whole world, both in ecclesiastical and political affairs. Thus teach 
Augustinus Triumphus (in Summa de Potes. Eccl., quaest. 1, art. 1), 
Alvarus Pelagius (lib. 1, De Planctu Eccleske, ca. 13), and many 
jurists, as Hostiensis (in ca. Quod Super His, de Voto and Voti Re- 
demptione), Panormitanus (in ca. Novit. de JudiciisJ, Sylvester (in 
Summa de Peccatis, verbo "Papa" 1J2), and many others. Nay rather, 
Hostiensis goes further. For he teaches that by the coming of Chrisf 
all right of ownership of infidel princes was transferred to the church 
and resides in the Chief Pontiff, as vicar of the supreme and true King 
Christ, and therefore the Pontiff, can of his own right give the kingdoms 
of unbelievers to such of the faithful as he wishes. — " Disputations Con- 
cerning the Controversies About the Christian Faith, Against the 
Heretics of This Time:' Bellarmine (R. C), Vol. I, " Concerning the Ro- 
man Pontiff," book 5, chap. 1. 

Temporal Power of the Pope, Roman Catholic View of Rise of. — 
The independence of Italy and Rome dates from the moment when the 



550 



TEMPORAL POWER OF THE POPE. 



emperors of the East abandoned it. From that time there never was a 
moment when the emperors of the East could so much as protect 
Rome. Italy and Rome were given over providentially to the purgation 
of fire and of blood; — that sea of blood mingled with fire which 
poured from the steeps of the Alps when Goths, Vandals, Visigoths, 
Huns, and Lombards in successive generations poured over the plains 
of Italy, steeped it in blood, and furrowed it with fire. Rome itself 
was saved only by the Roman pontiffs, by a divine presence, and by 
a supernatural agency, which turned back the barbarian chiefs Attila 
and Genseric and others when within the very sight of its walls. 

Again, when Pepin descended into Italy to deliver the exarchate 
of Ravenna, the capital of that very Romagna which is now the 
center of discord; when he drove out the Lombards who had usurped 
the patrimony of the church, we are told that he again made a donation 
to the church. Not so; the very word in his act was this, that he made 
"restitution to the church and to the (Roman) republic" — that is, 
the commonwealth of the people and city of Rome — of that portion 
of territory which had been usurped from them by the Lombards. 
Again, when Charlemagne once more delivered Ravenna, and even 
Rome itself, he at the same time declared that he made a restitution, 
not a donation. Though included nominally for a time, central Italy 
and Rome were providentially and in fact eliminated and excluded 
from all civil- dominion; from the moment the empire was translated, 
they have stood out from the circle of any other sovereignties, resting 
on a sovereignty of their own; and neither the empire of the Franks, 
nor the empire of the Germans, much less the empire of the Greeks, 
has ever included Rome within its circumference from that hour. 

I say, then, that it was God's own act which liberated his vicar 
upon earth from subjection to temporal power; and that for twelve 
hundred years the bishops of Rome have reigned as temporal princes. 
— " The Temporal Power of the Vicar of Jesus Christ," Henry Edward 
Manning, D. D. (R. C), pp. 14-16. London: Burns and Lambert, 1862. 

The conversion of the empire to Christianity, and then its removal, 
its banishment into the Far East, freed the vicar of Jesus Christ from 
temporal subjection; and then, by the action of the same Providence, 
he was clothed with the prerogatives of a true and proper local 
sovereignty over that state and territory and people so committed to his 
charge. From that hour, which I might say was fifteen hundred years 
ago, or, to speak within limit, I will say was twelve hundred, the 
Supreme Pontiff has been a true and proper sovereign, exercising the 
prerogatives of royalty committed to him by the will of God over the 
people to whom he is father in all things both spiritual and temporal. 
—Id., p. 182. 

Temporal Power of the Pope. — See French Revolution, 179, 180. 

Ten Kingdoms, Sir Isaac Newton on Their Location in Western 
Europe. — " As concerning the rest of the beasts, they had their do- 
minion taken away: yet their lives were prolonged for a season and a 
time." And therefore all the four beasts are still alive, though the 
dominion of the three first be taken away. The nations of Chaldea 
and Assyria are still the first beast. Those of Media and Persia are 
still the second beast. Those of Macedon, Greece and Thrace, Asia 
Minor, Syria and Egypt, are still the third. And those of Europe, on 
this side Greece, are still the fourth. Seeing therefore the body of 
the third beast is confined to the nations on this side the river Eu- 
phrates, and the body of the fourth beast is confined to the nations 
on this side Greece; we are to look for all the four heads of the third 



TEMPORAL POWER OF THE POPE. 



551 



beast, among the nations on this side of the river Euphrates; and for 
all the eleven horns of the fourth beast, among the nations on this side 
of Greece. And therefore, at the breaking of the Greek Empire into 
four kingdoms of the Greeks, we include no part of the Chaldeans, 
Medes, and Persians in those kingdoms, because they belonged to the 
bodies of the two first beasts. Nor do we reckon the Greek Empire 
seated at Constantinople, among the horns of the fourth beast, be- 
cause it belonged to the body of the third. — " Observations upon the 
Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John," Sir Isaac New- 
ton, Part I, chap. 4, pp. 31, 32. London : J. Darby and T. Browne, 1733. 

Ten Kingdoms, Boundaries of Western Rome. — I would therefore 
beg the reader to trace on the map the frontier line of the Western 
Empire as drawn by Gibbon: Beginning north from the wall of Anto- 
ninus that separated England from Scotland, then following the Rhine 
up to its point of nearest proximity to the Danube source, i. e., half way 
between Strasburg and Basle; thence down the Danube to Belgrade; and 
thence in a southern course to Dyrrachium, and across the Adriatic and 
Mediterranean to the Syrtis Major and the Great Desert of Africa: it is 
to be understood that all to the eastward of this line belonged to the 
Constantinopolitan or Greek division of the empire; all westward, — 
including England, France, Spain, and African Province, Italy, and the 
countries between the Alps and the Rhine, Danube, and Save, anciently 
known under the names of Rhaetia, Noricum, and Pannonia, in modern 
times as Switzerland, half Swabia, Bavaria, Austria, and the western 
part of Hungary, — to the western or Roman division. — " Horw Apoca- 
lyptical," Rev. E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. Ill, p. 115, 3d edition. London: 
Seeley, Burnside, and Seeley. 1847. 

Ten Kingdoms, Tenfold Division Prominent in History. — The 
historian Machiavel, without the slightest reference to this prophecy, 
gives the following list of the nations which occupied the territory of 
the Western Empire at the time of the fall of Romulus Augustulus 
[476 a. d.], the last emperor of Rome: 

The Lombards, the Franks, the Burgundians, the Ostrogoths, the 
Visigoths, the Vandals, the Heruli, the Sueves, the Huns, and the Sax- 
ons: ten in all. [p. 318] . . . 

Amidst unceasing and almost countless fluctuations, the kingdoms 
of modern Europe have from their birth to the present day averaged 
ten in number. They have never since the break-up of old Rome been 
united into one single empire; they have never formed one whole even 
like the United States. No scheme of proud ambition seeking to reunite 
the broken fragments has ever succeeded; when such have arisen, they 
have been invariably dashed to pieces. . . . 

And the division is as apparent now as ever! Plainly and palpably 
inscribed on the map of Europe this day, it confronts the skeptic with 
its silent but conclusive testimony to the fulfilment of this great proph- 
ecy. Who can alter or add to this tenfold list of the Kingdoms now 
occupying the sphere of old Rome? — Italy, Austria, Switzerland, France, 
Germany, England, Holland, Belgium, Spain, and Portugal — ten, and 
no more; ten, and no less. [320, 321] — " The Divine Program of the 
World's History," by H. Grattan Guinness, pp. 318-321. 

The ten horns may not be strictly permanent, but admit of partial 
change. Some may perhaps fall or be blended, and then replaced by 
others. The tenfold character may thus be dominant through the whole, 
and appear distinctly at the beginning and close of their history, 
though not strictly maintained every moment. The following reasons 
may be given for this view: 



552 



TEN KINGDOMS. 



First, it avoids the opposite difficulties of tne primary and the ter- 
ritorial definition of . the kingdoms. It recognizes the kings as ruling 
powers, not local divisions, three of which may therefore be uprooted. 
Yet it extends the fulfilment through the whole range of European his- 
tory, instead of confining it to one corner of time. It also accounts for 
the same number, ten, being still found at the fall of [mystic] Babylon. 

Next, it has a direct warrant in the vision of the image. For these 
kings " mingle themselves with the seed of men, but shall not cleave 
one to another." This implies temporary and partial union, and then 
renewed separation. And these changes will of course alter the. list of 
actual kingdoms. 

Further, it results at once from the uprooting of three horns. For 
since after this the number is still ten (Rev. 17: 16), the three uprooted 
horns must have been replaced. And unless they are replaced in the 
same instant, there will be an interval in which the number is not 
exactly ten. Both a deviation, then, from the precise number, and a 
change in the kingdoms, is consistent with the emblems, and directly 
implied in them. — " The Four Prophetic Empires, and the Kingdom of 
Messiah," Rev. T. R. Birks, M. A., pp. 143, 144, 2d edition. London: 
Seeley, Burnside, and Seeler, 1845. 

Amidst fluctuations so numerous and unceasing as almost to defy 
an exact numeration the prophetic description remains prominent, 
and a tenfold division of the Western Empire reappears from time to 
time. The correspondence with the prediction is thus accurate and com- 
plete. For it must be borne in mind that two opposite features had 
equally to be fulfilled. The tenfold number was to exist; but there was 
also to be a frequent intermingling with the seed of men. In the actual 
outline of European history, both of these predicted features are alike 
conspicuous. A tenfold division, such as some have looked for, mathe- 
matical and unvaried, would frustrate one half of the prediction; and 
would deprive the rest of all its freedom and moral grandeur. But now 
every part is alike accomplished. At the same time, by these partial 
changes in the list of the doomed kingdoms, the reproach of a stern fa- 
talism, which otherwise would cloud the equity of divine Providence, 
is rolled away. — Id., p. 152. 

Ten Kingdoms, Exactness of the Prophetic Fulfilment. — Even 
if it is not practicable to make out the number with strict exactness, or 
if all writers do not agree in regard to the dynasties constituting the 
number ten, we should bear in remembrance the fact that these powers 
arose in the midst of great confusion; that one kingdom arose and 
another fell in rapid succession; and that there was not that entire 
certainty of location and boundary which there is in old and estab- 
lished states. One thing is certain, that there never has been a case 
in which an empire of vast power has been broken up into small sov- 
ereignties, to which this description would so well apply as to the rise 
of the numerous dynasties in the breaking up of the vast Roman power; 
and another thing is equally certain, that if we were now to seek an 
appropriate symbol of the mighty Roman power — of its conquests, and 
of the extent of its dominion, and of the condition of that empire about 
the time that the Papacy arose, we could not find a more striking or 
appropriate symbol than that of the terrible fourth beast with iron 
teeth and brazen claws, stamping the earth beneath his feet, and with 
ten horns springing out of his head. — " Notes on the Book of Daniel," 
Albert Barnes, on Daniel 7, p. 323. New York: Leavitt and Allen, 1859. 

Ten Kingdoms, as Enumerated in " Thoughts on Daniel." — Rome 
was divided into ten kingdoms, enumerated as follows: The Huns, the 



TEN KINGDOMS. 



553 



Ostrogoths, the Visigoths, the Franks, the Vandals, the Suevi, the Bur- 
gundians, the Heruli, the Anglo-Saxons, and the Lombards. These di- 
visions have ever since been spoken of as the ten kingdoms of the 
Roman Empire. — " Daniel and the Revelation," Uriah Smith, p. 132. 
Washington : Revieiv and Herald Pub. Ass?i., 1907. 

Note. — In the " Appendix " to his " Daniel and the Revelation," p. 785, 
the author says of the various enumerations of the ten kingdoms by old-time 
expositors : 

" The ten kingdoms which arose out of the old Roman Empire, are symbol- 
ized by the ten horns on the fourth beast of Daniel 7. All agree on this point ; 
but there has not been entire unanimity among expositors as to the names of 
the kingdoms which constituted these divisions. Some name the Huns as one 
of these divisions, others put the Alemanni in place of the Huns. That the 
reader may see the general trend of what has been written on this subject, the 
following facts are presented : 

" Machiavelli, the historian of Florence, writing simply as a historian, names 
the Huns as one of the nations principally concerned in the breaking up of the 
Roman Empire. Among those who have written on this point with reference to 
the prophecy, may be mentioned. Berenguad. in the ninth century ; Mede,, 1586- 
1638; Bossuet, 1627-1704; Lloyd, 1627-1717; Sir Isaac Newton, 1642-1727; 
Bishop Newton, 1704-1782 ; Hales, 1821 ; Faber, 1773-1854. 

" Of these nine authorities, eight take the position that the Huns were 
one of the ten kingdoms ; of these eight, two, Bossuet and Bishop Newton, fol- 
lowed by Dr. Clarke, have both the Huns and the Alemanni ; only one, Mede, 
omits the Huns and takes the Alemanni. Thus eight favor the view that the 
Huns were represented by one of the horns ; two, while not rejecting the Huns, 
consider the Alemanni one of the horns ; one rejects the Huns and takes the 
Alemanni. Scott and Barnes, in their commentaries, and Oswald, in his ' King- 
dom That Shall Not Be Moved.' name the Huns." — Eds. 

Ten Kingdoms, Reference Notes on Gibbon's List. — Gibbon, in 
his "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire" (Harper's edition), gives 
the names of ten kingdoms that arose in that empire, and the time 
when each arose [or in some instances, rather, the time when they broke 
into the empire. — Eds.]. They are as follpws: 

1. The Alemanni, a. d, 351, Suabia, Alsace, and Lorraine. (See Gib- 
bon, chap. 10, par. 26; 12: 20; 19: 20; 36: 5; 49: 22. )i 

2. The Franks, a. d. 351, Northeast Gaul. (Gibbon 19: 20; 36: 5.) 

3. The Burgundians, December 31, a. d. 406. (Gibbon 30: 17.) Lo- 
cated in Burgundy, a. d. 420. (Gibbon 31: 39.) 

4. The Vandals, December 31, a. d. 406. (Gibbon 30: 17.) Located 
in Spain, a. d. 409. (Gibbon 31: 36.) Settled in Africa, a. d. 429. 
(Gibbon 33: 35.) 

5. The Suevi, December 31, a. d. 406. (Gibbon 30: 17.) In Spain, 
a. d. 409. (Gibbon 31: 36.) 

6. The Visigoths, a. d. 408. (Gibbon 31: 2, 14.) In southwest Gaul, 
a. d. 419. (Gibbon 31: 39.) In Spain, a. d. 467. (Gibbon 36: 22; 
38: 2, 29.) 

7. The Saxons entered Britain, a. d. 449. (Gibbon 31: 41, 42; 38:33; 
Greene's England 1: 17; Knight's England 5:6.) 

8. The Ostrogoths, in Pannonia, a. d. 453. (Gibbon 35: 16.) In 
Italy, a. d. 489; final conquest, a. d. 493. (Gibbon 39: 7, 8.) 

9. The Lombards, a. d. 453, in Pannonia and Norricum, banks of 
Danube. (Weber's "Universal History," sec. 180; Gibbon 42: 2; Ency- 
clopedia Britannica, art. "Lombards.") In Lombardy, a. d. 567-8. 
(Gibbon 45: 5-7; Machiavelli's "History of Florence," chaps. 1, 2.) 

10. The Heruli, in Italy, a. d. 475-6. (Gibbon 36 : 28-33.) — " The 
Sure Word of Prophecy," M. H. Brown, pp. 54, 55. Mountain Vieiv: 
Pacific Press Pub. Assn. 

Ten Kingdoms, Dr. Elliott's Two Enumerations of. — It will be 
obviously inconsistent with the requirements of the vision to antedate 



1 The figures immediately preceding the colon give the number of the chap- 
ter, and those which immediately follow the colon, the number of the paragraph. 



554 



TEN KINGDOMS. 



the list before the extinction of the Western Empire, a. d. 476, by 
Odoacer; for it was then first that a barbaric horn established its rule 
in the central province . of Italy. Again it seems equally inconsistent to 
post-date the list near a century after Odoacer, and include the Greek 
exarchate of Ravenna, then at length established, as one of the ten 
horns of the Romano-Gothic beast. In fact the irruption of the Greek 
imperial army among the Gothic horns, a. d. 533, whence the exarchate 
arose, and striking down two of them, the Vandal and the Ostrogothic, 
in Africa and Italy, appears to me to form almost as marked a chron- 
ological limit on the one side, as the establishment of Odoacer's Italic 
kingdom on the other. Between the two there lies but the interval of 
57 years. And I think there presents itself in the history of the Franks 
that which yet further narrows the interval for investigation. For 
they, — the most noted afterwards, and perhaps most important of all 
the nations of the beast, — could scarce be said to have formed a horn 
on the territory of the Western Empire, until, emerging from their 
Batavian island, they had under Clovis conquered in 486 Syagrius, " the 
(so-called) king of the Romans," but in fact the then ruler of the 
natives and barbarians of Soissons and . its neighborhood. On the 
whole, after consideration of all the circumstances of the case, I con- 
clude to prefer the terminating point of this 47 years' interval, i. e., 
a. d. 532 or 533, as the chronological epoch at which to make my 
enumeration. ... At the same time a list of ten kingdoms may be 
made with reference to the commencing point of the interval, i. e., 
a. d. 486-490. . . . 

From about the year 486 then to 490, the following were the exist- 
ing barbaric kingdoms, formed by the invaders within the limits of the 
Western Empire: Anglo-Saxons, Franks, Allemans, Burgundians, Visi- 
goths, Suevi, Vandals, Heruli, Bavarians, Ostrogoths; ten in all. . . . 

I next take the sera that immediately preceded Belisarius's invasion 
of Africa and Italy: that of a. d. 532, or the beginning of 533. . . . 

Thus, in fine, there existed at the epoch of a. d. 532 the following 
ten kingdoms on the platform of the Western Roman Empire; viz., the 
Anglo-Saxons, the Franks of central, Alleman-Franks of eastern, and 
Burgundic-Franks of southeastern France, the Visigoths, the Suevi, the 
Vandals, the Ostrogoths in Italy, the Bavarians, and the Lombards: still 
ten in all. The most important difference between this and the former 
list is that there the Heruli had place among the ten, here the Lom- 
bards: the latter being numerically, though not as yet geographically, 
in the stead of the former. 

Such then is my second list, and that to which I conceive the sacred 
prophecy to have had respect, from the circumstances of the epoch 
being otherwise, as I shall soon have to show, very notable. — " Horce 
Apocalyptic®, " Rev. E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. Ill, pp. 115-120, 3d edition. 
London: Seeley, Burnside, and Seeley, 1847. 

Ten Kingdoms, Catholic Recognition of. — Even the Romanists 
themselves admit that the Roman Empire was, by means of the incur- 
sions of the northern nations, dismembered into ten kingdoms (Calmet 
on Revelation 13: 1; and he refers likewise to Berangaud, Bossuet, and 
DuPin. See Newton, p. 209); and Machiavelli ("History of Florence," 
1. i), with no design of furnishing an illustration of this prophecy, and 
probably with no recollection of it, has mentioned these names: 1. The 
Ostrogoths in Mcesia; 2. the Visigoths in Pannonia; 3. the Sueves and 
Alans in Gascoign and Spain; 4. the Vandals in Africa; 5. the Franks in 
France; 6. The Burgundians in Burgundy; 7. the Heruli and Turingi in 
Italy; 8. the Saxons and Angles in Britain; 9. the Huns in Hungary; 
10. the Lombards at first upon the Danube, afterwards in Italy. — " Notes 
on the Book of Daniel," Albert Barnes, on Daniel 7, p. 322. New York: 
Leavitt and Allen, 1859. 



TEN KINGDOMS. 



555 



Ten Kingdoms, " Thoughts on Daniel " on the Three " Plucked 
Qp." — Elliott, in his " Horas Apocalypticse," makes two enumerations of 
the ten kingdoms which rose out of the Roman Empire, varying the 
second list from the first according to the changes which had taken 
place at the later period to which the second list applies. His first list 
differs from that mentioned in remarks on chap. 2: 42, only in that he 
put the Alemanni in place of the Huns, and the Bavarians in place of 
the Lombards, a variation which can be easily accounted for. But out 
of this list he names the three that were plucked up before the Papacy, 
in these words: "I might cite three that were eradicated from before 
the Pope out of the list first given; namely, the Heruli under Odoacer, 
the Vandals, and the Ostrogoths." — Vol. Ill, p. 152, Note 1. 

Although he prefers the second list, in which he puts the Lombards 
instead of the Heruli, the foregoing is good testimony that if we make 
the enumeration of the ten kingdoms while the Heruli were a ruling 
power, they were one of the horns which were plucked up. 

From the historical testimony above cited [see " Daniel and the Rev- 
elation," pp. 145-153], we think it clearly established that the three horns 
plucked up were the powers named; viz., the Heruli in a. d. 493, the 
Vandals in 534, and the Ostrogoths in 553. — " Daniel and the Revela- 
tion" Uriah Smith, p. 153. Washington: Review and Herald Pub. Assn., 
1907. 

Ten Kingdoms, Elliott on the Three " Plucked Up." — For if it 
needed that the imperial power ruling at Rome should be removed, in 
order to the primary actual development of the Antichrist (agreeably 
with St. Paul's wonderful prophecy), the same necessity would obviously 
require the removal, in order to its fuller development, of such of the 
ten horns as might have established themselves in the immediate neigh- 
borhood of Rome, and be in a condition, with the plenitude of their 
royal power, to oppress or overawe it. 

Now then, in looking at the list [the second list] given in my fourth 
chapter, we may mark three of the ten kings as thus characterized.! 
First the Vandals, as rulers, within the Roman Bisnop's own diocese, 
of Corsica and Sardinia; secondly the Ostrogoths, the successors of 
Odoacer in the kingdom of Italy; and thirdly, the Lombards: which 
last although in the year a. d. 533 referred to far distant in Pannonia, 
were some thirty or forty years after destined to conquer Lombardy, and 
afterwards to extend their conquests to the very neighborhood of Rome. 

The manner in which these several powers overawed the Roman 
bishops is matter of history. It was such as to make it evident that 
their removal from before it was essential to the full glory and ex- 
pansion of the papal spiritual power. And accordingly their removal 
constitutes one of the most prominent topics in the next pages of the 
history of Western Christendom. First, in 533, just after Justinian's 
decretal epistle before quoted, the horn of the Vandals in Africa, Cor- 
sica, and Sardinia, and presently after, that of the Ostrogoths in Italy 
was rooted up by Justinian's forces under Belisarius. After which, and 

1 1 might cite three that were eradicated from before the Pope out of the list 
first given ; viz., the Heruli under Odoacer, the Vandals, and the Ostrogoths. 
But it is needless ; the second list being, as I believe, the true one. Moreover, 
though the neighborhood of Odoacer could not but be unpleasant to the Pope, 
he does not appear to have overawed him, like Theodoric or the Lombards. 
A letter from Pope Gelasius, of the date 494, speaks of having successfully re- 
sisted Odoacer's wishes on certain ecclesiastical matters : " Odoacro barbaro 
hwretico, cUm aliqua non facienda prwciperet, Deo prcestante, nulla tenus per- 
mississe manifestum est." — Hard. ii. 91%. Other expositors (as Peyrani, the 
Vaudois minister, in his work on the Vaudois, p. 54) have supposed the Herulian, 
Ostragothic, and Lombard horns to be the three meant. But they were not 
contemporarily existent as horns of the beast. The Herulian had been destroyed, 
ere the Lombard had risen within the limits of the Roman Empire. 



5 56 



TEN TRIBES. 



the establishment of the Greek exarchate at Ravenna (a power that can 
never properly, I conceive, be reckoned among the ten horns of the pro- 
phetic beast, emerging as the latter are said to have done, one and all, 
out of the barbarian invading flood), the Lombards came in; just as if 
to neutralize the Greek emperor's power in that country, and prevent 
its domineering over the Pope at Rome, so as over the Patriarch at 
Constantinople: and for some years so divided the empire of Italy with 
them, as to allow of Gregory the Great and others acting independently 
the part of king, as well as of Pope, at Rome. 

At length in the course of the eighth century, the Lombard power 
altogether preponderating, and after the conquest of the exarchate, 
a. d. 752, acting like its predecessors in Italy to overawe the Roman see, 
the assistance of the Franks was called in by Popes Stephen II and 
Adrian I, from their devoted Gaulic province. And then the Lombard 
horn was eradicated through the instrumentality of Pepin and Charle- 
magne, just like those of the Vandals and the Ostrogoths previously, 
never again to be heard of in Christendom: and the exarchate of Ra- 
venna, together with other of the Lombard conquests, attached forever 
to the Roman see, under the very singular appellation of the Patrimony 
of Peter. — " Horce Apocalypticas," Rev. E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. Ill, pp. 
140-143, 3d edition. London: Seeley, Burnside, and Seeley, 1847. 

Ten Tribes, The, the Kingdom of Israel (953?-722 b. a). — The 
kingdom of the ten tribes maintained its existence for about two hun- 
dred years. The little state was at last overwhelmed by the Assyrian 
power. This happened 722 b. c, when Samaria, as alredy narrated, 
was captured by Sargon, king of Nineveh, and the flower of the people 
were carried away into captivity. The gaps thus made in the popula- 
tion of Samaria were filled with other subjects or captives of the 
Assyrian king. The descendants of these, mingled with the Israelites 
that were still left in the country, formed the Samaritans of the time 
of Christ. — " General History," Philip Tan Ness Myers, p. 51. Boston: 
Ginn & Company. 

Sargon II was a great conqueror. In 722 b. c. he captured Samaria 
and carried away the most influential classes of the "ten tribes" of 
Israel into captivity. The greater portion of the captives were scattered 
among the towns of Media, and probably became, for the most part, 
merged with the population of that region. — Id., p. 42. 

Tetzel. — See Indulgences, 239; Reformation, 407. 

Theodoric. — See Papal Supremacy, 355; Rome, 439, 444, 445, 446, 
448, 450, 451; Seven Trumpets, 507. 

Theodosius. — See Bible, 95; Councils, 119; Eastern Question, 148; 
Heresy, 202; Inquisition, 251; Paganism, 323, 324; Rome, 437, 444. 

Theosophy. — See Spriitualism, 532, 533. 

Theudas. — See Jerusalem. 

Three Angels' Messages. — See Advent, Second, 22-25. 

Tiberius — See Rome, 435, 436; Seventy Weeks, 520-523. 

Tithing, Blessing in Practice of. — So far as known to the writer, 
there is but one evangelical denomination in the world which accepts 



TITHING A TEST OF CHARACTER. 



the tithe as a church tenet and belief, and regards the law of the tithe 
as of the same binding force as the law of the Sabbath. I refer to the 
Seventh-day Adventists. While the percentage of their growth in church 
membership has been large, having increased in all the world from 5,440 
in 1870 to 104,526 in 1910, the financial results of their recognition of 
the law of the tithe are far more remarkable. — " V/hat We Owe, and the 
Results of Paying It," p. 21 (a tract bound with others in pamphlet en- 
titled. "Tithing and Tithing Reminiscences" A layman). Chicago, 
1912. 

Tithing, As a Test of Character. — The supreme purpose of the 
tithe is to develop character and test our loyalty to God. The payment 
of the tithe when there is no compulsion and no pressure brought to 
bear, when it is a matter of a clear conscience between yourself and God, 
will develop in you those sterling qualities that will make you worth 
while in the kingdom. 

The Bible designates two sources of revenue, — tithes and free-will 
offerings. The tithe is the Lord's, whether we keep it or pay it to him, 
not because he needs it in his business, but because it is dishonest to 
keep what does not belong to us. 

The tithe is our just debt to God, and should be paid promptly and 
cheerfully, like any other debt. God has no need of our money (seeing 
all is his), but requires his share just to remind us that we are in 
partnership with him. Just as the tribute money paid to Caesar was a 
recognition of his authority, so the tithe is the recognition of God's in- 
terest in every dollar we receive. — " Tithing," tract compiled by C. Ver- 
non Fox, M. D., p. 4. Chicago: The Methodist Book Concern. 

Titus — See Jerusalem, 262, 263. 

Totila— See Rome, 445, 448. 

Tradition, Jewish. — Shammai and Hillel [in the century before 
Christ] were the first to speak of the written and the oral law as 
equally authoritative. — The Jeivish Encyclopedia, Vol. IX, art. " Oral 
Law," p. 424. 

Traditions were laws, or precepts of men, which they (the Jews) 
said had been handed down by word of mouth from past generations. 
. . . They were often treated as of more authority than the laws of 

God. — " The New Testament, with Introductions, Notes, and References," 
note on Matt. 15:2 (pocket ed.J. New York: American Tract Society. 
1906. 

Tradition. — From being transcribers and expounders of the law, 
they [the Sopherim, " scribes "] supplied, after the captivity, the place 
of the prophets and inspired oracles, which had ceased; and from 
them arose those glosses and interpretations which our Lord rebukes 
under the term " traditions." These became so numerous that they 
were collected by the Rabbi Judah (a. d. 200) into six books, called the 
Mishna (Repetition of the oral law), to which was subsequently added 
a book of comments (Gemara), which completed the whole traditionary 
doctrine of the Jewish church. The Mishna and the Gemara together 
constitute the Talmud, of which there are two, one by the Jews in 
Judea (called the Jerusalem Talmud), the other by those in Babylon 
(called the Babylonian). — Oxford Sunday School Teacher's Bible, art. 
"Jewish Sects, Parties, etc.," sec. on the Sopherim (Scribes). 



558 



TRADITION, SOURCE OF 



Tradition, Defined by Rome. — Tradition ( irapddoais ) means prop- 
erly the act of handing down, and thus the doctrine so handed down. 
In its widest sense it includes all truths or supposed truths handed 
down from one generation to another; and in all societies which have 
no literature tradition is, with all its manifold imperfections, the great 
bond between the present and the past, and one of the great distin- 
guishing marks between man and the brutes, which latter have no 
tradition, and therefore no history. — A Catholic Dictionary, William E. 
Addis and Thomas Arnold, art. " Tradition," p. 882. New York: Ben- 
ziger Brothers, 1893. 

By tradition we do not mean a mere report, a hearsay, wanting 
sufficient evidence to deserve belief; or a local tradition started by 
men, and therefore merely human, as were those traditions of the 
Pharisees condemned by our Lord; but we mean a tradition first com- 
ing from God, continually taught, recorded, and in all desirable ways 
kept alive by a body of trustworthy men successively chosen in a di- 
vine, or divinely appointed manner, well instructed, and who are, as a 
body, protected by God from teaching what is wrong, or handing down 
unfaithfully to others the doctrine committed to them. — " Catholic 
Belief," Rev. Joseph Fad di Bruno, D. D. (R. C), pp. 39, 40. New York: 
Benziger Brothers. 

The objectivity of Christianity would have necessarily disappeared, 
if, besides the Bible, there had not been a rule of faith, to wit, uni- 
versal tradition. Without this rule, it would ever be impossible to 
determine with positiveness, safety, and general obligation, the peculiar 
doctrines of Christianity. — " Symbolism ; or Exposition of the Doctrinal 
Differences Between Catholics and Protestants," John Adam Moehler, 
D. D. (R. C), p. 284. London: Thomas Baker, 1906. 

The truths of Christian revelation were made known to the apostles 
either by Christ himself or by the Holy Ghost. They constitute what 
is called the Deposit of Faith, to which nothing has been added since 
the apostolic age. . . . The Bible, as the inspired record of revelation, 
contains the word of God; that is, it contains those revealed truths 
which the Holy Ghost wishes to be transmitted in writing. However, 
all revealed truths are not contained in the Bible. . . . Though the inspi- 
ration of any writer and the sacred character of his work be antecedent 
to its recognition by the church, yet we are dependent upon the church 
for our knowledge of the existence of this inspiration. She is the ap- 
pointed witness and guardian of revelation. From her alone we know 
what books belong to the Bible. At the Council of Trent she enumer- 
ated the books which must be considered " as sacred and canonical."- — 
The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. II, art. "Bible," p. 543. New York: 
Robert Appleton Company, 1907. 

Now for the first time the Roman Church became conscious of the 
full significance of tradition, so that, if they surrendered it in its 
character of an infallible transmission of God's word, they would 
surrender themselves; for all the ordinances against which the Refor- 
mation protested as novelties and abuses, established their divine 
claims from this tradition. — " Handbook to the Controversy with Rome," 
Karl von Hase, Vol. I, p. 117. London: The Religious Tract Society, 
1909. 

Whence comes that tradition? Does it descend from the authority 
of our Lord and the Gospels? Does it come from the commands and 



TRADITION, SOURCE OF. 



559 



epistles of the apostles? God testifies that we must do the things that 
are written, saying to Joshua, " The book of the law shall not depart 
from thy mouth, but thou shalt meditate in it day and night, that thou 
mayest observe to do all that is written in it." Likewise, the Lord, 
when he sent his apostles, commanded them to baptize all nations, and 
to teach them to observe whatsoever he commanded. If, therefore, it 
is commanded, either in the Gospels or in the apostolic epistles, or in 
the Acts, that those coming from any heresy should not be baptized, 
but only hands laid on them, then this is a divine tradition, and let 
it be observed; but if in these books heretics are called nothing but 
adversaries and antichrists; if we are told to avoid them as perverse 
and self-condemned, why should we not condemn those who, the apos- 
tle witnesses, are self-condemned? — Cyprian, Ep. 74, Ad Pompeium; 
cited in " The Infallibility of the Church," George Salmon, D. D., p. 145. 
New York: E. P. Button & Co., 1914. 

I. We can never be assured that any articles were invariably or 
entirely without any addition or diminution conveyed down to us by 
tradition; since it hath been in all times and ages observed that mat- 
ters of fact, much more of belief, not immediately committed to writ- 
ing, presently degenerated into fables, and were corrupted by the 
capricious malice or ignorance of men. . . . 

II. In the next place, tradition cannot certainly and invariably 
propose the belief of Christianity to all private persons. For, from 
whence shall this tradition be received? From a pope, or a council, or 
both; or from none of these, but only the universal church? In every 
one of these cases infinite difficulties will occur, which even singly will 
appear insuperable. . . . 

III. Tradition is so far from being independent of other articles of 
the Christian faith, that the belief in all other articles must be pre- 
supposed before it. For since all sects propose different traditions, and 
the truth of none of them is self-evident, it must first be known which 
is the true church before it can be determined which is the true 
tradition. . . . 

IV. Lastly, it can never be proved that tradition was assigned by 
God as a rule of faith. For this proof must be taken either from the 
Scriptures or from tradition. Not from the first; for not to say that 
Scripture is wholly silent in this matter, such a supposition would 
destroy itself, and involves a manifest contradiction. ... No less ab- 
surd is it to imagine that any proof of this article can be drawn from 
tradition. For we can never be assured that the tradition of this very 
article is of divine authority and consequently infallible, until we be 
first satisfied that God, by assigning tradition for a rule of faith, con- 
ferred divine authority upon it, which is the matter now in question. 
— " Treatise of Bishop Pecocke, Proving Scripture to be the Rule of 
Faith," published by Henry Wharton; cited in "Romanism: A Doctrinal 
and Historical Examination of the Creed of Pope Pius IV," Rev. Robert 
Charles Jenkins, M. A., pp. 60-63. London: The Religious Tract Society. 

Tradition, Christian; Its Beginnings. — Some of the Apostolic 
Fathers are found in the oldest manuscripts of the New Testament at 
the end of the canonical writings: Clement was first made known 
through the Codex Alexandrinus ; similarly, Hermas and Pseudo-Bar- 
nabas are appended to the canonical books in the Codex Sinaiticus. 
Standing between the New Testament era and the literary efflorescence 
of the late second century, these writers represent the original elements 
of Christian tradition. — The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. I. art. "Apos- 
tolic Fathers," p. 639. 



560 



TRADITION, AUTHORITY OF. 



" Without tradition," says Collier, " we could not prove that the 
Old, any more than the New Testament contains the word of God." 
" Tradition, not Scripture," Lessing says, " is the rock on which the 
church of Jesus Christ is built." — " Catholic Doctrine as Defined by the 
Council of Trent," Rev. A. Nampon, 8. J. (R. C.J, p. 157. Philadelphia: 
Peter F. Cunningham, 1869. 

Tradition Safer Than the Bible. — Like two sacred rivers flowing 
from Paradise, the Bible and divine tradition contain the word of God, 
the precious gems of revealed truths. Though these two divine streams 
are in themselves, on account of their divine origin, of equal sacred- 
ness, and are both full of revealed truths, still, of the two, tradition 
is to us more clear and safe. — " Catholic Belief," Rev. Joseph Fad di 
Bruno, D. D. (R. C), p. 45. New York: Benziger Brothers. 

Tradition of Same Authority as the Scriptures. — The sacred and 
holy, ecumenical and general Synod of Trent, lawfully assembled in 
the Holy Ghost, . . . seeing clearly that this truth and discipline [of 
the gospel] are contained in the written books, and the unwritten tra- 
ditions which, received by the apostles from the mouth of Christ him- 
self, or from the apostles themselves, the Holy Ghost dictating, have 
come down even unto us, transmitted as it were from hand to hand; 
(the synod), following the examples of the orthodox Fathers, receives 
and venerates with an equal affection of piety and reverence all the 
books both of the Old and of the New Testament, — seeing that one 
God is the author of both, — as also the said traditions, as well those 
appertaining to faith as to morals, as having been dictated either by 
Christ's own word of mouth or by the Holy Ghost, and preserved in 
the Catholic Church by a continuous succession. — Decree of the Coun- 
cil of Trent concerning the Canonical Scriptures, celebrated in the 
fourth session, April 8, 1546; cited in " Dogmatic Canons and Decrees" 
pp. 7, 8. New York: The Devin-Adair Company, 1912. 

Tradition, Authority of, Proved by the Change of the Sabbath. 
— Finally, at the last opening on the eighteenth of January, 1562 
[Council of Trent], their last scruple was set aside; the Archbishop 
' of Reggio made a speech in which he openly declared that tradition 
stood above Scripture. The authority of the church could therefore 
not be bound to the authority of the Scriptures, because the church 
had changed Sabbath into Sunday, not by the command of Christ but 
by its own authority. With this, to be sure, the last illusion was de- 
stroyed, and it was declared that tradition does not signify antiquity, 
but continual inspiration. — Extract from an Address of Caspar del 
Fossa, Archbishop of Reggio (R. C.J; cited in "Canon and Tradition," 
Dr. J. H. Holtzman, p. 263. 

Such is the condition of the heretics today that they appeal to no 
other matter more than they, under the pretense of the word of God, 
overthrow the authority of the church; as though the church, which is 
the body of Christ, could be opposed to this word, or the head to the 
body. Yea, the authority of the church is most gloriously set forth in 
the Holy Scriptures;, for while on the one hand she recommends them, 
declares them divine, offers them to us to be read, in doubtful matters 
explains them faithfully, and condemns whatever is contrary to them; 
on the other hand, the legal precepts in the Scriptures taught by the 
Lord have ceased by virtue of the same authority. The Sabbath, the 
most glorious day in the law, has been changed into the Lord's day. 
. . . These and other similar matters have not ceased by virtue of 



TRADITION, AUTHORITY OF. 



561 



Christ's teaching (for he says he has not come to destroy the law, but 
to fulfil it), but they have been changed by virtue of the authority 
of the church. Should this authority cease (since there must be here- 
sies), who would then witness for truth, and confound the obstinacy 
of the heretics? — Extract from an Address by Caspar del Fossa, Arch- 
bishop of Reggio (R. G.J, in the Council of Trent, Jan. 18, 1562 ; cited in 
"History of the Councils," Labbe and Cossart, Vol. XIV, cols. 1253, 1254. 

Tradition, Unreliable Character of. — If all the testimony of 
Christ were to be resolved into those who heard some say that others 
told them, that they had it from such, who saw those who conversed 
with them who saw Christ in the flesh — at such a distance the author- 
ity of a testimony is extremely lessened — which is not like a river 
which grows greater by running; but like a mineral water, which loses 
its strength by being carried too far. — Extract from a Sermon by Bishop 
Stilingfleet, preached at the Guildhall Chapel (London), Nov. 27, 1687 ; 
cited in ''Romanism: A Doctrinal a?id Historical Examination of the 
Creed of Pope Pius IV/' Rev. R. C. Jenkins, M. A., p. 68. London: The 
Religious Tract Society. 

Tradition, the Bible, and the Ancients. — Thus while we leave 
the Bible to gad after the traditions of the ancients, we hear the ancients 
themselves confessing that what knowledge they had at this point was 
such as they had gathered from the Bible. 

Since therefore antiquity itself hath turned over the controversy to 
that sovereign book which we had fondly straggled from, we shall do 
better not to detain this venerable apparition of Leontius [the represen- 
tative of apostolical tradition] any longer. — " The Works of John Mil- 
ton in Verse and Prose" Vol. Ill, " Of Prelatical Episcopacy," pp. 76, 77. 
Boston: Charles C. Little and James Broicn, 1851. 

You may take it as a general rule that there is not a Father who, 
if his own belief is demanded for something not contained in Scrip- 
ture which he is not disposed to accept, will not reply in some such 
language as St. Jerome: "This, because it has not authority from 
the Scriptures, is with the same easiness despised as approved." " As 
we accept those things that are written, so we reject those things that 
are not written." " These things which they invent, as if by apostolic 
tradition, without the authority of Scripture, the sword of God smites." 
You will see, then, that if we were at the desire of the Romish advo- 
cates to leave the Scriptures and resort to the Fathers of the early 
church for a decision of our controversies, these very Fathers would 
send us back to the Scriptures as the only guide to truth, the only 
safeguard against heresy. — " The Infallibility of the Church," George 
Salmon, D. D., p. 147. New York: E. P. Button & Co., 1914. 

Tradition, Protestants Charged with Inconsistency Concerning. 
— But is it not the fact that Protestants are obliged to allow, at least 
by their practice, that the absolute rejection of tradition is absurd and 
impracticable? They admit the Scriptures and a multitude of doc- 
trinal or moral truths, which, as Luther acknowledges, they could not 
have received except from tradition. Whence do they learn that the 
Old and New Testaments are inspired? — From tradition. Who taught 
them that a multitude of texts of Scripture are to be understood in a 
sense quite opposed to their literal meaning? for instance, that Sunday 
is to be set apart for the worship of God, and not the Sabbath; that 
receiving the eucharist is not absolutely necessary for the salvation of 
infants, notwithstanding those words of our Saviour: " Except you eat 
36 



562 



TRADITION, NOT APOSTOLIC. 



the flesh of the Son of man . . . you shall not have life in you; " that 
baptism conferred on infants even by heretics is valid, although Jesus 
Christ has associated baptism and faith as inseparable means of sal- 
vation: "He that believeth and is baptized shall be saved; " that the 
washing of feet is not obligatory, in spite of that formal precept: 
" You also ought to wash one another's feet; " and that terrible sanc- 
tion, " If I wash thee not, thou shalt have no part with me." 

Who has told them that the command to abstain from eating blood 
and things strangled, which was published by the apostles at the 
Council of Jerusalem; no longer affects us? — Tradition. The Prot- 
estants called Episcopalians regard episcopacy as a divine institution, 
and by divine right superior to the priestly order: from what source 
have they derived this doctrine? — From tradition. In reality it is 
tradition alone which has given Protestants all they yet possess of 
Christianity. They cannot then reject this same tradition without 
placing themselves in flagrant contradiction with themselves. — " Cath- 
olic Doctrine as Defined by the Council of Trent," Rev. A. Nampon, 
8. J. (R. C.J, pp. 152, 153. Philadelphia: Peter F. Cunningham, 1869. 

Tradition, Not Apostolic. — There is not the slightest historical 
evidence that the apostles transmitted to posterity any rule, but what 
is recorded in the New Testament. The Fathers therefore are precisely 
on the same footing with respect to the authority of their interpreta- 
tions, as the commentators of the present age. Nor in fact are they 
uniform in their interpretations even in regard to doctrine, notwith- 
standing the agreement alleged by the Church of Rome; though some 
commentators may be selected, as well ancient as modern, which agree 
on particular points. The regula fidei, therefore, set up by the Church 
of Rome, was justly discarded by our Reformers, who contended for the 
right of Biblical interpretation unfettered by the shackles of tradition. 
— "A Course of Lectures," Herbert Marsh, D. D., F. R. 8., part 3, pp. 
13, 14.. Boston: Cummings and Hilliard, 1815. 

Whatever be the rule of faith adopted by any Protestant com- 
munity, it is so far from being considered as independent of Scripture, 
or as resting on authority derived through another channel, that its 
validity is acknowledged on the sole condition of its being a fair and 
legitimate deduction from Scripture. This total and absolute depend- 
ence of the regula fidei on the Bible (not the refusal to admit one at 
all) is that which characterizes Protestants. — Id., p. 15. 

Tradition, Foundation of Roman Catholic Faith. — In the words 
of the Roman author [Perrone] just quoted, " The Tridentine Fathers 
knew well that there are certain articles of faith which rest on tra- 
dition alone; they sanctioned tradition as a rule and foundation of 
faith wholly distinct from Scripture." — "Letters to M. Gondon" Chr. 
Wordsworth, D. D., p. 131. London: Francis and John Rivington, 1848. 

Tradition, a Second Bible. — Let me entreat you to reflect, whether 
the Church of Rome, by assigning equal and independent authority to 
tradition, of which she herself is the only channel, or rather the only 
source, has not only developed a second, unwritten Bible, but invali- 
dates the first written one? whether what Tertullian says of the here- 
tics of his day is not true of her, " Credis sine Scripturis, ut credas 
contra Scripturas? " [You believe without the Scriptures, in order that 
you may believe contrary to the Scriptures], and whether in this way 
also she does not abrogate the laws of God, and impose her own in their 
place?— Id., p. 133. 



TRADITION, DEFINITION OF. 



563 



Tradition, Word of God vs. Word of the Devil. — Cardinal Hosius 
says, " That which the Church (of Rome) teaches is the express word 
of God; and that which is held contrary to the sense and consent of 
the church, is the express word of the devil." — Id., p. 158. 

Tradition, Necessity of. — The objectivity of Christianity would 
have necessarily disappeared, if, besides the Bible, there had not been a 
rule of faith, to wit, universal tradition. Without this rule, it would 
ever be impossible to determine with positiveness, safety, and general 
obligation, the peculiar doctrines of Christianity. The individual, at 
best, could only hazard the assertion, This is my view, my interpreta- 
tion of Scripture, or in other words, without tradition there would be 
no doctrine of the church, and no church, but individual Christians 
only; no certainty and security, but only doubt and probability. — " 8ym- 
bolism," John Adam Moehler, D. D. (R. G.J, p. 284. London: Thomas 
Baker, 1906. 

Tradition, Definition of. — What then is tradition? The peculiar 
Christian sense existing in the church, and transmitted by ecclesiastical 
education; yet this sense is not to be conceived as detached from its 
subject matter — nay, it is formed in and by this matter, so it may be 
called a full sense. Tradition is the living word, perpetuated in the 
hearts of believers. To this sense, as the general sense, the interpreta- 
tion of Holy Writ is intrusted. The declaration which it pronounces on 
any controverted subject, is the judgment of the church; and, therefore, 
the church is judge in matters of faith (judex controversiarum). Tra- 
dition, in the objective sense, is the general faith of the church through 
all ages, manifested by outward historical testimonies; in this sense, 
tradition is usually termed the norma — the standard of Scriptural 
interpretation — the rule of faith. — Id., p. 279. 

Tradition, Church of England's Article Against. — It is not law- 
ful for the church to ordain anything that is contrary to God's Word 
written; neither may it so expound one place of Scripture, that it be 
repugnant to another. Wherefore, although the church be a witness and 
a keeper of Holy Writ, yet as it ought not to decree anything against 
the same, so, besides the same, ought it not to enforce anything to be 
believed for necessity of salvation. — " Letters to M. Gondon," Chris- 
topher Wordsivorthj I). D., p. 39. London: Francis & John Rivington. 
1848. 

Tradition, Protestant Appeal to. — The first precept in the Bible 
is that of sanctifying the seventh day : " God blessed the seventh day, 
and sanctified it." Gen. 2 : 3. This precept was confirmed by God in the 
ten commandments. " Remember the Sabbath day to keep it holy. 
The seventh day is the Sabbath of the Lord thy God." Exodus 20. On 
the other hand, Christ declares that he is not come to destroy the law, 
but to fulfill it. Matt. 5: 17. He himself observed the Sabbath: "And, 
as his custom was, he went into the synagogue on the Sabbath day." 
Luke 4: 16. His disciples likewise observed it after his death: "They 
rested on the Sabbath day, according to the commandment." Luke 
23: 56. Yet with all this weight of Scripture authority for keeping the 
Sabbath or seventh day holy, Protestants of all denominations make 
this a profane day, and transfer the obligation of it to the first day of 
the week, or the Sunday. Now what authority have they for doing 
this? None whatever, except the unwritten word, or tradition, of the 
Catholic Church, which declares that the apostles made the change in 



TRADITION, VIEWS OF. 



honor of Christ's resurrection, and the descent of the Holy Ghost on 
that day of the week. — " The End of Religious Controversy,'" Rev. 
John Milner, D. D. (R. C.J, p. 71. New York: P. J. Kenedy. 

I will confine myself to one more instance of Protestants' abandon- 
ing their own rule, that of Scripture alone, to follow ours, of Scripture 
explained by tradition. If an intelligent pagan, who had carefully pe- 
rused the New Testament, were asked which of the ordinances mentioned 
in it is most explicitly and strictly enjoined, I make no doubt but he 
would answer that it is " the washing of feet." To convince you of 
this, be pleased to read the first seventeen verses of St. John 13. 
Observe the motive assigned for Christ's performing the ceremony 
there recorded, namely, his " love for his disciples: " next, the time 
of his performing it, namely, when he was about to depart out of this 
world. Then remark the stress he lays upon it, in what he said to 
Peter: "If I wash thee not, thou hast no part with me." Finally, his 
injunction at the conclusion of the ceremony, " If I, your Lord and 
Master, have washed your feet, ye also ought to wash one another's 
feet." I now ask, On what pretense can those who profess to make 
Scripture alone the rule of their religion totally disregard this in- 
stitution and precept? Had this ceremony been observed in the church 
when Luther and the other first Protestants began to dogmatize, there is 
no doubt but they would have retained it; but, having learned from her 
that it was only figurative, they acquiesced in this decision, contrary 
to what appears to be the plain sense of Scripture. — Id., pp. 71, 72. 

Tradition, A Roman Catholic View of. — The Fathers had spoken 
of the unwritten teaching of the apostles, which was to be sought in 
the churches they had founded, of esoteric doctrines, and views which 
must be of apostolic origin because they are universal, of the inspira- 
tion of general councils, and a revelation continued beyond the New 
Testament. But the Council of Trent resisted the conclusions which 
this language seemed to countenance, and they were left to be pursued 
by private speculation. One divine deprecated the vain pretense of 
arguing from Scripture, by which Luther could not be confuted, and 
the Catholics were losing ground; and at Trent a speaker averred that 
Christian doctrine had been so completely determined by the School- 
men that there was no further need to recur to Scripture. 

This idea is not extinct, and Perrone uses it to explain the infe- 
riority of Catholics as Biblical critics. If the Bible is inspired, says 
Peresius, still more must its interpretation be inspired. It must be 
interpreted variously, says the Cardinal of Cusa, according to necessity; 
a change in the opinion of the church implies a change in the will of 
God. One of the greatest Tridentine divines declares that a doctrine 
must be true if the church believes it, without any warrant from 
Scripture. According to Petavius, the general belief of Catholics at a 
given time is the work of God, and of higher authority than all antiq- 
uity and all the Fathers. Scripture may be silent, and tradition con- 
tradictory, but the church is independent of both. Any doctrine which 
Catholic divines commonly assert, without proof, to be revealed, must 
be taken as revealed. The testimony of Rome, as the only remaining 
apostolic church, is equivalent to an unbroken chain of tradition. In 
this way, after Scripture had been subjugated, tradition itself was de- 
posed; and the constant belief of the past yielded to the general con- 
viction of the present. — " The History of Freedom," John Emerich Ed- 
ward Dalberg-Acton (R. C.J, pp. 518, 514. London: Macmillan & Co., 
1909. 



TRANSUBSTANTIATION. . 56 5 



Transubstantiation, Decree of. — And because that Christ our Re- 
deemer declared that which he offered under the species of bread to be 
truly his own body, therefore has it ever been a firm belief in the 
church of God, and this holy synod doth now declare it anew, that by 
the consecration of the bread and of the wine a conversion is made of 
the whole substance of the bread into the substance of the body of 
Christ our Lord, and of the whole substance of the wine into the sub- 
stance of his blood; which conversion is by the Holy Catholic Church 
suitably and properly called transubstantiation. — " Dogmatic Canons 
and Decrees" p. 74. New York: The Devin- Adair Company, 1912. 

Transubstantiation, Canons Concerning. — Canon I. If any one 
denieth that, in the sacrament of the most holy eucharist, are contained 
truly, really, and substantially, the body and blood together with the 
soul and divinity of our Lord Jesus Christ, and consequently the whole 
Christ; but saith that he is only therein as in a sign, or in figure, or 
virtue; let him be anathema. 

Canon II. If any one saith that, in the sacred and holy sacrament 
of the eucharist, the substance of the bread and wine remains con- 
jointly with the body and blood of our Lord Jesus Christ, and denieth 
that wonderful and singular conversion of the whole substance of the 
bread into the body, and of the whole substance of the wine into the 
blood — the species only of the bread and wine remaining — which con- 
version indeed the Catholic Church most aptly calls transubstantiation; 
let him be anathema. 

Canon III. If any one denieth that, in the venerable sacrament of 
the eucharist, the whole Christ is contained under each species, and 
under every part of each species, when separated; let him be anathema. 

Canon IV. If any one saith that, after the consecration is completed, • 
the body and blood of our Lord Jesus Christ are not in the admirable 
sacrament of the eucharist, but (are there) only during the use, whilst 
it is being taken, and not either before or after; and that, in the hosts, 
or consecrated particles, which are reserved or which remain after com- 
munion, the true body of the Lord remaineth not; let him be anathema. 
— Id., pp. 81. 82. 

Transubstantiation, Roman Catholic Teaching Concerning. — 

20. How does our Lord become present in the eucharist? 

Our Lord becomes present in the eucharist by transubstantiation; 
i. e., by the changing of the whole substance of the bread into the body 
of Jesus Christ, and the whole substance of the wine into his blood. 

21. Is it then true that after consecration there is neither bread nor 
wine on the altar? 

Yes; after consecration nothing remains but the body and blood of 
Christ. 

22. What remains of the bread and the wine after consecration? 

After consecration nothing remains of them but the species or ap- 
pearances. The substance of the bread and the substance of the wine 
have been changed into the substance of the body of Jesus Christ and 
the substance of his blood. 

23. ' Are the substance of the bread and the substance of the wine 
annihilated when the host is consecrated? 

No, but they are changed into the true body and the true blood of 
Jesus Christ. If they were annihilated, there would be no change. Now, 
the church expressly teaches that there is a change. 

24. Is Jesus Christ, whole and entire, present in the eucharist? 
Yes, Jesus Christ, whole and entire, is present under the appear- 



566 



TRANSUBSTANTIATION. 



ance of bread, as he is also whole and entire under the appearance 
of wine. 

26. Is Jesus Christ contained whole and entire under each particle 
of the species of bread and wine, when these species have been divided? 

It is of faith that, if the sacred species be divided into several parts, 
no matter how great their number, Christ is present, whole and entire, 
in each particle of the host and in each drop of the precious blood. 

28. Do the eucharistic species retain their natural properties? 
The sacred species have the same properties as their substance had 

before transubstantiation. In other words, they are sensible, divisible, 
nutritive, corruptible, and, in a word, susceptible of all those changes 
of quality which bread and wine undergo. 

29. When do the species cease to be sacramental? 

They cease to be sacramental species when they have become so 
altered that, if their substances did exist, these substances would no 
longer be bread and wine. 

30. What then occurs? 

Christ withdraws from the sacrament, and the species return to the 
ordinary course of nature's laws. 

33. What worship ought we to pay to Jesus in the tabernacle? 

It is of faith, as denned by the Council of Trent, that Jesus in the 
tabernacle should be adored with a worship of latria [" that which is 
given to God alone"]. 

34. Should we adore nothing but Christ present under the species? 
We should adore the entire sacrament, which contains both our 

Lord and the consecrated species. — " Manual of Christian Doctrine'' by 
a seminary professor (R. C), pp. 119-422. Philadelphia : J ohn Joseph 
McYey, 1914. 

Transubstantiation, Dogma of, Established in 1215. — Before the 
Lateran Council [of 1215] transubstantiation was not a dogma of faith. 

— John Duns Scotus (R. G.J, quoted by Bellarmine in his treatise, "On 
the Sacrament of the Eucharist''' book 3, chap. 23. 

Transubstantiation Not Proved by Scripture. — Secondly, he [Sco- 
tus] says that there is not any passage of Scripture so clear that, apart 
from the declaration of the church, it plainly compels one to admit 
transubstantiation. And this is not at all improbable. For even though 
the scripture which we have cited above seems to us so clear that it 
can compel any man who is not refractory [to believe this doctrine], 
nevertheless it so happens that it can be reasonably doubted, since most 
learned and acute men, such as was Scotus before all, think the con- 
trary. — Bell., " De Sacramento Eucharistiw," lib. Hi. cap. xxiii {Bellar- 
mine (R. C.J, "On the Sacrament of the Eucharist," book 3, chap. 23]. 

Transubstantiation, Catechism of Trent on. — There are three 
things most deserving of admiration and veneration, which the Catholic 
faith unhesitatingly believes and confesses to be accomplished in this 
sacrament by the words of consecration. The first is, that the true body 
of Christ the Lord, the very same that was born of the Virgin, and sits 
at the right hand of the Father in heaven, is contained in this sacra- 
ment; the second, that, however alien to, and remote from, the senses 
it may seem, no substance of the elements remains therein; the third, 
which is an easy inference from the two preceding, although the words 
of consecration express it principally, that the accidents which are dis- 
cerned by the eyes, or perceived by the other senses, exist in a wonderful 
and ineffable manner without a subject. All the accidents of bread and. 
wine we indeed may see; they, however, inhere in no substance, but 



TRANSUBSTANTIATION . 



567 



exist by themselves; whereas, the substance of the bread and wine is 
so changed into the very body and blood of the Lord, that the substance 
of bread and wine altogether ceases to exist. — " Catechism of the Coun- 
cil of Trent," translated by Dr. J. Donovan, D. D. (R. C), p. 200. 
Dublin: James Duffy, Sons & Co. [This is the most authoritative cate- 
chism issued by the Roman hierarchy. — Eds.] 

Let pastors . . . first of all, teach them [" the faithful "] that the 
mind and understanding must, as much as possible, be withdrawn from 
the dominion of the senses; for, were the faithful to persuade them- 
selves that in this sacrament is contained nothing but what they per- 
ceive by the senses, they must be led into the greatest impiety, when, 
discerning by the sight, the touch, the smell, the taste, nothing else but 
the appearance of bread and wine, they would come to the conclusion 
that in the sacrament there is only bread and wine. Care must, there- 
fore, be taken that the minds of the faithful be withdrawn, as much as 
possible, from the judgment of the senses. — lb. 

Transubstantiation, the Evident Meaning of the Words, " This is 
My Body." — There is no figure more usual in every language than that 
whereby we give to the sign the name of the thing signified. ... As 
this is an ordinary figure in common speech, it is peculiarly so in the 
language of Scripture. In the Hebrew, Chaldee, and Chaldeo-Syriac 
languages, there are either no words which express to mean, signify, 
or represent, or else such words are of very rare occurrence. Thus, 
"The seven kine are" (that is, represent) "seven years." Gen. 41: 26. 
"This is" (that is, represents) "the bread of affliction which our 
fathers ate in the land of Egypt." "The ten horns are" (that is, sig- 
nify) " ten kings." Dan. 7: 24. " That rock was " (that is, represented) 
"Christ." 1 Cor. 10: 4. We also find this idiom running through the 
Greek language. Thus, "the seven stars are" (that is, represent) "the 
angels of the seven churches; and the seven candlesticks are" (that is, 
represent) " the seven churches." Rev. 1: 20. " I am the vine, ye are the 
branches." John 15 : 5. Our Lord did not say, " Hoc est corpus meum" 
as he did not speak in the Latin tongue, though so much stress has been 
laid upon this quotation from the Vulgate Version, as if the original had 
been uttered in Latin. Now as our Lord spoke in the Chaldee or Chaldeo- 
Syriac, he spoke according to the idiom of that tongue. And any man 
speaking in that language would say, " This is my body," " This is my 
blood," when he intended to convey the meaning that the bread and 
wine represented the body and blood of Christ. — " Delineation of Roman 
Catholicism," Rev. Charles Elliott, D. D., p. 136. London: John Mason, 
1844. 

Transubstantiation, First Mention of. — Up to the time of Walaf ri- 
dus Strabo (who wrote about a. d. 840), no change of substance was 
admitted in the eucharist. For he writes plainly: " Christ delivered his 
body and blood to the disciples in the substance of bread and wine." 
The very first writer (it is believed) who used the barbarous term 
adopted at Trent was Stephanus Eduensis, who flourished a. d. 950, and 
paraphrased the words of our Lord — " Panem quern accepi in corpus 
meum transubstantiavi [The bread which I have taken I have changed 
into my body]." — "Romanism: A Doctrinal and Historical Examination 
of the Creed of Pope Pius IV," Rev. Robert Charles Jenkins, M. A., p. 
146. London: The Religious Tract Society. 

Transubstantiation, Adoration of the Host. — Catholics firmly 
hold that in the sacrament of the altar Christ is truly present, and 
indeed in such a way that Almighty God, who was pleased at Cana, 



568 



TRIPLE CROWN. 



in Galilee, to convert water into wine, changes the inward substance 
of the consecrated bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ. 
We therefore adore the Saviour mysteriously present in the sacrament. 
— "Symbolism," John Adam Moehler, D. D. (R. C), pp. 235, 236. Lon- 
don: Thomas Baker, 1906. 

Traiisuhstantiation, Father or the Doctrine of. — The doctrine of 
the real presence in the Lord's Supper, as enunciated by Pope Innocent 
III, was dogmatically propounded and proclaimed for the first time in 
the history of Christianity in the year 831, as far as any existing rec- 
ords show, by Pasehasius Radbertus, a monk of Corbey, and this, be- 
cause he became the first pronounced apologist and exponent of an in- 
terpretation of the Lord's Supper which already existed in the minds 
of many Christian believers, makes him virtually the father of the 
doctrine of transubstantiation. — "Modernism and the Reformation" 
John Benjamin Rust, Ph. D., D. D., p. 102. New York: Fleming H. 
Revell Company. 

Trent, Council of.— Sec Bible, 75; Canon, 100; Celibacy, 107; Cen- 
sorship of Books, 108; Confession, 116; Council of Trent; Councils, 118, 
120, 121; Creed, 126-128; Heretics, 205, 207; Justification, 276, 277, 278, 
279; Mass, 295, 296; Massacre of St. Bartholomew, 304; Penance, 370; 
Pope, 379; Purgatory, 404; Tradition, 559, 560, 561, 563, 565. 

Triple Crown. — Three periods may be distinguished in the develop- 
ment of the tiara. The first period extends to the time when it was 
adorned with a royal circlet or diadem; in this period the papal orna- 
ment for the head was, as is clear from the "Constitutum Constantini " 
and from the ninth Ordo of Mabillon (ninth century), merely a helmet- 
like cap of white material. . . . During the pontificate of Boniface VIII a 
second crown was added to the former one. . . . What led Boniface VIII 
to make this change, whether merely love of pomp, or whether he desired 
to express by the tiara with two crowns his opinions concerning the 
double papal authority, cannot be determined. . . . The earliest repre- 
sentation of a tiara with three crowns ... is offered by the effigy 
of Benedict XII (d. 1342), the remains of which are preserved in the 
museum at Avignon. . . . Since the fifteenth century the tiara has 
received no changes worthy of note. — The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. 
XIV, art. " Tiara," pp. 714, 715. 

Turkish Empire. — See Eastern Question; Seven Trumpets. 

Twelve Hundred and Sixty Years. — See Advent, Second, 15, 16; 
Papal Supremacy, 362, 363. 

Twenty-Three Hundred Days, of Dan. 8: 14; The Correct Text 
Assured. — There is no number in the Bible whose genuineness is better 
ascertained than that of the 2300 days. It is found in all the printed 
Hebrew editions, in all the MSS. of Kennicott and De Rossi's colla- 
tions, and in all the ancient versions, except the Vatican copy of the 
Septuagint, which reads 2400, followed by Symmachus; and some copies 
noticed by Jerom, 2200; both evidently literal errors in excess and 
defect.— "A New Analysis of Chronology and Geography," Rev. William 
Hales, D. D., Vol. II, p. 512, footnote. London: C. J. G. & F. Rivington, 
1830. 

Twenty-Three Hundred Days, Symbolic Time. — It is plain at once 
that this [the 2300 days] is not the usual and literal expression for a 
space of between six and seven years. There are only three instances 
in all Scripture history where a period of above forty days is expressed 



TWENTY-THREE HUNDRED DAYS. 



569 



in days only. Gen. 7: 3 [24]; Neh. 6: 15; Esther 1: 4. And it is with- 
out any precedent in Scripture, or in common usage, that periods of 
more than one year should be thus described. — " First Elements of 
Sacred Prophecy," Rev. T. R. Birks, chap. 13, p. 357. London: William 
Edward Painter, 1843. 

Notes. — The beginning of the seventy weeks, or 490 years of Dan. 9 : 24, 
25, fixes also the beginning of the 2300 years of Dan. 8 : 14. The angel had 
come to Daniel, in the eighth chapter, to explain the vision of which the 2300 
years was part. Daniel fainted before the time period was reached in the ex- 
planation. Still the angel was under the command of God to explain the vision. 
So as he came to Daniel in the ninth chapter, he said he had now come to give 
Daniel understanding, and asked him to "consider the vision" (verse 23), — of 
necessity, the vision whose explanation had been interrupted a few months 
before. The marginal dates in our versions show fifteen years between these 
chapters. That was because it was formerly supposed that Belshazzar, in whose 
third year the vision was given, was the Nabonidus of history, who reigned seven- 
teen years. The discovery of the buried records, however, has shown that Bel- 
shazzar was the son of Nabonidus, associated with him as king in the last years 
of his reign. Hence the explanation of Daniel 9 may have followed but a few 
months after the vision of Daniel 8. — Eds. 

The angel's explanation began with the time period, which had been left 
unexplained ; and it was said that seventy weeks, or 490 years, were " cut off " 
and allotted to the Jewish people. The only inference is that this time was 
cut off from the 2300 year period, which was to be explained ; and therefore the 
starting-point of the seventy weeks, a. d. 457, must of necessity be the starting- 
point of the 2300 days. — Eds. 

Twenty-Three Hundred Days, Explained by " Seventy Weeks." — 
This chronological prophecy [seventy weeks] . . . was evidently de- 
signed to explain the foregoing vision, especially in its chronological 
part of the 2300 days. — " A New Analysis of Chronology and Geography," 
Rev. William Hales, D. D., Vol. II, p. 517. London: C. J. G. & F. Riv- 
ington, 1830. 

Note. — Dr. Hales, who wrote this in the 18th century, says that he got the 
idea of the seventy weeks " as forming a branch of the 2300 days " from a com- 
mentary on the " Revelation of St. John," by Hans Wood, of Ireland, published 
in London, 1787 (Hales, Vol. II, p. 518, footnote). But these early writers failed 
to see that the beginning of the period was the going forth of the decree to re- 
store and build Jerusalem. Dr. Hales arrived at the date of the beginning of 
the periods by the rough method of counting' back 490 years from the fail of 
Jerusalem, a. d. 70. " The destruction of Jerusalem, therefore, divides the whole 
period into two unequal parts ; the former consisting of 490 years, beginning 
b. c. 420; the latter, of 1810 years, ending A. d. 1880." (Hales, Vol. II, p. 518.) 
In that early time the idea of the seventy weeks as an explanation of the 
2300 days was thus beginning to dawn upon the minds of students of prophecy, 
to be seized upon and properly applied as the days of 1844 drew near. — Eds. " 

Twenty-Three Hundred Days, Appakeintly the Eaeliest Works 
Fixing Common Beginning with Seventy Weeks, b. c. 457. — I have 
lately seen a small pamphlet, which was first published in America, 
by the Rev. William E. Davis, South Carolina, and republished in 
1818, at Workington in the north of England. This author asserts 
that the two thousand three hundred days commenced with Daniel's 
seventy weeks which are mentioned in chap. 9: 24. In this opinion 
I am constrained to concur. . . . Having mentioned my obligation to 
this author, I shall now endeavor to avail myself of the ideas which he 
has suggested. — " Two Essays on Daniel's Prophetic Number of Two 
Thousand Three Hundred Days, and on the Christian's Duty to Inquire 
into the Church's Deliverance," Archibald Mason (minister of the gospel, 
Wishawton, Scotland), p. 9. Newburgh: printed from the Glasgoiv edi- 
tion. Ward M. Gazlay, 1820. (British Museum Library.) 

Notes. — Until this book came over the sea to America, in 1842, William 
Miller's associates had never heard of Mr. Davis's book (Midnight Cry, June 15, 



570 



TWENTY-THREE HUNDRED DAYS. 



1842; cited in "Great Second Advent Movement," p. 87). On inquiry they de- 
cided that " Davis's book must have been written about 1810." Archibald Mason 
expected the fall of the Papacy and the cleansing of the church in 1843-44. — Eds. 

It is to be noted that 2300 full years from within b. c. 457 must end 
within a. d. 1844. The exact month need not be considered in these periods 
that deal with years. However, the Scripture record gives two definite seasons 
within the year 457, connected with the going forth of the decree of Artaxerxes, 
— the first month, April, when Ezra's expedition started, and the fifth month, 
August, when he reached Jerusalem. Ezra 7 : 9. Soon after arriving, the im- 
portant incident of Ezra 8 : 36 must have occurred : " They delivered the king's 
commissions unto the king's lieutenants, and to the governors on this side 
the river : and they furthered the people, and the house of God." Certainly not 
later than this official delivery of the decree, in the autumn of 457, the com- 
mandment may be considered as having fully gone forth or into effect. — Eds. 

Twenty-Three Hundred Days, Beginning of. — See Artaxerxes, 
Seventh Year of; Ptolemy's Canon; Seventy Weeks; Year-Day Principle. 

Twenty-Three Hundred Days, Close of. — See Advent Movement. 

Two Laws. — See Law, Ceremonial; Law of God. 

Two Witnesses, Old Expositor (1619) on the Period and Their 
Identity. — It is common with the Holy Ghost in prophecies to set down 
a day for a year, so Antichrist must reigne 1260 yeares. — "A Revelation 
of the Revelation" Thomas Mason, p. 46. London, 1619. (British Mu- 
seum Library.) 

The two witnesses are the Olde and New Testaments, and all that 
preach and teach them all the time of Antichrist. — Id., p. 49. 

Two Witnesses, The Old and New Testaments. — Where then shall 
we find in the world the " two witnesses " here introduced by the angel? 
For they must be of great antiquity; they must be only two in number, 
and these two must have but one " mouth," and be the witnesses of 
God, or of his revealed word and will to mankind. They are, I will 
venture to pronounce, and can be nothing else, but the two Testaments, 
the Old and New. These two holy prophets and oracles of God, alone, 
among all the variety of living things upon the earth, can satisfy and 
fulfil the figurative description of the text. . . . Indeed the very name of 
these books, or witnesses, affords an unerring clue to the discovery. A 
testament, from the plain definition and common acceptation of the 
word, is a writing, or record, which testifies and bears witness to the 
mind and will of man. . . . Have not these two witnesses alone given 
the clearest testimony of his omnipotence, his infinite wisdom, his jus- 
tice and mercy? — " Brief Commentaries on Such Parts of the Revelation 
and Other Prophecies as Refer to the Present Times," Joseph Galloway, 
p. 46. London, 1802. 

Two Witnesses, As Dr. Goodwin Foresaw Events by the Prophecy 
(in 1639). — The saints and churches belonging to the kingdom of 
France, God hath made a wonder to me in all his proceedings, first and 
last; and there would seem to be some great and special honor reserved 
for them yet at the last. . . . They bore and underwent the great heat 
of that morning of persecution, which was as great, if not greater, than 
any since. . . . And so as that kingdom had the first great stroke [of 
persecution], so now it should have the honor to have the last great 
stroke in the ruining of Rome. — " The French Revolution Foreseen in 
1639," p. 12, being extracts from writings of Thomas Goodivin, D. D. 
London, 1796. (British Museum Library.) 



TWO WITNESSES, INTERPRETATION OF. 



571 



I believe that some one kingdom or state will more eminently be 
made the seat of this war, the field of this battle, the shambles of this 
slaughter; for where the witnesses rise from their dead conditions, there 
an earthquake shakes the tenth part of the city, or one of those ten 
European states that have given up their kingdoms to the beast, but 
shall now in this slaughter, begin to fall from, and cease to be a part 
of the city, no longer belonging to the jurisdiction of Rome. — " Exposi- 
tions of the Famous Divine, Thomas Goodioin, D. D." p. 661. London 
(reprint), 1842. (Dr. Goodwin died in 1680.) 

The voice which calls these witnesses up to heaven may yet proceed 
from the throne of France, where the witnesses have ever prophesied in 
sackcloth; so that that kingdom may have the first stroke in the ruin 
of Rome. — Id., p. 670. 

Two Witnesses, " The Great City," in Eaely Expositors. — In 
respect of the place, our Lord Jesus was crucified at Jerusalem; but 
if we respect the power and authority that put him to death, he was 
crucified at Rome: for Christ was put to death by a Roman judge, by 
Roman laws, by Roman authority, by a kind of death proper only to 
the Romans, and in a place which then was within the Roman Empire; 
and for this cause it is here said that Christ was crucified at Rome. — 
" The Buine of Rome," Arthur Dent (Preacher of the Word of God at 
South Shoobury in Essex), p. 185. London, 1656. (British Museum 
Library.) 

Two Witnesses, Jurieu (1687) on "Tenth Part of City." — The 
bodies of the two witnesses " shall lie in the street of the great city." 
'Tis to be observed that in the text 'tis not " in the streets," in the plural, 
as the French translation reads; 'tis "in the street," in the singular. 
And I cannot hinder myself from believing that this hath a particular re- 
gard to France, which at this day is certainly the most eminent country 
which belongs to the popish kingdom. Her king is called the eldest son 
of the church, the most Christian king, L e., the most popish, according 
to the dialect of Rome. The kings of France have by their liberalities 
made the popes great at this day; it is the most flourishing state of 
Europe. It is in the middle of the popish empire, betwixt Italy, Spain, 
Germany, England, exactly as a street or place of concourse is in the 
middle of a city. 'Tis also foursquare, as such a place, i. e., almost as 
long as broad. In a word, 'tis the place or "street of the great city." 
And I believe that 'tis particularly in France that the witnesses must 
remain dead, i. e., that the profession of the true religion must be 
utterly abolished. — " The Accomplishment of the Scripture Prophecies," 
Peter Jurieu (of the French Church at Botterdam), Part II, chap 12, 
pp. 247, 248. London, 1687. 

Two Witnesses, Mather (1710) on France as Scene of. — At the 
time when the second woe passeth away there is to be a great earth- 
quake. In that earthquake one of the ten kingdoms over which Anti- 
christ has reigned, will fall. There is at this day a great earthquake 
among the nations. May the kingdom of France be that tenth part of 
the city which shall fall, may we hear of a mighty Revolution there; we 
shall then know that the kingdom of Christ is at hand. — "Discourse 
Concerning Faith and Fervency in Prayer" Dr. J. Mather, p. 97, London, 
1710; cited in "Signs of the Times," J. Bicheno, part 2, p. 85. London: 
1799. (British Museum Library.) 

Two Witnesses, Early Expositor (1742) on France as Scene of. 
— Before Antichrist's fall, one of the ten kingdoms which supported the 



572 



TWO WITNESSES, INTERPRETATION OF. 



beast shall undergo a marvelous Revolution. Rev. 11: 13. "The same 
hour there was a great earthquake, and the tenth part of the city fell." 
By which tenth part, is to be understood one of the ten kingdoms into 
which the great city Romish Babylon was divided. This many take to 
be the kingdom of France, it being the tenth and last of the kingdoms 
as to the time of its rise, and that which gave to Rome the denomination 
of a beast with ten horns, and also its being the only one of the ten 
that was never conquered since its rise. However unlikely this and 
other prophesied events may appear at the time, yet the almighty hand 
of the only wise God can soon bring them about when least expected. 
— "A Prophecy of the French Revolution'" 1 Rev. John W. Willison, Min- 
ister at Dundee, p. 23, reprinted from the original, first published in 
1748. London, 1793. (British Museum Library.) 

Two Witnesses, An Interpretation of 1748. — And the tenth part 
of the city, or of the Romish jurisdiction, shall fall; that is, one of its 
ten horns, kings or kingdoms belonging to it, and perhaps the kingdom 
of France is meant, and seven thousand men of name will be slain. — 

Sermon by Dr. Gill, 1748; cited in " Second Advent Library," No. I, 
Jan. 1, 1842. Boston. 

Two Witnesses, Sir Isaac Newton's Conjecture as to Part of 
Atheism in Marking End of Papal Supremacy. — Sir Isaac Newton 
had a very sagacious conjecture, which he told Dr. Clarke, from whom 
I received it, that the overbearing tyranny and persecuting power of 
the antichristian party, which had so long corrupted Christianity, and 
enslaved the Christian world, must be put a stop to, and broken to pieces 
by the prevalence of infidelity, for some time, before primitive Chris- 
tianity could be restored; which seems to be the very means that is now 
working in Europe, for the same good and great end of Providence. 
Possibly he might think that our Saviour's own words implied it: 
" When the Son of man cometh shall he find faith on the earth? "... 
or possibly he might think no other way so likely to do it in human 
affairs. It being, I acknowledge, too sadly evident, that there is not 
at present religion enough in Christendom to put a stop to such anti- 
christian tyranny and persecution, upon any genuine principles of 
Christianity. — "Essays on Revelation," Wm. Whiston, p. 321, edition 
1744. (Whiston was Newton's successor in Mathematics at Cambridge.) 

Two Witnesses, The Atheistic Uprising from " the Bottomless 
Pit." — I stand convinced of the importance and necessity of disclosing 
to the world the dark recesses from whence it burst into being. — " Mem- 
oirs Illustrating the History of Jacobinism," Abbe Burruel, Vol. I, "Pre- 
liminary Discourse," p. xi. London, 1797. 

Were France, like hell, a bottomless pit, impenetrable to every 
voice, . . . still it is not too late to acquaint other nations of their 
danger. — Id., p. xviii. 

When the ignorant people no longer saw God between them and 
annihilation, they plunged into the bottomless abyss of atheism. — 

"Atheism Among the People," Alphonse de Lamartine, p. 41. Boston, 
1850. 

We are now, therefore, got to that black precipitous abyss, whither 
all things have long been tending.- — "French Revolution," Thomas Gar- 
lyle, booh 7, chap. 1. 

Two Witnesses, The Spirit from the " Bottomless Pit." — The 
talent developed was too great, the wickedness committed too appalling. 



TWO WITNESSES, SLAYING OF. 



S73 



to be explained on the usual principles of human nature. It seemed 
rather as if some higher powers had been engaged in a strife in which 
man was the visible instrument; as if the demons of hell had been let 
loose to scourge mankind, and the protection of Heaven for a time 
withdrawn. — "History of Europe" Sir Archibald Alison, Bart., F. R. 
S. E., "Introduction," par. 7 (Vol. I, p. 3). Edinburgh: William Black- 
wood and Sons, 1853. 

Two Witnesses, The Scriptures " Slain." — a. d. 1793. The Bible 
had passed out of the hands of the people, in all the dominions of 
Popery from the time of the supremacy. The doctrines had perished, 
and left their place to human reveries. The converts were martyred. 
At length, the full triumph of the old spirit of corruption and persecu- 
tion terribly arrived. In the year 1793 twelve hundred and sixty years 
from the letter of Justinian declaring the Pope " Universal Bishop," the 
gospel was, by a solemn act of the legislature and the people, abolished 
in France. The indignities offered to the actual copies of the Bible were 
unimportant after this; their life is in their doctrines, and the extinc- 
tion of the doctrines is the extinction of the Bible. By the decree of 
the French government, declaring that the nation acknowledged no God, 
the Old and New Testaments were slain throughout the limits of repub- 
lican France. — " The Apocalypse of St. John," Rev. George Croly, A. M., 
pp. 175, 176, 2d edition revised. London: C. & J. Rivington, 1828. 

Two Witnesses, Put to Death in Symbol. — That the prophecy re- 
specting the conquest and death of the two witnesses might literally as 
well as figuratively be fulfilled, the commissioners of the Convention 
dressed up an ass, and loading it with the symbols of Christianity, led 
it in mock procession with the Old and New Testaments tied to its tail, 
and burned them to ashes amidst the blasphemous shouts and accla- 
mations of the deluded multitude. — " Brief Commentaries on Such Parts 
of the Revelation and Other Prophecies as Refer to the Present Times," 
Joseph Galloway, Vol. I, p. 113. London, 1802. 

Two Witnesses, Slaying the Witnesses. — On the 10th of Novem- 
ber [1793] an ass, dressed out in a sacerdotal habit, was led in proces- 
sion through the town by two sans culottes, carrying a sacred cup, out 
of which they gave the animal drink; and when they arrived at one of 
the public edifices, Bibles, books of devotion, etc., were piled up in a 
heap, which was set on fire amidst horrid shouts from a vast concourse 
of people, " Long live the Sans Culottes! "... 

Wherever a Bible could be found it might be said to be persecuted 
to death; so much so that several respectable commentators interpret 
the slaying of the two witnesses in the eleventh chapter of the Apoca- 
lypse, of the general suppression, nay, destruction, of the Old and New 
Testaments in France at this period. The fall of the witnesses is to be 
accompanied with national rejoicings; and it is a remarkable circum- 
stance that twenty-six theaters in Paris were open and filled to over- 
flowing at a season when, in a single month (July, 1794) not less than 
eight hundred persons of chief consideration, perished by the guillotine 
in the metropolis alone. — "An Historical Sketch of the Protestant 
Church of France" J. G. Lorimer, pp. 530-532. 



Two Witnesses, Frenzied Festivities. — A very remarkable and 
prophetic distinction of this period was the spirit of frenzied festivity 
which seized upon France. The capital and all the republican towns 
were the scene of civic feasts, processions, and shows of the most ex- 



574 



TWO WITNESSES, SLAYING OF. 



travagant kind. The most festive times of peace under the most expen- 
sive kings were thrown into the shade hy the frequency, variety, and 
extent of the republican exhibitions. Yet this was a time of perpetual 
miseries throughout France. The guillotine was bloody from morn till 
night. — " The Apocalypse of St. John," Rev. George Groly, A. M., p. 176. 
London: G. & J. Rivington, 1828. 

Two Witnesses, Believers Suffered with the Word. — Indeed, the 
Protestants who would not go the length of the Revolutionists were sub- 
jected to the crudest treatment. In the department of Gard alone the 
slaughter was widespread. During the Reign of Terror the Protestants 
were as much oppressed and persecuted as the Roman Catholics. This 
is apparent from the religious profession of those who were guillotined. 
Of one party of sufferers Lauze de Paret gives the following summary: 
91 Roman Catholics, 46 Protestants, and 1 Jew. . . . Out of 150 guillo- 
tined in the district of Gard 117 were Protestants. — "An Historical 
Sketch of the Protestant Church of France," J. G. Lorimer, p. 531. 

Two Witnesses, The Spiritual Egypt and Sodom. — Rome is called 
spiritually Zodome because they exceed Zodome in the sinnes thereof, 
and it is called Egypt, because they have oppressed the children of God 
more than the Egyptians did the Israelites; and Christ was slain in 
Rome, in that Pilate a Romane judge condemned him, and the Romane 
officers crucified him. — "A Revelation of the Revelation," Thomas Ma- 
son, p. 49. London, 1619. (British Museum Library.) 

Two Witnesses, Slain, but Not Buried. — The Truth shall be slain, 
but it shall not be buried. Burial is a degree beyond death, and is 
always joined with a total corruption and destruction. And so 'tis not 
an office of charity, which is denied to these two witnesses; but a degree 
of ruin, from which they are exempted. And observe who they are who 
hinder their burial; they are not the same with those who killed them. 
Those who killed them are the inhabitants of the street of the great city, 
i. e., those who dwell in the most eminent part of the popish kingdom; 
which at this day is France. Those who hinder their burial are the 
tribes, languages, people, and nations, i. e., several neighbor nations. — 
" The Accomplishment of the Scripture Prophecies," Peter Jurieu, Part 
II, chap. 12, p. 248. London, 1687. 

Two Witnesses, Jurieu on Three and a Half Years. — I am per- 
suaded that these three days and a half are three years and a half; a 
day standing for a year, as the three years and a half are 1260 years, 
taking a year for a day. ' Tis therefore three years and a half, during 
which the external profession of the truth must be altogether sup- 
pressed; and after which it shall be raised again to life. — Id., Part II, 
chap. 13, p. 252. 

Two Witnesses, Revived after Three and a Half Years. — a. d. 
1797. On the 17th of June, Camille Jordan, in the " Council of Five 
Hundred," brought up the memorable report on the " Revision of the 
laws relative to religious worship." It consisted of a number of propo- 
sitions, abolishing alike the republican restrictions on popish worship, 
and the popish restrictions on Protestant. . . . 

From that period the church [Protestant] has been free in France, 
and it now numbers probably as large a population as before its fall. 
It is a striking coincidence, that' almost at the moment when this great 
measure was determined on, the French army under Bonaparte was 
invading and partitioning the papal territory. The next year, 1798, saw 



TWO WITNESSES, EXALTATION OF. 



it master of Rome, the popedom a republic, and the Pope a prisoner 
and an exile. 

The church and the Bible had been slain in France from November, 
1793, till June, 1797. The three years and a half were expended, and 
the Bible, so long and so sternly repressed before, was placed in honor, 
and was openly the Book of free Protestantism! — " The Apocalypse of 
St. John," Rev. George Croly, A. M., 2d edition revised, pp. 181-183. 
London: C. & J. Rivington, 1828. 

Two Witnesses, Camille Jordan's Declaration for Religious Free- 
dom. — Declaring that religion should no longer be proscribed, but pro- 
tected, he [in National Convention, June 15, 1797] reiterated the solemn 
promise that worship should be free in France. In his peroration he 
called for the restoration of all the outward symbols of faith. — " French 
Revolution and Religious Reform," W. M. Sloane, p. 229. 

Two Witnesses, Exalted Before All. — Infidelity, produced in a 
great measure by the unfaithfulness of the church, is pictured forth in 
blood before her eyes. The event is sanctified to many. Thousands 
begin, to turn to God for safety, and to think seriously of religion. . . . 
The consequence is that at the very time when Satan is hoping for, 
and the timid are fearing, an utter overturn of true religion, there is 
a revival, and the gospel expands its wings and prepares for a new 
flight. It is worthy of remembrance that the year 1792, the very year 
of the French Revolution, was also the year when the Baptist Mission- 
ary Society was formed, a society which was followed during the suc- 
ceeding, and they the worst, years of the Revolution, with new societies 
of unwonted energy and union, all aiming, and aiming successfully, at 
the propagation of the gospel of Christ, both at home and abroad. What 
withering contempt did the great Head of the church thus pour upon the 
schemes of infidels! And how did he arouse the careless and instruct 
his own people, by alarming providences, at a season when they greatly 
needed such a stimulus! — "An Historical Sketch of the Protestant 
Church of France," J. G. Lorimer, p. 522. 

Two Witnesses, Greater Liberty. — The death of Christianity was 
local and limited; no nation of Europe joined in the desperate guilt of 
the French Republic; and within three years and a half, the predicted 
time, it was called up from the grave to a liberty which it had never 
before enjoyed; the church in France was proclaimed free. — " The Apoc- 
alypse of St. John," Rev. George Croly, A. M., p. 427, 2d edition revised. 
London: C. & J. Rivington, 1828. 

Two Witnesses, The Scriptures to the World. — The stupendous 
endeavors of one gigantic community [British Bible Society organized 
1804] to convey the Scriptures in every language to every part of the 
globe, may well deserve to be considered as an eminent sign even of 
these eventful times. Unless I be much mistaken, such endeavors are 
preparatory to the final grand diffusion of Christianity; which is the 
theme of so many inspired prophets, and which cannot be very far 
distant in the present day. — "Dissertation on the Prophecies," G. S. 
Faoer, D. D., Vol. II, p. 406. London, 1814. 

Two Witnesses, The Sackcloth Stage Passed. — The papal hostil- 
ity to the church was, from the 13th century, exerted in two ways,' — 
the suppression of the Scriptures, and the torture and death of their 
preachers and converts by the Inquisition. The French Revolution was 
the close of its power in both. The French armies abolished the Inquisi- 



57C TWO WITNESSES, FALL OF FEUDALISM. 



tion in Rome (1798), and in Spain (1808); it has been revived, but is 
inactive. The extraordinary circulation of the Scriptures commenced 
during the French Revolution, and they are now beyond suppression 
by man. — " The Apocalypse of St. John," Rev. George Croly, A. M., p. 
210, 2d edition revised. London: G. & J. Rivington, 1828. 

Two Witnesses, Protestants Set Free, Catholics Wickedly Per- 
secuted by Revolution. — We might add to the weight of benefits which 
France unquestionably owes to the Constituent Assembly, that they re- 
stored liberty of conscience by establishing universal toleration. But 
against this benefit must be set the violent imposition of the constitu- 
tional oath upon the Catholic clergy, which led afterwards to such hor- 
rible massacre of innocent and revered victims, murdered in defiance of 
those rules of toleration, which, rather in scorn of religion of any kind 
than regard to men's consciences, the Assembly had previously adopted. 
—"Life of Napoleon," Sir Walter Scott, Vol. I, p. 227; cited in "The 
Signs of the Times," Alexander Keith, Vol. II, p. 115, 3d edition. Edin- 
burgh: William Whyte and Go., 1833. 

Two Witnesses, Political Earthquake and French Break. with 
Rome Long Foreseen. — There shall be an earthquake, and a tenth part 
of the city shall be overturned. Mark that the earthquake, i. e., the 
great alteration of affairs in the land of the Papacy, must for that time 
happen only in the tenth part of the city that shall fall: for this shall be 
the effect of this earthquake. 

Now what is this tenth part of this city, which shall fall? In my 
opinion we cannot doubt that 'tis France. This kingdom is the most 
considerable, part, or piece, of the ten horns, or states, which once made 
up the great Babylonian city. . . . This tenth part of the city shall 
fall, with respect to the Papacy; it shall break with Rome, and the 
Roman religion. — " The Accomplishment of the Scripture Prophecies " 
Peter Jurieu, Part II, chap. 13, pp. 264, 265. London, 1687. 

Two Witnesses, The "Earthquake" Preparing, — "Already," it was 
said by Mr. Burke in the year 1790, " in many parts of Europe there is 
a hollow murmuring under ground; a confused movement that threat- 
ens a general earthquake of the political world." — " Horw Apocalyptical," 
Rev. E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. Ill, p. 300^ 3d edition. London: Seeley, 
Burnside, and Seeley, 1847. 

Two Witnesses, Fall of Feudalism as by Earthquake. — " In a 
single night," said the Moniteur, " the whole fabric of feudal power has 
fallen to the ground, and the glorious edifice of general liberty emerged 
in its stead." It has been truly said that this night [Aug. 4, 1879] 
changed the political condition of France. It delivered the land from 
feudal domination, the person from feudal dependence, secured the 
property of the poor from the rapacity of the rich, the fruits of indus- 
try from the extortion of idleness. . . . The odious distinctions of noble 
and roturier, patrician and baseborn, the relics of Gothic conquest, were 
forever destroyed. Had these changes been introduced with caution, 
or had they gradually grown out of the altered condition of society, 
there can be no doubt that they would have been highly beneficial; but 
coming as they did, suddenly and unexpectedly, upon the kingdom, they 
produced the most disastrous consequences. . . . Nothing could be re- 
garded as stable in society after such a shock; the chimeras of every 
enthusiast, the dream of every visionary, seemed equally deserving of 
attention with the sober conclusions of reason and observation, when all 
that former ages had donQ was swept away in the very commencement 



TWO WITNESSES — EARTHQUAKE. 



577 



of improvement. All that the eye had rested on as most stable, all that 
the mind had been accustomed to regard as most lasting, disappeared 
before the first breath of innovation. — " History of Europe," Sir Archi- 
bald Alison, Bart., F. R. S. E., chap. 5, pars. 31, 32 (Vol. I, p. 291), 9th 
edition. Edinburgh: William Blackwood and Sons, 1853. 

Two Witnesses, Old Author (1663) on the "Names of Men." — 
Whence we may understand what is meant by these " seven thousand 
names of men; " for neither seven nor thousand signify any deter- 
minate number, but only the nature or property of these names of men 
that are said to be slain, namely, that they are titles, dignities, offices, 
or orders of men belonging to the state of Christendom" — Dr. H. Moore, 
1663; quoted in " Prophetical Extracts," London, 1793. (A bound volume 
■"f tracts and papers, reprints. British Museum Library.) 

An earthquake signifies political commotions and change of af- 
fairs, is obvious to any one to note; and that whore of Babylon is noth- 
ing but the body of the idolatrous clergy. — Ibid. 

Two Witnesses, Names of Dignities Annihilated. — In the fervor 
of innovation [1790] titles of honor could not long be maintained. 
M. Lamboin proposed, and Charles Lameth seconded a decree, " That 
the titles of duke, count, marquis, viscount, baron, and chevalier, should 
be suppressed." " Hereditary nobility," said the latter, " wounds equally 
. reason and true liberty. There can be no political equality, no virtuous 
emulation, where citizens have other dignities than those belonging to 
their office, or arising from their virtues." " Let us annihilate," said 
M. de Noailles, " those vain titles, the arrcgancy of pride, and ignorance, 
and vanity. It is ■time that we should have no distinctions save those 
arising from virtue. What should we say to Marquis Franklin, Count 
Washington, Baron Fox? Will such titles ever confer the luster attach- 
ing to the simple Franklin, Fox, Washington? I give my warmest sup- 
port to the motion, and would add to it that liveries should be abol- 
ished." " A nobility," replied the Abbe Maury, " is part of our con- 
stitution: destroy the nobility, and there is no monarchy." So deter- 
mined were the Assembly to extinguish honors, that the decree was 
passed in an evening sitting with very little discussion. The noblesse 
and the clergy made vain efforts to prevent the sacrifice; but it was 
carried by an overwhelming majority. — " History of Europe" Sir Archi- 
bald Alison, Bart., F. R. S. E., chap. 6, par. 35 (Vol. I, p. 330). Edin- 
burgh: William Blackwood and Sons, 1853. 

Two Witnesses, Titles Abolished. — 1. Hereditary nobility is for- 
ever abolished; in consequence the titles of prince, duke, count, marquis, 
viscount, vidame, baron, knight, messire, ecuyler, noble, and all other 
similar titles shall neither be taken by any one whomsoever nor given 
to anybody. . . . 

2. A citizen may take only the true name of his family; no one may 
wear liveries nor cause them to be worn, nor have armorial bearings. . . . 

3. The titles of monseigneur and messeigneurs shall not be given to 
any society nor to any person; likewise, the titles of excellency, high- 
ness, eminence, grace, etc. — Law of June 19, 1790, Lois I, 217, 218. 
in J. B. Duvergiefs " Collection complete des lois, decrets, etc.," Vol. I: 
31; cited in "Constitutions and Select Documents Illustrative of the 
History of France," Sir Robert Anderson, p. 33. Paris, 1834. 

Two Witnesses, Earthquake Convulsion. — The state system that 
in its pursuit of absolute power had ruined the institutions of the past, 
37 



ULTRAMONTANISM. 



was in its turn threatened with ruin when the sudden outbreak in 
France transformed a progressive revolution into a cataclysm which 
overwhelmed, in a marvelously brief space of time, the whole European 
order. Beginning as a national movement, the French Revolution took 
the form of a great convulsion. — " Historical Development of Modern 
Europe" Charles M. Andreivs, Vol. I, p. 9. 

Two Witnesses, The " Great Convulsion " Long Shook Europe. — 
Its [the Holy Roman Empire, 1806] fall in the midst of the great con- 
vulsion that changed the face of Europe marks an era in history, an 
era whose character the events of every year are further unfolding: 
an era of the destruction of old forms and systems and the building 
up of new. — "The. Holy Roman Empire," James Bryce, D. C. L., chap. 
21, p. 392. London: Macmillan & Co., 1892. 

Ultramontanism. — Ultramontanism, a term used to denote in- 
tegral and active Catholicism, because it recognizes as its spiritual head 
the Pope, who, for the greater part of Europe, is a dweller beyond the 
mountains (ultra montes), that is, beyond the Alps. . . . According to 
the definition given in Leichtenberger, " Encycl. des- Sciences Reli- 
gieuses" (ed. 1882): "The character of ultramontanism is manifested 
chiefly in the ardor with which it combats every movement of inde- 
pendence in the national churches, the condemnation which it visits 
upon works written to defend that independence, its denial of the rights 
of the state in matters of government, of ecclesiastical administration 
and ecclesiastical control, the tenacity with which it has prosecuted the 
declaration of the dogma of the Pope's infallibility and with which it 
incessantly advocates the restoration of his temporal power as a neces- 
sary guaranty of his spiritual sovereignty." — The Catholic Encyclopedia, 
Vol. XV, art. " Ultramontanism," p. 125. 

Ultramontanism, Triumph of. — The old names of " ultramontane," 
and " Galliean," not invented by Protestants, but watchwords of con- 
tending parties in the Roman Church, have almost dropped out of use, 
because the Gallican party has been crushed into insignificance and 
silence, while ultramontanism, swarming over the Alpine barriers which 
long shut it into Italy, has conquered the whole Latin obedience for a 
time. — "Plain Reasons Against Joining the Church of Rome," Richard 
Frederick, Liitledale, LL. D., D. C. L., p. 198. London: Society for 
Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1905. 

Ultramontanism. — See Jesuits, 266, 271; Gallieanism, 181. 

Unam Sanctam.— See Church, 110; Infallibility, 247, 250; Jesuits, 
271; Papacy, 354. 

Vandals.— See Rome, 437, 438, 439; Seven Trumpets, 499, 500, 502- 
504; Ten Kingdoms. 

Vatican Council.- See Councils, 121-124; Infallibility, 240, 242. 

Virgin Mary. — See Idolatry, 217, 218; Immaculate Conception; In- 
fallibility, 249, 250; Priesthood, 390; Saints, 480, 481. 

Visigoths.— See Rome, 437, 444, 449, 450; Ten Kingdoms. 

Voltaire.— flee Bible, 87. 

Waldenses. — See Antichrist, 31; Church, ill; Persecution, 373, 374, 
375; Reformation, 406. 



WAK, DECLARATIONS OF. 



579 



War, Dates of Declarations and Severance of Relations in the 



Great War. — 

Declarations of War 

Austria against Belgium Aug. 28, 1914 

Austria against Japan Aug. 27, 1914 

Austria against Montenegro Aug. 9, 1914 

Austria against Russia Aug. 6, 1914 

Austria against Serbia July 28, 1914 

Belgium against Germany Aug. 4, 1914 

Brazil against Germany Oct. 26, 1917 

Bulgaria against Rumania . Sept. 1, 1916 

Bulgaria against Serbia Oct. 14, 1915 

China against Austria Aug. 14, 1917 

China against Germany Aug. 14, 1917 

Costa Rica against Germany May 23, 1918 

Cuba against Austria Dec. 16, 1917 

Cuba against Germany April 7, 1917 

France against Austria Aug. 12, 1914 

France against Bulgaria Oct. 16, 1915 

France against Germany Aug. 3, 1914 

France against Turkey Nov. 5, 1914 

Germany against Belgium Aug. 4, 1914 

Germany against France Aug. 3, 1914 

Germany against Portugal March 9, 1916 

Germany against Rumania Aug. 28, 1916 

Germany against Russia Aug. 1, 1914 

Great Britain against Austria Aug. 13, 1914 

Great Britain against Bulgaria Oct. 15, 1915 

Great Britain against Germany Aug. 4, 1914 

Great Britain against Turkey Nov. 5, 1914 

Greece against Bulgaria Nov. 28, 1916 

(Provisional government) 
Greece against Bulgaria July 2, 1917 

(Government of Alexander) 
Greece against Germany Nov. 28, 1916 

(Provisional government) 
Greece against Germany July 2, 1917 

(Government of Alexander) 

Guatemala against Germany April 21, 1918 

Haiti against Germany July 15, 1918 

Honduras against Germany July 19, 1918 

Italy against Austria * May 24, 1915 

Italy against Bulgaria Oct. 19, 1915 

Italy against Germany Aug. 28, 1916 

Italy against Turkey Aug. 21, 1915 

Japan against Germany Aug. 23, 1914 

Liberia against Germany Aug. 4, 1917 

Montenegro against Austria Aug. 8, 1914 

Montenegro against Germany Aug. 9, 1914 

Nicaraugua against Austria May 6, 1918 

Nicaraugua against Germany May 6, 1918 

Panama against Austria Dec. 10, 1917 

Panama against Germany April 7, 1917 

Portugal against Germany Nov. 23, 1914 

(Resolution passed authorizing military intervention 
as ally of England) 
Portugal against Germany May 19, 1915 

(Military aid granted) 



580 



AVAR, DECLARATIONS OF. 



Rumania against Austria Aug. 27, 1916 

(Allies of Austria also consider it a declaration) 

Russia against Bulgaria Oct. 19, 1915 

Russia against Germany Aug. 7, 1914 

Russia against Turkey Nov. 3, 1914 

San Marino against Austria May 24, 1915 

Serbia against Bulgaria Oct. 16, 1915 

Serbia against Germany Aug. 6, 1914 

Serbia against Turkey Dec. 2, 1914 

Siam against Austria July 22, 1917 

Siam against Germany July 22, 1917 

Turkey against Allies Nov. 11, 1914 

Turkey against Rumania Aug. 29, 1916 

United States against Germany April 6, 1917 

Severance of Diplomatic Relations 

Austria against Japan Aug. 26, 1914 

Austria against Portugal March 15, 1916 

Austria against Serbia July 26, 1914 

Austria against United States April 8, 1917 

Belgium against Turkey Oct. 30, 1914 

Bolivia against Germany April 14, 1917 

Brazil against Germany April 11, 1917 

China against Germany March 14, 1917 

Costa Rica against Germany Sept. 21, 1917 

Ecuador against Germany Dec. 7, 1917 

Egypt against Germany Aug. 13, 1914 

France against Austria Aug. 11, 1914 

France against Turkey Oct. 30, 1914 

Germany against Italy May 23, 1915 

Great Britain against Turkey Oct. 30, 1914 

Greece against Austria July 2, 1917 

(Government of Alexander) 
Greece against Turkey July 2, 1917 

(Government of Alexander) 

Guatemala against Germany April 27, 1917 

Haiti against Germany June 16, 1917 

Honduras against Germany May 17, 1917 

Japan against Austria Aug. 25, 1914 

Liberia against Germany May 8, 1917 

Nicaraugua against Germany May 19, 1917 

Peru against Germany Oct. 5, 1917 

Rumania against Bulgaria Aug. 30, 1916 

Russia against Bulgaria Oct. 19, 1915 

Russia against Rumania Jan. 28, 1918 

Russia against Turkey Oct. 30, 1914 

Santo Domingo against Germany June 8, 1917 

Turkey against United States April 20, ^317 

United States against Germany Feb. 3, 1917 

Uruguay against Germany Oct. 7, 1917 



— Compiled from the Official United States Bulletin and Current History. 

Peace Preliminaries 

Armistice for thirty days, asked for by the Germans and granted by 
the Allies, became effective at 11 o'clock, a. m., Paris time, Nov. 11, 1918. 

Dec. 14, 1918, the armistice was renewed at the request of the Ger- 
mans, until 5 o'clock a. m., Jan. 17, 1919. — United States Government 
Official Bulletin. 



WAR, CASUALTIES OF. 



581 



War, Casualties of the Nations. — In this table, showing the 
men in arms, the lives lost, and the total casualties of the leading na- 
tions involved in the war, the list of killed follows, in general, figures 
gathered by the New York Evening Post. The. other lists follow the 
compilation of a writer in the New York Tribune, and both lists have 
been corrected by official reports issued since the original estimates were 
made. All the totals, except those of the United States, Great Britain, 
Italy, and Germany, are unofficial: 

• Total 
Men in Arms Lives Lost Casualties 

United States 3,764,700 58,478 262,723 

Great Britain 7,500,000 658,665 3,049,991 

France 6,000,000 1,100,000 4,000,000 

Italy 5,000,000 500,000 2,000,000 

Russia 14,000,000 3,500,000 5,000,000 

Belgium 350,000 50,000 300,000 

Serbia 300,000 150,000 200,000 

Rumania 600,000 200,000 300,000 

Germany 11,000,000 1,580,000 4,000,000 

Austria-Hungary 7,500,000 2,000,000 4,500,000 

Turkey 1,500,000 250,000 750,000 

Bulgaria 1,000,000 50,000 200,000 

Totals '58,514,700 10,097,143 24,562,714 

— Literary Digest, Dec. 7, 1918. 

SEVEN EIGHTHS OF THE POPULATION OF THE WORLD AT WAR 

Entente 

British Empire 422,000,000 

France and colonies 94,000,000 

Russian Empire 171,000,000 

Italy and colonies 36,800,000 

Belgium and Kongo 23,000,000 

Japan 67,000,000 

Portugal 5,958,000 

Serbia '. 2,900,000 

Montenegro 516,000 

Rumania 7,000,000 

United States and colonial possessions 113,201,027 

Cuba 2,511,098 

Panama 427,000 

Siam 6,000,000 

Liberia 2,060,000 

Chinese Empire 419,000,000 

Brazil 24,308,219 

Total 1,397,681,344 

Central Powers 

German Empire 78,000,000 

Austria-Hungary 49,500,000 

Turkey 31,580,000 

Bulgaria 4,500,000 

Total 163,580,000 

Population of nations at war 1,561,261,344 

World's population 1,721,426,000 

— " The World War," A. G. Daniells, p. 11. 



582 



WARS, COST OP. 



COST OF WARS OF FORMER TIMES 

Dates Countries Engaged Cost 

1793-1815 England and France $6,250,000,000 

1812-1815 France and Russia 450,625,000 

1828 Russia and Turkey 100,000,000 

1830-1840 Spain and Portugal (civil war) 250,000,000 

1830-1847 France and Algeria 190,000,000 

1848 Revolts in Europe 50,000,000 

t England * 371,000,000 

\ France 332,000,000 

1854-1856 \ Sardinia and Turkey 128,000,000 

j Austria 68,600,000 

t Russia 800,000,000 

fFrance 75,000,000 

1859 \ Austria 127,000,000 

I Italy 51,000,000 

1864 Denmark, Prussia, and Austria 36,000,000 

1866 Prussia and Austria 330,000,000 

1864- 1870 Brazil, Argentina, and Paraguay 240,000,000 

1865- 1866 France and Mexico 65,000,000 

Germany - 954,400,000 

France 1,580,000,000 

Russia 806,547,489 

Turkey . > 403,273,745 

1900-1901 Transvaal Republic and England 1,000,100,000 

1904-1905 Russia and Japan 2,500,000,000 



1870-1871 
1876-1877 



Total $17,158,546,234 

Cost of Balkan wars 1,264,000,000 



UNITED STATES IN FORMER WARS 
War of 1812 with Great Britain, from June 18, 1812, to Feb. 17, 1815 



Total War Navy 

1812 $20,280,000 $11,817,000 $3,959,000 

1813 31,681,000 19,652,000 6,446,000 

1814 34,720,000 20,350,000 7,311,000 

1815 32,943,000 14,794,000 8,660,000 

War with Mexico, from April 24, 1846, to July 4, 1848 

1846 $27,261,000 $10,413,000 $6,455,000 

1847 54,920,000 35,840,000 7,900,000 

1848 47,618,000 27,688,000 9,408,000 

1849 43,499,000 14,558,000 9,786,000 

Civil War, from 1861 to 1865 

1860 $ 63,201,000 $ 16,472,000 $ 11,514,000 

1861 66.650,000 23,001,000 12,387,000 

1862 469,569,000 389,173,000 42,640,000 

1863 718,733,000 603,314,000 63,261,000 

1864 864,968,000 690,391,000 85,705,000 

1865 1,295,099,000 1,030,690,000 122,617,000 

Spanish-American War, from April 21, 1898, to Dec. 10, 1898 

1897 $365,774,000 $ 48,950,000 $34,561,000 

1898 443,368,000 91,992,000 58,823,000 

1899 605,071.000 229,841,000 63,942,000 

1900 487,713,000 134,774,000 55,953,000 



WAR, LOSSES IN. 



583 



EUROPEAN WAR TO AUG. 1, 1917 
Entente Allies — Expenditures 

Aggregate Present Daily 

United Kingdom $26,705,000,000 $25,000,000 

France 16,530,000,000 18,500,000 

Russia 14,250,000,000 15,000,000 

Italy 5,050,000,000 7,000,000 

United States 1,629,000,000 19,100,000 

Other allies 3,250,000,000 5,000,000 



Totals $67,414,000,000 $99,600,000 

Less advances to allies and dominions 7,992,500,000 22,900,000 

Net totals $59,421,500,000 $76,700,000 

Teutonic Alliance 

Germany $19,750,000,000 $25,000,000 

Austria-Hungary 9,700,000,000 13,000,000 

Bulgaria and Turkey 1,450,000,000 2,000,000 

Totals $30,900,000,000 $40,000,000 

Less advances to allies and dominions 600,000,000 

Net cost $30,300,000,000 $40,000,000 

Grand Total 

Entente Allies $59,421,500,000 $76,700,000 

Teutonic Allies 30,300,000,000 40,000,000 

$89,721,500,000 $116,700,000 

— " Source Book," U. S. Treasury Department; cited in the Washington 
Post, Oct. 7, 1917. 

Note. — At the time of closing the forms for the last signature of this book, 
there is available no tabulated statement of the total cost of the great World 
War, nor even to the signing of the armistice. But in a speech in San Francisco, 
March 18, .1919, telegraphed all over the country and quoted in the papers of 
the following day, Secretary of War Newton D. Baker stated that " the cost of 
the war alone was $197,000,000,000, or $11,000,000,000 more than the total 
property value of all North America." To enable the mind to grasp the signifi- 
cance of these figures, the Secretary further said, " No child born in a civilized 
nation in the next hundred years will escape paying a considerable portion of 
the debt this war has brought about." According to a dispatch sent out March 
26, 1919, by the British wireless service, and printed in the American papers of 
the 27th, " Edgar Crammond, a prominent British financial writer, estimates 
the direct cost of the war to the Allies at $141,800,000,000, and to the Central 
European powers at $68,375,000,000. He estimates the total cost of the war, 
including indirect losses, at $260,000,000,000. There has been nothing, he says, 
approaching this destruction of capital wealth in the history of the world." 
■ — Eds. 

MOBILIZED STRENGTH AND CASUALTY LOSSES OF THE BELLIGERENTS 
United States and Associated Nations 

Prisoners Total 

Nation Mobilized Dead Wounded or Missing Casualties 

United States 4,272,521 67,813 192,483 14,363 274,659 

British Empire 7,500,000 692,065 2,037,325 360,367 3,089,757 

France 7,500,000 1,385,300 2,675,000 446,300 4,506,600 

Italy 5,500,000 460,000 947,000 1,393,000 2,800,000 

Belgium 267,000 20,000 60,000 10,000 90,000 

Russia 12,000,000 1,700,000 4,950,000 2,500,000 9,150,000 

Japan 800,000 300 907 3 1,210 

Rumania 750,000 200,000 120,000 80,000 400,000 

Serbia 707,343 322,000 28,000 • 100,000 450,000 

Montenegro 50,000 3,000 10,000 7,000 20,000 

Greece 230,000 15,000 40,000 45,000 100,000 

Portugal 100,000 4,000 15,000 200 10,000 

Total 39,676.864 4,869,478 11,075,715 4,956,233 20,892,226 



584 



WEEK, ASTROLOGICAL. 



Central Powers 



Germany 11,000,000 1,611,104 3,683,143 772,522 6,066,769 

Austria-Hungary 5,500,000 800,000 3,200,000 1,211,000 5,211,000 

Bulgaria 400,000 201,224 152,399 10,825 264,448 

Turkey 1,600,000 300,000 570,000 130,000 1,000,000 



Total 19,500,000 2,912,328 7,605,542 2,124,347 12,542,217 



Grand total 59,176,864 7,781,806 18,681,257 7,080,580 33,434,443 

— From an article by Mr. Walter Littlefield, in Current History for February, 
1919. The figures are practically all from official data. 

THE KILLED IN SOME FORMER WARS 

American Civil War . . 

Crimean War 

Franco-Prussian War . 
Spanish-American War 

Boer War 

Russo-Japanese War . . 



1,000,000 
485,000 
290,000 
2,910 
12,000 
555,900 



War, Numbers and Losses in Some Former Wars. — The famous 
" Battle of the Nations," fought in 1813, was won by 300,000 Prussians, 
Austrians, Russians, and Swedes against 180,000 French under Napoleon, 
and the total killed and wounded did not exceed 100,000. 

Tennyson characterized Waterloo a " world-earthquake," yet Well- 
ington led to battle not more than 67,000 troops, Blucher adding 56,000, 
while the French numbered only 72,000, the losses all told being 57,000. 

Henderson calls Sadowa, " one of the greatest battles of history," 
remarking that " seldom indeed have two such colossal armies stood 
over against each other." The fighting arrayed 222,000 against 221,000, 
and the losses totaled 50,000. 

In the Franco-Prussian War over 1,000,000 men were called out by 
the Prussians, but not more than half of them were actively engaged in 
the field. Bazaine is described as retreating on Metz " with his huge 
army of 170,000," while the battle fought outside Sedan is called "the 
most impressive spectacle that man could well devise." The losses 
amounted to 23,000 killed and wounded. 

At the close of our Civil War the Federal army numbered about 
1,000,000, and at least 1,000,000 had been enrolled during the struggle by 
the Confederates. At the first battle of Bull Run 28,000 Federals under 
McDowell faced 30,000 Confederates under Beauregard, and the losses 
were about 5,000; at the second, Lee had about 46,000 men, Pope about 
35,000, the Confederates losing 8,400, the Federals 15,000. The forces 
engaged in the three days' battle at Gettysburg numbered not more than 
from 70,000 to 80,000 a side; the Federals lost 23,186, the Confederates 
31,621. And the whole losses in the " tremendous " struggle between 
Russia and Japan in 1904-05 did not exceed 600,000. — The Boston Her- 
ald, quoted in the Washington Herald, Aug. 18, 1916. 

Week, the Astrological or Egyptian Week Not Identical with 
the Semitic or Jewish Week. — The way in which the allotment of 
the planets to the days of the week was arrived at was the following: 
The Greek astronomers and mathematicians concluded that the planet 
Saturn was the most distant from the earth and that the others followed 
in the descending order of Jupiter, Mars, Sun, Venus, Mercury, Moon. 
In the progress of astrology there came a time when it was found neces- 
sary to assign a planet to every hour so as to increase the number of 
omens it could afford. Starting then with Saturn as presiding over 
the first hour of the day, each planet was used three times over on that 
day, and three planets were used a fourth time. The sun, the fourth 



YEAR-DAY PRINCIPLE. 



585 



planet, took therefore the first hour of the second day, and gave it its 
name so that Sunday followed Saturday. In like manner the third day 
became the moon's day, and so on with the other planets which followed 
in the order Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, and again Saturn. This 
idea of the relative distances of the planets was that arrived at by the 
astronomers of Alexandria, and was necessarily subsequent to the re- 
duction of the planetary motions to a mathematical system by Eudoxus 
and his successors. The division of the day implied was one of twenty- 
four hours, not of twelve; the Egyptian division, not the Babylonian. 
But the Egyptian week was one of ten days, the seven-day week was 
Semitic, and the week implied in the system is the free week, running 
on continuously, the Jewish week, not the Babylonian. For the Baby- 
lonians, though they paid some attention to the seventh day, began their 
reckoning fresh at the beginning of each month. This particular astro- 
logical system therefore owed its origin to four distinct nationalities. 
The conception of the influence of the planets was Babylonian; the 
mathematical working out of the order of the planets was exclusively 
Grecian; the division of the day into twenty-four hours was Egyptian; 
the free continuous seven-day week was particularly Jewish. These four 
influences were brought together in Alexandria not very long before the 
Christian era. — The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, art. 
"Astrology" subsection, "Names of the Week-Days;" Vol. I, p. 299. 
Chicago: The Howard-Severance Company. 

Week. — See Calendar. 

White, Mrs. E. G., Teaching and Wokk of.— See Advent, Second, 
25, 26. 

Williams, Roger — See Religious Liberty, 413, 414; Sabbath, 469. 
Wolff, Joseph. — See Advent, Second, 16, 17. 

World Missionary Conference, Edinburgh. — See Missions, 313; 
Religious Liberty, 415. 

Worms. — See Diet of Worms; Diets; Reformation. 

Xerxes. — See Artaxerxes; Medo-Persia. 

Year-Day Principle, General Nature of. — It may be summed up 
in these maxims: 

1. That the church, after the ascension of Christ, was intended of 
God to be kept in the lively expectation of his speedy return in glory. 

2. That, in the divine counsels, a long period of near two thousand 
years was to intervene between the first and the second advent, and 
to be marked by a dispensation of grace to the Gentiles. 

3. That, in order to strengthen the faith and hope of the church 
under the long delay, a large part of the whole interval was prophet- 
ically announced, but in such a manner that its true length might not 
be understood, till its own close seemed to be drawing near. 

4. That, in the symbolical prophecies of Daniel and St. John, other 
times were revealed along with this, and included under one common 
maxim of interpretation. 

5. That the periods thus figuratively revealed are exclusively those 
in Daniel and St. John, which relate to the general history of the church 
between the time of the prophet and the second advent. 

6. That, in these predictions, each day represents a natural year, 



586 



YEAR-DAY PRINCIPLE. 



as in the vision of Ezekiel; that a month denotes thirty, and a time 
three hundred and sixty years. — " First Elements of Sacred Prophecy" 
Rev. T. R. Birks, p. 811. London: William Edward Painter, 1843. 

Year-Day Principle, The Key to. — The beast's predicted period of 
1260 days reminds us that the time is now come for considering the 
propriety of that principle on which I have hitherto proceeded in my 
explanations of the several numerically expressed chronological periods 
enunciated in the Apocalyptic prophecy; viz., of regarding a day as 
meant to signify a year. The satisfactoriness of the historical solu- 
tions given by me on this principle, (supposing them to have been ap- 
proved as such by the reader,) will of course have furnished evidence to 
his mind, of all other the most convincing, of the truth of the principle 
itself. ... 

In such prophecies it were surely reasonable to expect, even prior to 
investigation, that a certain propriety and proportion of scale between 
the symbol and the thing symbolized would be observed in respect of 
the time, as of other circumstantials, noted in the picture. Could it be 
supposed that Sacred Scripture would quite neglect that canon of 
propriety which natural taste has inculcated on the poet and the 
painter? I am speaking just now, it will be understood, of the observ- 
ance of chronological proportion in a general way, not of the particu- 
lar year-day scale of proportion. . . . 

When considering the question at the present stage of the world's 
history, — centuries not a few after the breaking up of Daniel's fourth 
great empire, the Roman, from its old form, and its reconstruction into 
a new form, answering in all natural and reasonable views of things to 
the predicted decem-regal form that was to last even till the time of 
the consummation, — how can we possibly calculate the 1260 days, 
which was to be the measure of this its last form of existence, literally; 
or indeed on any other than an immensely larger scale of meaning? . . . 

There has further been furnished us a determinate precedent, as 
parallel as it is striking, in the prophetic history of Ezekiel. I allude 
of course to those two most remarkable symbolic actions of that prophet, 
which have been so frequently referred to in the year-day controversy 
by former commentators. He was on one occasion commanded by God 
to lie 390 days on his left side before the people; thereby to typify, in 
the symbolic character of their representative, the 390 years of the 
iniquity and concomitant debasement of the nation of Israel; on an- 
other, to lie 40 days on his right side, thereby to typify the 40 last years 
of Judah's iniquity. And the meaning of these mystical days was 
declared by God himself. " I have laid upon thee the years of their 
iniquity, according to the number of the days 390 days. I have appointed 
thee each day for a year." [See Eze. 4: 5, 6.] 

A precedent more clear and complete than this could scarce be 
desired, as a probable key and guide to the meaning of the days in the 
symbolic visions that we have under consideration. And I think it 
deserving of remark that it was acted out publicly, in the midst of the 
captivity in which Daniel was included; and not very many years 
before the communication to him of the earlier of his prefigurative 
visions. So that already the key was provided, ere the visions were 
given, wherewith to unlock at the fit time the secrets (if such there 
were) of all the mystic periods involved. — "Horce Apocalypticw" Rev. 
E. B. Elliott, Vol. Ill, pp. 221-227. London: Seeley, Burnside, and Seeley, 
1847. 

Year-Day Principle, Established by the Pkophecy of the Seventy 
Weeks. — The prophecy of the seventy weeks has always held the fore- 



YEAR-DAY PRINCIPLE. 



587 



most place in the direct arguments for the year-day system. The reason- 
ing is very simple in its nature. The word " week," or shabua, is used 
elsewhere in Scripture to denote seven days; but in this prophecy it de- 
notes seven years. Hence the words of time are enlarged beyond their 
literal or usual sense, in the proportion of a year to a day. And since 
all these predictions of time bear one common character, occur in the 
same prophets, and have the same general object, they ought to be ex- 
plained by one common rule. In the one instance, which is decisively 
fulfilled, the proportion holds of a year to a day; and therefore it must 
be applied, in consistency, to all the rest. — "First Elements of Sacred 
Prophecy" Rev. T. R. Birks, p. 333. London: William Edward Painter, 
1843. 

It is evident that in order to be intelligible, these measures of time 
must all be interpreted on one scale. What scale is it? Is it the grand 
divine scale of "one day is with the Lord as a thousand years"? or is 
it an hour for a day? or a day for a month? or a day for a year? or 
what is it? 

The great answer to this important query is found in the fact that 
one of these periods has been fulfilled, and therefore supplies the key 
to all the rest. The seventy weeks of Daniel 9 elapsed between the 
decree of Artaxerxes and the advent of Messiah. That period was 
actually 490 years, the prophecy announced it as 490 days, or " seventy 
weeks," and we are therefore led to conclude that in all the above 
analogous passages, where time is predicted in miniature and in mys- 
tery, in harmony with the miniature and mysterious nature of , the 
symbols by which the prophecy is conveyed, a year is represented by a 
day, seven years by a week, thirty years by a month, 360 years by a 
" year," and so on. This principle once admitted, the chronology of 
these prophecies becomes simple and accurate, and available for our 
present study of the periodicity of human history. — " The Approaching 
End of the Age" H. Grattan Guinness, pp. 302, 303. London: H odder 
and Stoughton, 1880. 

Year-Day Principle, Calendar of Sacred Times. — Four terms are 
employed in almost every nation, in the ordinary calendar of time — the 
day, the week, the month, and the year. These form a natural and 
ascending series, by which all periods are most conveniently expressed, 
and complete the system of popular and colloquial measurement of time. 
The case was evidently the same among the Jews as with ourselves. 
Now of these four periods, the day, the month, and the year (Dan. 12: 
11; Rev. 9:5; 11: 2; 9: 15), occur elsewhere in these dates of the sym- 
bolical prophecies. But the week occurs here only [Dan. 9: 25]. It is 
evidently needful to complete the system; and being added, it does 
complete a regular calendar of sacred and prophetic times. But the 
week, whether we render it a week or a seven, does not denote a common 
week, but a period of seven years. And since it forms one element in 
this fourfold ascending, scale, it does, by a natural inference, raise all 
the others in the same proportion. The prophetic dates, which otherwise 
would remain a heap of disjointed fragments, by this key become at 
once united into a consistent and harmonious scheme, mysterious yet 
definite, and combining the precision of a human calendar with the 
magnificent grandeur of a divine revelation. 

This gradation of the prophetic periods will be more apparent, if 
we subjoin them in regular arrangement, according to the terms in 
which they are conveyed. 

1. Three days and a half twice repeated (Revelation 11). 
Tribulation of ten days (Rev. 2: 10). 



588 



YEAR-DAY PRINCIPLE. 



Twelve hundred and sixty days (Revelation 11, 12). 
Twelve hundred and ninety days (Dan. 12: 11). 
Thirteen hundred and five and thirty days (Dan. 12: 11). 

2. A week and half week (Dan. 9: 27). 
Seven weeks (9: 25). 
Threescore and two weeks (9: 25). 
Seventy weeks (9: 24). 

3. Five months (Rev. 9: 5, 10). 

Forty and two months (Rev. 11: 2; 13: 5). 

4. Day, month, and year (Rev. 9: 15). 
A time ( xpovos) Rev. 6: 11; 10: 6). 

A time, times, and half (Dan. 7: 25; 12: 7; Rev. 12: 14). 
[5. Six Hundred and sixty-six, unit undetermined (Rev. 13: 8). 

Two thousand three hundred, the same (Dan. 8: 14).] 
There are all the marks in this list of a connected and regular 
series. And since the weeks are sevens- of years, the conclusion can 
scarcely be avoided, that the others also are to be reckoned, consistently 
with this pattern, and on the same scale. — " First Elements of Sacred 
Prophecy," Rev. T. R. Birks, pp. 336-338. London: William Edward 
Painter, 1843. 

The year-day theory, as applied to the time, times, and a half, first 
appeared about the year 1200. — Id., p. 402. 

Year-Day Principle, General Acceptance of. — It is a singular fact 
that the great mass of interpreters in the English and American world 
have, for many years, been wont to understand the days designated in 
Daniel and the Apocalypse, as the representatives or symbols of years. 
I have found it difficult to trace the origin of this general, I might say 
almost universal, custom. — " Hints on the Interpretation of Prophecy, " 
Moses Stuart, p. 74. Andover: Allen, Morrill, and Wardwell, 1842. 

Year-Day Principle, Effect of Rejecting. — That entire rejection 
of all prophetic chronology, which follows, of course, on the denial of 
the year-day, is most of all to be deplored, from its deadly and paralyz- 
ing influence on the great hope of the church. . . . The prophetic times, 
indeed, when separated from the context, and viewed in themselves 
only, are a dry and worthless skeleton: but when taken in connection 
with the related events, clothed with historical facts, and joined with 
those spiritual affections which should attend the study of God's 
providence; like the bones in the human frame, they give strength to 
what was feeble, and union to what was disjointed, and form, and 
beauty, and order, to the whole outline and substance of these sacred 
and divine prophecies. — ''First Elements of Sacred Prophecy," Rev. 
T. R. Birks, pp. 415, 416. London: William Edward Painter, 1843. 



AUTHORITIES CITED 



WITH BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES 

Names of authors and books appear in small capitals and of periodicals in italics. 
Following the dash in each paragraph are the references to the sections in the book 
where the authority is cited, and the figures after each section give the pages. A 
reference after the word "See" refers to another part of this Index. 



Abbott, John Stevens Cabot (1805-77), 
an American Congregational clergyman 
and historical writer. He is probably 
best known by his " History of the 
Civil War in America." — Eastern 
Question, 149. 

Abbott, Lyman (b. 1835), an American 
clergyman, editor of the Outlook, and 
author of several religious works. — 
Nature of Man, 321 ; Sunday, 536. 

Abraham Davenport (Whittier). — Dark 
Day, 136, 138. 

Abyssinian Legate. — Sabbath, 468. 

Acton, Lord John Emerich Edward 
Dalberg (1834-1902), an English his- 
torian, only son of Sir Richard Acton, 
seventh baronet, and grandson of the 
Neapolitan admiral, Sir J. F. E. Acton. 
He was one of the most deeply learned 
men of his time. — Councils, 121, 122, 
124 ; Fathers, 170 ; Heretics, 206 ; In- 
fallibility, 241 ; Massacre of St. Bar- 
tholomew, 304 ; Tradition, 564. 

Acts and Monuments (Foxe). — Seven 
Seals, 498 ; Seven Trumpets, 513. 

Acworth, William. — Increase of Knowl- 
edge, 229. 

Adams, John Quincy (1735-1826), sec- 
ond President of the United States, 
who, after a long and brilliant politi- 
cal career, devoted himself to literary 
work, relating chiefv to the history of 
his own times. — Bible, 80. 

Addis, William E. (b. 1844), a clergy- 
man of the Church of England, who 
became a convert to the Roman Cath- 
olic faith and a member of its priest- 
hood, but subsequently returned to the 
Church of England. He is author of 
several valuable works, among them 
" A Catholic Dictionary," published in 
London in 1883. — See Dictionarv, 
Catholic. 

Adolphus, John Leycester (1705- 
1862), a well-known London barrister 
and author. He wrote a " History of 
England to 1783 " and a " History of 
France from 1790." — Papal Suprem- 
acy, 367. 

Adrian VI. — Popes, 387. 

Adulterations Librorum Origenis, De 
(Rufinus). — Forgeries, 173. 



Advent Review and Sabbath Herald.- — ■ 

Advent, Second, 19, 21, 22, 24, 25 ; 

Sabbath, 468, 469, 470. 
Advent Shield and Review. — Advent, 

Second, 18. 
Advent Testimony. — Advent, Second, 

24. 

Advent Tracts. — Advent, Second, 18. 
Adventism Answered (Miller). — Sab- 
bath, 464. 

JEschylus (B. c. 525-456), a Greek 

tragic poet and dramatist. — Medo- 

Persia, 306, 310, 311. 
Africa, Opening Up of (Johnston). — 

Missions, 312. 
Africanus, Julius. — Artaxerxes, 40. 
After a Hundred Years. — Increase of 

Knowledge, 233. 
Agathius. — Papal Supremacy, 357. 
Alcock, D. — Protestantism, 398. 
Alcohol, Baneful Influences of (Bev- 

eridge). — Health and Temperance, 198. 
Alexander the Great. — Daniel, 133 ; 

Greece, 186. 
Alexander VI. — Censorship of Books, 

108. 

Alexander's Empire. — Greece, 190. 

Alexander's Expedition, History of 
(Arrian). — Greece, 184, 186. 

Alexandra, Queen (b. 1844), wife of 
the late King Edward VII, of England. 
— Armageddon, 38. 

Alford, Dean Henry (1810-71), an Eng- 
lish scholar and poet, remembered 
chiefly for his " Greek Testament." — 
Antichrist, 30 ; Baptism, 67. 

Alison, Sir Archibald (1792-1867), a 
son of Sir Archibald Alison (1757- 
1839), a British lawyer and writer. 
His principal work is the " History of 
Europe," in ten volumes. — Eastern 
Question, 149 ; French Revolution, 175, 
178 ; Papal Supremacy, 363, 364, 366 ; 
Two Witnesses ; 573, 577. 

All About the Bible (Collett). — Bible, 
71, 79, 86, 87, 88, 91, 92, 93 ; Sabbath, 
461. 

Allen, Cardinal, Letters of. — Heresy, 
203. 

589 



590 



AUTHORITIES CITED. 



Allegemeine Augsburger Zeitung. — Infal- 
libility, 248. 

Alphonse de Lamartine. — Papal Su- 
premacy, 363 ; Two Witnesses. 572. 

Alphonse of Liguori. — Infallibility, 
247, 248 ; Papacy, 343. 

Altbabylonisches Privatrecht. — Ba- 
bylon, 58. 

Ambrose (340-397), one of the Fathers 
of the Latin or Roman Church. While 
still a civilian and unbaptized. he was 
elected Bishop of Milan, in 374. — An- 
tichrist, 33 ; Mass, 298. 

Ameer All — Seven Trumpets, 512. 

American Academy of Arts and Sci- 
ences, Memoirs of. — Dark Day, 136. 

American Bible Society, Story of.— 
Bible, 92. 

American Catholic Quarterly Review, a 
Catholic periodical established in Phil- 
adelphia in 1876, with Dr. James A. 
Corcoran as editor, and still published. 
It was edited for some years by Arch- 
bishop Patrick John Ryan himself. — 
Papal Supremacy, 362 ; Sunday Laws, 
546. 

American Journal of Science.— Falling 

Stars, 163, 165. 
American Journal of Science and Arts. 

— Falling Stars, 162, 163. 
American State Papers, a collection of 

documents and excerpts bearing on 

Sunday legislation, comniled and an- 
notated by William Addison Blake] v. 

• — Religious Libertv. 416. 417; Sunday 

Laws, 542, 543, 544, 545. 
American Year Book, published every 

year by D. Annleton & Co.. New York. 

— Increase of Knowledge. 230. 
Anabaptists.- — - Servetus, 486. 
Anabaptists, Confession of Faith. — 

Religious Liberty, 413. 
Ancient Christianity Exemplified 

(Coleman). — Sabbath, 466. 
Ancient Church (Killen). — Apostasv. 

35, 36 ; Fathers. 169 ; Sabbath. 465. 
Ancient Heathenism and Modern 

Spiritualis m ( Hastings ) . — Spiritua i - 

ism, 532. 

Ancient History (Rollin).- — Rome, 428 
430. 

Ancient World. History of (Botsford). 
Greece, 188, 189. 

Ancient World. History of (Good- 
speed) .— Greece, 184. 185: Medo-Per- 
sia, 306 ; Rome, 431, 432. 438. 

Ancona, Augustus de. — Pope, 377. 

Anderson, Sir Robert (b. 1841). a well- 
known English author, originallv a 
barrister. — Daniel, 132 ; Two Wit- 
nesses, 577. 

Andrew of C^sarea, metropolitan of 
Csesarea in Cappadocia. and author of 
a commentary on the book of Revela- 
tion. He is variouslv thought to have 
flourished between the fifth and ninth 
centuries. — Babylon, 62. 

Andrews and Conradi. — Sabbath, 460, 
467, 468, 469 : Sabbath. Change of, 
476. 477 : Sundav, 533. 



Andrews, Charles M.. professor of 
American Historv. Yale Universitv, 
since 1910; author of numerous his- 
torical worVg. — French Revolution, 
179 ; Two Witnesses, 578. 

Andrews. Bishop E. G. (1825-07). a 
Methodist Episcopal bishop. — Law of 
God. 284. 

Andrews. Joi^n Nevtns (1829-83). an 
America.n Seventh-day Adventist cler- 
ffvman an<1 author. — Advent. Second. 
18. 23: Sabbath, 466; Sunday, 535, 
537, 538. 

Anjou. Bishop L. A., a Swedish pccle- 
siastic and author. — Sabbath, 469. 

Annals of Barontus ( Annates Flcrlesi- 
astici auctore C&sare Baronia), an 
p^clesiasti^* 11 Vn'otorv writfpu during 
the vears 1588-93, by Csesare Baronius 
(1538-1607). The author was made 
a cardinal in 1596. To the original 
twelve volumes of the " Annals " 
there have been added continuations 
in the stvlp of Baronius. — TJpresv. 203 
Hildebrand. Dictates of. 211 : Papal 
Supremacy, 357. 

Annals (Sargon). — Babylon. 57. 

Annals fTaoitus). — Jerusalem. 250 : 
Rome. 435. 436 : Spvpt> Churches. 491 : 
Seventy Weeks. 521, 522. 

Annual Register for 1793. — French 
Revolution, 179. 

Ante-Ntcene Fathers, tho Christian 
wrifprs of nre-Nicpne times, or during 
the first thrpe centuries of the Chris- 
tian era. — Antichrist. 32; Apostasv. 
37 : Rome, 428. 

Antichrist. Letter upon the Down- 
fall of (Maddock). — Seven Churches. 
491, 493. 494. 

Antichrist. Protestant Idea of (New- 
man) .— Antichrist. 29. 

Anttoitittes of the Jews (Josephus). 
— Daniel. 133: Jerusalpm. 258. 250; 
Jpwish Leasmp. 27G : Mpdo-Persia. 30S : 
^Hiath, 459 ; Seventv Weeks. 522. 
524. 

Antrim, New Hampshire, Htstory of 
(Cochrane). — Dark Day, 142. 

Apion. Agatnst C.Tosenhus). — Babylon. 
50, 58 : Canon. 98 : Daniel. 131. 

Apocalypse, Annotations on (Wood- 
house) .— Seven Seals. 495. 496. 497. 

Apocalypse. Commentary on (Stuart). 
— Seven Churches, 494. 

Apocalypse. Key to (Guinness). — Bab- 
vlon, 64 : Daniel. 134 : . Persecution, 
374 ; Revelation, 421 ; Rome. 440. 

Apocalypse of St. John (Croly). — 
French Revolution, 177: Panal Su- 
premacv. 358. 350: Revelation 423: 
Two Witnesses, 573. 574. 575. 576. 

Apocalypse of St Jottn (Ratton). — 
Seven Churches, 489, 491. 492. 493. 

Apocalypse. — See also Daniel ; Proph- 
ecy ; Prophecies ; Revelation. 

Apocalyptic Sketches (Cumming). — 
Seven Trumpets. 499. 

Apology (Tertullian) . — Antichrist. 32. 

Apology Against the King of England 
(Bellarmine). — Pope, 383. 



AUTHORITIES CITED. 



591 



Apology, Defense of (Jewel). — Anti- 
christ, 35. 

Apollinarius. — Daniel, 133. 

Apostles' Creed.— Advent, Second, 10 ; 
Creed, Roman, 126. 

Apostolic Canons, a collection of eighty- 
five rules relating to the duty of Chris- 
tians, and particularly to the ceremo- 
nies and discipline of the church in 
the second and third centuries. 

Apostolic Constitutions, a fourth cen- 
tury pseudo-apostolic collection in 
eight books, of independent, though 
closely related, treatises on Christian 
discipline, worship, and doctrine, in- 
tended to serve as a manual of guid- 
ance for the clergy, and to some extent 
for the laity. 

Appian, a native of Alexandria, who 
lived in Rome during the reigns of 
Trajan, Hadrian, and Antoninus, and 
wrote a Roman history. — Greece, 186, 
191 ; Rome, 433. 

Appollonius, Life of (Philostratus) . — 
Seven Churches, 490. 

Approaching End of the Age (Guin- 
ness). — Inquisition, 253; Year-Day 
Principle, 587. 

Aquinas Ethicus (Rickaby). — Here- 
tics, 208 ; Persecution, 371. 

Aquinas Thomas (1226-74), a bachelor 
of theology at Paris, and a professor 
at Naples. His greatest work is the 
" Summa Theologice," a doctrinal 
standard of Roman Catholicism. — In- 
fallibility, 247, 248 ; Papacy, 342 ; Per- 
secution, 371 ; Pope, 382. 

Arabian Nights (Lane). — Babylon, 58. 

Archeology and the Bible (Barton). 

— Babylon, 57 ; Medo-Persia, 308 ; Rome. 
435. 

Archaeology, Biblical (Keil). — Azazel. 
44. 

Archeological Discoveries, New, and 
the New Testament (Coburn). — Sev- 
enty Weeks, 525. 

Are the Dead Alive (Rider). — Spirit- 
ualism, 530. 

Arius. — Arian, 38. 

Armitage, Thomas (1819-96), born in 
England. He became a Methodist 
preacher at the age of sixteen. He 
came to America in 1838, and ten years 
later joined the Baptists, and was for 
years pastor of the Fifth Avenue Bap- 
tist Church. New York Citv. He pub- 
lished a number of works, but is 
probably most widely known by his 
"History of the Baptists." — Baptism, 
68 ; Religious Liberty, 416. 

Arnold, Thomas (1795-1842), a noted 
educator and historian. His " His- 
tory of Rome " is perhaps the best 
known of his works. He was also joint 
editor with William E. Addis of " A 
Catholic Dictionary." — Greece, 186. 

Arrested Reformation (Muir). — Jes- 
uits. 275 ; Protestantism, 400 ; Refor- 
mation, 409, 411, 412 ; Scriptures, 485. 

Arrian, a Greek historian of the early 
part of the second century a. d., a pu- 
pil of Epictetus.— Greece, 184, 186. 



Assyria.- — See Babylon ; Babylonia. 
Assyrian Eponym Canon. — Babylon, 53. 
Astronomy (Chambers). — Falling Stars, 
167. 

Astronomy for Everybody (Newcomb). 
— Falling Stars, 162. 

Astronomy in the Nineteenth Cen- 
tury, History of (Clerke). — Falling 
Stars, 163, 168. 

Astronomy., Manual of (Young). — 
Falling Stars, 166. 

Astronomy, New (Langley). — Falling 
Stars, 167. 

Astronomy , Popular (Flammarion and 
Gore). — Falling Stars, 162. 

Athanasius. — Idolatry, 216. 

Athenian Creed, " an exposition of 
the catholic [general] faith, which, 
from the Carolingian period [768-987 
a. d.], in some places earlier than in 
others, began to be sung at prime 
[about 6 a. m.] every day throughout 
the Western Church." — Advent, Sec- 
ond, 10 ; Creed, Roman, 126. 

Atheism Among the People (Lamar- 
tine). — Two Witnesses, 573. 

Atwood, Albert W. — Signs of the 
Times, 527. 

Augsburg Confession, June, 1530. The 
aim of this confession, composed for 
the greater part by Melanchthon, was 
to show that Luther's opinions were 
not heretical. — Church, 111, 112. 

Augustine, Saint (354-430), bishop of 
Hippo. He was the champion of or- 
thodoxy against Donatists and Pela- 
gians. His most famous works are his 
autobiographv. entitled " Confessions " 
(397). and " De Givitate Dei" (Of 
the City of God). (426).— Babvlon, 
61 ; Canon, 102 ; Church, 111 ; Pope, 
377. 

Augustinus de Ancona. — See Augus- 
tine, Saint. 

Augustinus, Triumphus (d. 1328), 
listed by the Catholic Encyclopedia 
(art. "Hermits"), among "Notable 
Theologians." — Pope. 381 ; Temporal 
Power of the Pope, 549. 

Auricular Confession, History of 
(Lasteyrie) .- — Indulgences, 239. 

Avebury, Lord. — Increase of knowledge, 
231. 



Baalam. — Seven Churches, 489. 
Babel, Light on the Old Testament 
from (Clay). — Babylon, 57. 

Babylon, Excavations at (Koldeway). 
— Babylon, 48, 60. 

Babylon, History of (King). — Baby- 
lon. 54. 

Babylonia and Assyria, History of 

(Rogers). — Babylon, 49, 50, 56. 59; 

Medo-Persia, 306. 
Babylonia and Assyria, History of 

(Winckler). — Babylon, 49, 60. 
Babylonia and Assyria, Religion of 

(.Tastrow). — Babylon, 49. 



592 



AUTHORITIES CITED. 



Babylonish Captivity of the Church 
(Luther). — Mass, 297; Sacraments, 
478. 

Babylons, The Two (Hislop). — Baby- 
lon, 63, 64, 66 ; Popery, 389 : Purga- 
tory, 405 ; Revelation, 423 ; Seven 
Churches, 491. 

Bacon, Francis (1561-1626), a cele- 
brated English philosopher, jurist, 
statesman, and author, one of the most 
remarkable men of any age. — - Increase 
of Knowledge, 224. 

Bagster, Samuel (1772-1851). an Eng- 
lish publisher of Bibles, chiefly poly- 
glot, and New Testaments in Syriac 
and Hebrew. He also issued the fa- 
mous "English Hexapla " (1827). — 
Nature of Man, 317. 

Baker, Newton D., United States Secre- 
tary of War (1916 — ). — War, 583. 

Balkans, Future of (Ivanovitch) . — 
Eastern Question, 148. 

Ball, Sir Robert, an English astrono- 
mer, author of " The Cause of the 
Great Ice Age" (1893) and other 
scientific works. — Falling Stars, 167. 

Baltimore Catholic Review, official organ 
of Cardinal Gibbons. — Pope, 387. 

Baltimore Southern Methodist. — Signs 
of the Times, 527. 

Bamfield. — Sabbath, 469. 

Bampton Lectures, a series of eight 
lectures, or sermons, to be delivered 
each year at the University of Oxford, 
" to confirm and establish the Chris- 
tian faith, and to confute all heretics 
and schismatics." The lecturer must 
be at least a master of arts from Ox- 
ford or Cambridge. The lectures be- 
gan in 1870, and the volumes contain- 
ing them form a valuable body of 
apologetical literature. — Isidorian 
Decretals, 256. 

Bancroft, George (1800-91), an Ameri- 
can historian, statesman, and diplo- 
mat ; author of the " History of the 
Formation of the Constitution of the 
United States," and " History of the 
United States from the Discovery of 
America to the Inauguration of Wash- 
ington." — Religious Liberty, 414, 415 ; 
Seven Churches, 492. 

Baptist Church, Confession of Faith. 
— Bible, 77. 

Baptist Church Manual. — Bible, 77 ; 
Sabbath, Change of, 474. 

Baptist Denomination, History of 
(Erbkam).— Sabbath, 467. 

Baptists, History of (Armitage). — 
Baptism, 68 ; Religious Liberty, 416. 

Barker, J. Ellis (b. 1870 in Cologne), 
lecturer, author, and journalist. — 
Eastern Question, 152, 157 ; Increase 
of Knowledge, 230. 

Barker, William B., author of " Lares 
and Penates : or Galicia and Its Gov- 
ernors " (1853), and a "Practical 
Grammar of the Turkish Language," 
(1854). — Babylon, 67. 

Barnes. Albert (1798-1870), an Amer- 
ican Presbyterian clergyman and Bib- 
lical commentator ; best known by his 



" Notes " on the New Testament, Job. 

Psalms, Isaiah, etc. — Daniel, 134; 

Law of God, 283 ; Rome, 435 ; Sabbath. 

Change of, 474 ; Seventy Weeks, 518 ; 

Seven Trumpets, 499. 508, 513, 515 ; 

Ten Kingdoms, 552, 553, 554. 
Baronius, Cesare. — Heresy, 203 ; Hilde- 

brand, Dictates of, 211 ; Jesuits, 266 ; 

Papacy, 336 ; Papal Supremacy, 357. 
Barry, William Francis (b. 1849), an 

eminent English Roman Catholic cler- 
gyman, educator, and author. — Papal 

Supremacy, 369. 
Bartoli, Professor Giorgio. His book 

was published in London in 1910.— 

Forgeries, 172, 173. 
Barton, George A. (b. in Canada, 1859). 

a well-known American educator and 

author. — Babvlon, 57 ; Medo-Persia, 

308 ; Rome, 435. 

Basil the Great, Saint, (329-379), 
bishop of Csesarea, one of the most 
distinguished doctors of the Catholic 
Church. " He ranks after Athenasius 
as a defender of the Oriental church 
against the heresies of the fourth cen- 
tury."— Bible, 74. 

Basle Believers, Message of. — In- 
crease of Knowledge, 232. 

Bates, Joseph (1792-1872), a New Eng 
land Christian sea captain, who, after 
retiring from the sea, became active 
in every good work, including the tem- 
perance and anti-slavery movements. 
Becoming interested, in 1839, in the 
doctrine of the second advent of our 
Lord, he participated in the 1843-44 
advent movement under William Mil- 
ler, and was later one of the first to 
accept the light on the sanctuary and 
Sabbath questions as brought out at 
that time. He became an able advo- 
cate of the views he had espoused, and 
was for a quarter of a century or more 
an ordained Seventh-day Adventist 
minister and writer. — Advent, Second. 
23, 24. 

Bates, Rev. William H., pastor of a 
church in Washington, D. C. — Gen- 
ealogy of Christ, 183. 

Baudrillart, Alfred, rector of the 
Catholic Institute of Paris, early in 
the present century. His book, " The 
Catholic Church, the Renaissance, and 
Protestantism," published in London 
in 1908, has a prefatory note by E. H. 
Cardinal Perraud and the Imprimatur 
of Gulielmus, Eoiscopus Arindelensis. 
Vicarius Generalis. — Inquisition, 252 ; 
Persecution, 376. 

Baumhoff, George. — Health and Tem- 
perance, 201. 

Baxter, Richard (1615-91), a noted 
English nonconformist divine, author 
of several religious works. — Advent, 
Second, 6, 7, 9. 

Beacon Lights of History (Lord). — 
Papacy, 330, 344. 

Beard, Richard Olding. — Health and 
Temperance, 197. 

Beecher, Rev. Charles (1815-1900), 
Congregationalist clergyman, author, 
and educator ; of American birth. He 



AUTHORITIES CITED. 



593 



produced a number of helpful and val- 
uable religious works. " Redeemer 
and Redeemed," was published in Bos- 
ton in 1864. — Azazel, 44 ; Spiritual- 
ism, 532. 

Belgic Confession of Faith. — Bible, 
76. 

BELLARMINE (BELLARMINO) . ROBEET 

Fbancis Romulus (1542-1621). a 
Roman Catholic theologian, born in 
Tuscany. He became a Jesuit, and 
was made cardinal in 1599, and arch- 
bishop of Capua in 1601. One of the 
greatest theologians that the Roman 
Catholic Church has produced.— 
Church 110; Galileo, 180; Heresy. 
203 : Heretics, 208 ; Infallibility. 239 : 
Jesuits, 266, 271 ; Papacy. 343 ; Pope, 
378. 383, 387 ; Temporal Power of the 
Pope, 549 ; Transubstantiation, 566. 
BemonT and Monod. — Papal Suprem- 
acy. 361. 

Benedict, David (1779-84), a Baptist 
clergvman. He wrote a "History of 
the Baptists" (1813; continued in 
1848), "History of all Religions 
(1824), "Fifty Years Among the Bap- 
tists" (1860). and a "History of the 
Donatists," published after his death. 

Ben Ezra, pseudonym for Lacunza, q. v. 
— Advent, Second, 15. 

Bengel, Johann Albeecht (1687-1752). 
a Lutheran divine and scholar. His 
reputation for learning rests chiefly 
on his edition of the Greek New Tes- 
tament and his Commentary on the 
same. — Advent, Second, 16. 

Bengel's Aechives. — Seventy Weeks, 
524. 

Benjamin of Tudela (died after 1173 
a d.), a Spanish Hebrew traveler; 
author of " Masaoth " (excursions), 
written in Hebrew, but translated into 
Latin in 1575, and into English m 
1784. — Babylon, 59. 

Benson, Abchibald. — Forgeries. 172. 

Benson, R. H. — Spiritualism, 530. 

Benziger Bbothees, publishers, of New 
York City. " printers to the Holy Apos- 
tolic See!" 

Benziger's Magazine. Roman Catholic, 
New York. — Heretics, 204. 

Beeengaud. — Ten Kingdoms. 553. 

Beegen. — Sabbath, 468. 

Beeington and Kiek. — Mass, 297. 

Beek, Matthew A. — Calendar, 95. 

Beenaedine, Saint. — Priesthood, 390. 

Bebosus, a priest of Bel at Babylon, who 
translated into Greek the standard 
Babylonian work on astrology and as- 
tronomy, about 250 b. c. — Babylon. 
50 ; Daniel, 131, 132. 

Besant, Mes. Annie (b. 1847), a noted 
English lecturer on Socialism and The- 
osophy ; for a time joint editor with 
Charles Bradlaugh on his paper, the 
National Reformer. — Spiritualism, 
532. 

Bevan, E. R. — Greece, 189. 
Beveeidge, J. Wallace. — Health and 
Temperance, 198. 



Bible and Its Teansmission (Copin- 
ger). — Bible, 71, 72. 

Bible and Spieitual Ceiticism (Pier- 
son).— Bible, 82. 

Bible Atlas. Historical and Descriptive, 
with introduction by Rev. Bishop John 
H. Vincent. — Greece, 191. 

Bible, Catholic Chuech and. — Bible, 

74, 75, 81. 
Bible, Catholic Docteine on Use of. — 

Bible, 75. 

Bible Confeeence on the Retuen of 
Oue Loed, a three-days' meeting for 
Bible study and for the reading of pa- 
pers and the delivery of addresses on 
the subject of the return of our Lord ; 
held in the Academy of Music, Phila- 
delphia, May 28-30, 1918, and partici- 
pated in by members of practically all 
Protestant denominations. This was 
simply one of a series of such confer- 
ences held in a number of our large 
cities. — Advent, Second, 14, 26. 

Bible Ceiticism and the Aveeage Man 
(Johnston).— Bible, 81. 

Bible (Book), Fascination of (Work). 

— Bible, 82. 

Bible, Illusteated Histoey of (Kitto). 

— Sabbath, 460. 

Bible. Inspieation and the (Horton). 

— Bible, 72. 

Bible, Its Oeigin and Natuee (Dods). 

— Bible, 73, 88. 

Bible, Oeigin and Histoey of Books 
of (Stowe).— Bible, 82, 83. 

Bible, Oue, and the Ancient Manu- 
sceipts (Kenyon). — Bible, 87, 90. 

Bible, Oxfoed. — Calendar, 97 ; Tradi- 
tion, 558. 

Bible Record.- — Protestantism, 399. 

Bible Teacts. — Advent, Second, 18. 

Bible, Teiglott Translation. — Nature 
of Man, 319. 

Biblical Antiquities, Summary of 
(Nevin). — Calendar, 95, 96; Law, 
Ceremonial, 280. 

Biblical Aech^ology (Keil). — Azazel, 
44. 

Biblical Authenticity (Shearer). — 

Bible, 80, 81, 82. 
Biblical Liteeatuee, Illustrations of 

(Townley). — Bible, 90. 
Biblical Repeetoey. — Bible, 84. 
Bibliotheca Sacra. — Genealogy of Christ. 

183. 

Bicheno, J. — French Revolution, 173, 
174 ; Increase of Knowledge, 222 ; 
Seven Trumpets, 507 ; Two Witnesses, 
571. 

Bickersteth. — Advent, Second, 13. 

Biddolph, Col. JonN (b. 1840), super- 
intendent of government printing, Cal- 
cutta, 1880, author of " Tribes of the 
Hindoo Koosh." — Earthquakes, 145. 

Biederwolf, William Edward. — Spirit- 
ualism, 532. 

Binney, Amos, author of Binney's " The- 
ological Compend." — Bible, 73 ; Sab- 



594 



AUTHORITIES CITED, 



bath, 459 ; Sunday, 536 ; Sunday Laws, 
541. • 

Birks, Rev. T. R., M. A. (English, 1810- 
83), author of " The Bible and Modern 
Thought," " Modern Astronomy," 
" Modern Utilitarianism," " The Treas- 
ure of Wisdom," etc. — Babylon, 50 ; 
Little Horn, 290 ; Prophecies, 394, 395 ; 
Ptolemy's Canon, 404 ; Seven Trump- 
ets, 518 ; Ten Kingdoms, 552 ; Twenty- 
three Hundred Days, 569 ; Year-Dav 
Principle, 586, 587, 588. 

Bishop of Meaux. — See Bossuet, Jac- 
ques B. 

Blackstone's Commentaeies a n d 
Burns's Ecclesiastical Law. — Re- 
ligious Liberty, 418. 

Blaikie, William Garden (1820-99), a 
Scottish divine, educator and writer. 
He was the founder of the Presbyte- 
rian Alliance. — Missions, 312. 

Blakely, William Addison, Ph. D., 
member of the Chicago bar and of the 
American Academy of Political and 
Social Science. He was for some years 
lecturer on political science and his- 
tory in the University of Chicago. — 
Religious Liberty, 416, 417 ; Sunday 
Laws, 542, 543, 544, 545. 

Bliss, Sylvester (b. 1814), author of 
"Analysis of Chronology" (1847), 
" Geography of New England " (1847). 
— Artaxerxes, 40 ; Calendar, 94. 

Bloomfield, S. T., D. D. (1790-1869). 
an English divine and scholar. He 
published an edition of Dr. Robin- 
son's " Greek, and English Lexicon of 
the New Testament," also a " Greek 
Testament with English Notes, Criti- 
cal, Philological, and Explanatory." 
and other valuable works of the kind. 

Bloudy Tenent of Persecution (Wil- 
liams). — Religious Liberty, 413. 

Blunt. — Paganism, 324. 

Blunt. John James (1794-1855), an 
English divine and ecclesiastical 
writer. — Sabbath, 463. 

Blunt, Wilfred Scawen (1840). Eng- 
lish traveler and author. — Eastern 
Question, 157. 

Boettcher, J. T., for several years, until 
1916, a Seventh-day Adventist mis- 
sionary in Russia. — Advent, Second, 
25. 

Bogue. — Sabbath, 469. 

Bonar, Dr. — Popery, 388. 

Boniface VIII (Benedict Cajetan). 
(1228-1303), Pope from Dec. 24, 1294, 
to Oct. 11, 1303. — Indulgences. 236 ; 
Jesuits, 271 ; Papacy, 337, 353-355 ; 
Pope, 382. 

Boqvist, O. — Advent, Second, 19. 

Bossuet, Jacques Benigne (1627-1704), 
French divine, ecclesiastic, orator, and 
author. His father was a judge of 
the provincial high court at Dijon, and 
later at Metz.— Babylon, 65 ; Galli- 
canism, 181 : Sabbath, 469 ; Seventy 
Weeks, 518, 523 ; Ten Kingdoms, 553. 

Boston Gazette and Country Journal. — 
Dark Day, 135. 

Boston Herald. — War, 585. 



Boston Independent Chronicle. — Dark 
Day, 139, 141. 

BoTSFORDj George Willis (b. 1862), an 
American historian and educator, au- 
thor of a number of historical text- 
books. — Greece, 188, 189. 

Bower, Archibald (1686-1766), a Jes- 
uit, and " a professed convert from Ro- 
man Catholicism to Protestantism," 
says the New Schaff-Herzog Reli- 
gious Encyclopedia. His principal pub- 
lication was the " History of the 
Popes," in seven volumes. — Papacy. 
333, 347; Papal Supremacy, 361, 362. 

Boyle. Robert (1627-91), an English 
physicist and chemist, born at Lis- 
more Castle, England. Founder of 
the " Boyle Lectures," " to prove the 
truth of the Christian religion against 
atheists, deists, pagans, Jews, and Mo- 
hammedans." — Bible, 83. 

Bradford, John (1510-55), an English 
Protestant preacher and martyr, 
burned at Smithfleld, July 1, 1555. 
with a young man named John Leaf. 
- — Antichrist, 35. 

Brerewood, Edward (1565-1613), an 
English mathematician and antiqua- 
ry ; author 'of " The Patriarchal Gov- 
ernment of the Ancient Church," a 
treatise " On the Weights and Values 
of Ancient Coins," and other works in 
English and Latin. — Sabbath, 466. 

Brewer, David J. (1837-1910), an Amer- 
ican jurist, born in Smyrna, Asia 
Minor. Six colleges and universities 
conferred on him the degree of LL. D. 
Besides other works, he wrote " Amer- 
ican Citizenship " and " The United 
States a Christian Nation." — Signs of 
the Times, 527. 

Brightman. — Seven Trumpets, 514. 

Briggs, Dr. Charles Augustus, a Pres- 
byterian theologian ; and professor of 
Hebrew and the cognate languages in 
Union Theological Seminary. — Prot- 
estantism, 399. 

Brinckman, Arthur, author of " The 
Rifle in Cashmere," published in Lon- 
don in 1865. — Heresy, 203. 

British and Foreign Bible Society. 
History of (Canton). — Bible, 91; In- 
crease of Knowledge, 233. 

British Association for the Advance- 
ment of Science. — Earthquakes, 146. 

British Critic and Quarterly Theological 
Review. — Antichrist, 29. 

British History and Papal Claims 
(Parton). — Private Judgment, 394. 

Britten, Emma Hardinge. — Spiritual- 
ism, 530, 531. 

Bbock, Mourant. — Advent, Second, 17 : 
Idolatry, 217 ; Jesuits. 275 ; Pagan- 
ism, 324-326 ; Saints, 481, 482. 

Brown, Dr. David. — Advent, Second. 8. 

Brown, Henry, M. A. — Ptolemy's Canon, 
402. 

Brown, John Newton (1803-68), Amer- 
ican clergyman, pastor of Baptist 
churches in New York and other east- 
ern States, and professor of theology 
and ecclesiastical history in the Theo- 



AUTHORITIES CITED. 



595 



logical Institution at New Hampton. 

— Bible, 77: Sabbath, 459, 463. 
Brown, M. H.— Ten Kingdoms, 553. 
Bruno, Joseph Faa di. — Bible, 90, 91 ; 

Church. 112 ; Immaculate Conception. 
220 ; Justification, 278 : Tradition. 558, 
560. 

Brutus. — Servetus, 486. 

Bryce, James (b. 1838), a British jurist, 
historian, and politician. He was 
British ambassador to the United 
States from 1907 to 1913. He is 
widely known in this country by his 
book, "Holy Roman Empire" (1864), 
and " The American Commonwealth " 
(1888). — Holy Roman Empire, 211, 
212 ; Papacy, 350 ; Pope, 385 ; Reli- 
gious Liberty, 413 ; Two Witnesses, 
578. 

Buck. Rev. Charles (b. 1771), labored 
in the ministry of the Independents 
(Congregationalists) of England until 
his death, in 1815. He was author of 
"'A Theological Dictionary." — Law of 
God, 284; Sunday, 533. 

Buddha. — Bible, 92 ; Spiritualism, 532. 

BULLARIUM ROMANUM. Pope, 383. 

Bullinger, Rev. E. W. — Nature of Man, 
317, 318. 

Burbank, Luther (b. 1849). American 
horticulturist. — Health and Temper- 
ance, 201. 

Burder, George (1752-1832), an English 
Congregationalism He was an editor, 
and a successful writer for many pub- 
lications. — Increase of Knowledge, 
233. 

Burke, Edmund. — Papal Supremacy, - 
363, 364 ; Two Witnesses. 576. 

Burnett, Dr. Thomas (1635-1715), an 
English author ; noted chiefly as the 
author of " Telluris Theoria Sacra." — 
Falling Stars, 164. 

Burruel, Abbe. — Two Witnesses, 573. 

Bury, John Bagnell (b. 1861), noted 
British historian and linguist. — 
Greece, 185 : Papal Supremacy, 356 ; 
Rome, 439 ; Seven Trumpets, 503, 505. 

Bush, Prof. George (1796-1831), an 
American theologian and Biblical 

■ scholar, professor of Hebrew and Ori- 
ental Literature in the University of 
New York ; author of " Life of Mo- 
hammed," " Treatise on the Millen- 
nium," a " Hebrew Grammar," " Illus- 
trations of the Holy Scriptures," and a 
series of Bible Commentaries in eight 
volumes. — Advent, Second, 21 ; Bible, 
89 ; Nature of Man, 316 ; Sabbath, 458. 

Butcher, Edith Louisa. — Eastern 
Question. 150. 

Butler, Bishop Alban. — Popery, 388. 

Byzantine Empire, Story of (Oman). 

— Seven Trumpets, 516, 517. 



CjESars, Twelve, Lives of (Suetonius). 
— Advent. First, 6 ; Rome, 433, 435 ; 
Seventy Weeks, 521, 522. 

Caliphate, the (Muir). — Seven Trump- 
ets, 508, 512. 



Calmet. — Baptism, 68. 

Calvin, John (1509-64), French Re- 
former, and author of " Institutes of 
the Christian Religion." He attended 
the Diet of Worms in 1540, and that 
of Ratisbon in 1541. — Advent, Second. 
9, 11 ; Baptism, 67, 69 ; Censorship of 
Books, 109 ; Jesuits, 264 ; Law of God, 
284 ; Protestantism, 399, 400 ; Refor- 
mation, 406, 411 ; Servetus, 485, 486. 

Calvin's Institutes. — Advent, Second, 
11 ; Baptism, 69 ; Reformation, 411. 

Cambridge Modern History, planned by 
the late Lord Acton, LL. D., Regius 
Professor of Modern History ; edited 
by A. W. Ward, Litt. D., G. W. Pro- 
thero, Litt. D., and Stanley Leathers, 
M. A. Published in 1902 by the Mac- 
millan Company, London. — French 
Revolution, 173. 

Campbell, Alexander (1788-1866). 
founder of the denomination known as 
the Christians, or Disciples of Christ. 
Mr. Campbell earnestly opposed reli- 
gious establishments and Sunday leg- 
islation. — Advent. Second, 14; Bible, 
84; Sabbath. 462, 463: Sabbath. 
Change of, 470 ; Sunday Laws, 545. 

Campbell, Alexander, Memoirs of 
(Richardson). — Sunday Laws, 545. 

Candidus, pseudonym of Alexander 
Campbell. — Sabbath, Change of, 470. 

Canon and Tradition (Holtzman). — 
Sabbath, Change of, 477 ; Tradition, 
560. 

Canton, William (b. 1845), English- 
man, author of " The Bible and the 
Anglo-Saxon People" (1914). "His- 
tory of the British and Foreign Bible 
Society" (1904-10), "The Invisible 
Playmate ; A Story of the Unseen " 
(1894), "Songs of England's Glory" 
(1902), etc. — Bible, 91; Increase of 
Knowledge, 233. 

Carey, William (1761-1834), Baptist 
Missionary and Orientalist. — Increase 
of Knowledge, 232. 

Cargill, William, author of " The For- 
eign Affairs of Great Britain, Admin- 
istered by the Right Honorable Henry 
John Viscount Palmerston." This 
book was issued anonymously in 1841, 
but is known to have been written by 
Cargill. John Reid & Co., London, 
printers. — Eastern Question, 151. 

Carlyle, Thomas (1803-55), styled by 
the New Schaff-Herzog Religious En- 
cyclopedia " Apostle of the Catholic 
Apostolic Church," a religious move- 
ment which began in Scotland in 1830. 
but did not assume distinctive form 
until five years later. It is held to em- 
brace all baptized persons. — Two Wit- 
nesses, 572. 

Carter. Charles Frederick (b. 1863), 
American author, journalist, and edi- 
tor. — Increase of Knowledge, 228. 229. 

Carter, Robert (1819-79), editor of Ap- 
pleton's Journal in 1870-73 ; later, 
associate editor for the revision of 
the American Encyclopedia. 

Cassiodorus, Magnus Aurelius (480-570 
a. d. ) , a Roman historian, statesman. 



596 



AUTHORITIES CITED. 



and monk. He was for some years a 
close personal friend and adviser of 
Theodoric, the Ostrogothic monarch. — 
Canon, 102. 
Catechetical Lectures (Cyril). — Anti- 
christ, 32. 

Catechism, A Doctrinal (Keenan). — 
Infallibility, 242 ; Sabbath, Change of, 
475. 

Catechism of Catholic Doctrine, Con- 
vert's (Geierman). — Sabbath, Change 
of, 475. 

Catechism of the Catholic Religion. 

— Infallibility, 242. 

Catechism of the Council of Trent 

(Donovan). — Keys, 280; Mass, 295; 

Priesthood, 389 ; Sacraments, 479 ; 

Transubstantiation, 567. 

Note. — The several catechisms listed 
herewith, and from which quotations are 
made in this book, have the sanction of 
Catholic ecclesiastics, and present as ac- 
curately as possible, in brief, the doc- 
trines held and taught by the Roman 
Catholic Church ; nevertheless no cate- 
chism used by Catholics is recognized as 
being of absolute and unquestionable au- 
thority except the " Catechism of the 
Council of Trent." 

Catechism, Plain Sermons on (Wil- 
liams). — Sunday, 535. 

Catechismus Romanus ex Decreto 
Concilii Tridentini. — Creed, Roman, 
127. 

Cathcart, William (1826-1908), an 
eminent Baptist pastor, author, and 
editor, born and educated in Ireland, 
but coming to the United States in 
1853. — Justification, 279. 

Catholic Belief (Bruno), a short and 
simple exposition of Catholic doctrine 
by Joseph Faa di Bruno ; American 
edition edited by Louis A. Lambert, 
and published by Benziger Brothers. 
Imprimatur, John Cardinal McCloskey, 
Archbishop of New York, June 5, 1884. 

— Bible, 90, 91; Church, 112; Immac- 
ulate Conception, 220 ; Justification, 
278; Tradition, 558, 560. 

Catholic Church and the Bible. — 

Bible, 74, 75, 81. 
Catholic Church, the Old (Killen). 

— Decretal Letters, 143. 

Catholic Church, the Renaissance, 
and Protestantism (Baudrillart). — 
Inquisition, 252; Persecution, 376. 

Catholic Church the True Church of 
the Bible (O'Connell). — Mass, 297. 

Catholic Citizen. — Purgatory, 405. 

Catholic Dictionary. — See Dictionary, 
Catholic. 

Catholic Doctrine as Defined by the 
Council of Trent (Nampon). — Anti- 
christ, 29 ; Justification, 278 ; Priest- 
hood, 390, 392 ; Tradition, 560, 562. 

Catholic Doctrine, Familiar Expla- 
nation of (Miiller). — Church of 
Rome, 114 ; Heretics, 204 ; Indulgences, 
235. 

Catholic Doctrine on the Use of the 
Bible. — Bible, 75. 



Catholics, Faith of, on Certain 
Points of Controversy Confirmed by 
Scripture (Berrington and Kirk). — 
Mass, 297. 

Catholic Lay Congress, a Congress of 
Catholic laymen, usually " consisting 
of delegates representing the entire 
Catholic population of a country or 
nation," says the Catholic Encyclope- 
dia, art. " Congresses." The first 
Catholic Lay Congress was held in 
Germany in 1848, since which time 
many such congresses have been held, 
mostly in Europe, but several also in 
other parts of the world. There have 
been two in the United States, the first 
in Baltimore, Nov. 11 and 12, 1889 : 
the second in Chicago, Sept. 4-6, 1893. 

— Sunday Laws, 544, 545. 

Catholic Mirror, formerly the official or- 
an of the Baltimore archdiocese. — 
abbath, Change of, 476. 
Catholic Press. — Sunday, 536. 
Catholic Provincial Council. — Sab- 
bath, 468. 
Catholic Review. — Sabbath, 476. 
Catholic Universe. — Sunday Laws, 544, 
545. 

Catholic World. — Infallibility, 243, 245. 
Censorship of the Church of Rome 
(Putnam). — Bible, 91. 

Census Report (United States), on the 

1844 Movement. — Advent, Second, 23. 
Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia.- — 

See Dictionary, Century. 
Ceylon, Christianity in (Tennent). — 

Missions, 313. 
Ceremoniale Romanum (Marcellus). — 

Pope, 380. 

Challoner, Richard (1691-1781), an 
English Roman Catholic divine, bishop 
of Debra and vicar apostolic of Lon- 
don. His version of the Bible — Douay 

— is substantially that since used by 
English-speaking Catholics. — Bible, 91. 

Chapman, Ervin S. (b. 1838), an Amer- 
ican clergyman especially prominent 
as a temperance advocate. He is prob- 
ably best known through the Search- 
light, the official organ of the Anti- 
Saloon League, and of which he was 
editor from 1898 to 1914. — Health and 
Temperance, 198. 

Chapple, W. A. — Health and Temper- 
ance, 197. 

Charlemagne. — Sunday Laws, 540. 

Charles II (C. H. Stuart, 1630-85), an 
English king under whom the most 
famous Sunday laws were enacted, and 
from which all our earlier American 
Sunday laws were derived. — Sabbath, 
Change of, 471 ; Sunday Laws, 540. 

Chillingworth, William (1602-44), a 
noted English divine and controver- 
sialist. — Bible, 79 ; Protestants, 397. 

Christ and Antichrist, Treatise on 

(Hippolytus). — Rome, 428. 
Christian Antiquities, Dictionary of 

(Smith and Cheetham). — Svnday, 

535. 



AUTHORITIES CITED. 



597 



Christian at Work, a religious paper es- 
tablished in New York in 1866. now 
the Christian Work. — Sunday, 536. 

Christian Church, History of (Rob- 
ertson). — Rome, 457. 

Christian Church, History of (Schaff). 

— Greek Church, 195 ; Papal Suprem- 
acy, 355, 361 ; Rome, 436, 437 ; Sev- 
enty Weeks, 521 ; Sunday, 537 ; Sun- 
day Laws, 538, 539. 

Christian Church,, History of, in 
the Middle Ages (Moeller). — Greek 
Church, 196 ; Isidorian Decretals, 256. 

Christian Doctrine, Abridgment of 
(Tuberville). — Sabbath, Change of, 
475. 

Christian Doctrine, Development of 

(Newman). — Apostasy, 37; Sabbath, 

Change of, 472, 
Christian Doctrine, Manual of. — 

Mass, 295, 296 ; Transubstantiation, 

566. 

Christian Doctrine, Manual of In- 
structions in. — Indulgences, 238. 

Christian Doctrine, Treatise on (Mil- 
ton). — Sunday, 537. 

Christian Dogmas, Lectures on His- 
tory of (Neander). — Baptism, 70. 

Christian Faith, Disputations Con- 
cerning Controversies About (Bel- 
larmine). — Temporal Power of the 
Pope, 550. 

Christian Herald, a popular illustrated 

religious weekly, undenominational. 

Issued at the Bible House, New York 

City. — Advent, Second, 14. 
Christian., Louis H. — Sabbath, 468, 

469. 

Christian Institutions (Stanley). — ■ 

Baptism, 69, 70. 
Christian Oracle. — Sunday Laws, 545. 

Chbistian Religion and Church, His- 
tory of (Neander). — Antichrist, 29, 
30 ; Baptism, 68 ; Sabbath, Change of, 
470 ; Sunday, 533 ; Sunday Laws, 538, 
540. 

Christian Statesman, organ of the Na- 
tional Reform Association, a monthly 
publication now (1919) in its 53d vol- 
ume. It is published in Pittsburgh. 
Pa. — Increase of Knowledge, 231 ; 
Sunday Laws, 545. 

Christian System (Campbell). — Ad- 
vent, Second, 14 ; Bible, 84 ; Sabbath, 
462. 

Christian Union. — Nature of Man, 321 ; 

Sunday, 536. 
Christianity, Early Days of (Farrar). 

— Jerusalem, 260. 
Christianity, History of (Milman). — ■ 

Paganism, 324 ; Sabbath, Change of, 
472, 473. 

Christianity in Ceylon (Tennent). — 
Missions, 313. 

Chronology, Analysis of (Hales). — 
Antichrist, 28 ; Artaxerxes, 41, 42 ; 
Calendar, 95, 97 ; Nature of Man, 315 ; 
Ptolemy's Canon, 403 ; Rome. 434 : 
Seven Trumpets, 512 ; Seventy Weeks, 
518, 524, 525, 526 ; Twenty-three Hun- 
dred Days, 568, 569. 



Chronology, Analysis of Sacred 
(Bliss). — Artaxerxes, 40; Calendar, 
94. 

Chrysostom, John (347-407), one of 
the Fathers of the Greek or Eastern 
Church. Both the Greek and the Latin 
churches esteem him as a saint. — 
Antichrist, 33 ; Bible, 78 ; Councils, 
123 ; Rome, 436 ; Saints, 481. 

Church and State (Innes). — Pope, 
382 ; Reformation, 407. 

Church and State in the United 
States (Schaff). — Religious Liberty, 
418. 

Church, The, and the Churches (D61- 
linger). — Papacy, 334. 

Church, Babylonish Captivity of (Lu- 
ther). — Mass, 297. 

Church, General History of (Nean- 
der). — Antichrist, 29. 30; Baptism, 
68 ; Fathers, 170 ; Sabbath, Change of, 
470 ; Seven Churches, 488 ; Sunday, 
534 ; Sunday Laws, 538, 540. 

Church History, Lectures on (Meri- 
vale). — Paganism, 324. 

Church History, Manual of (Funk). 

— Celibacy, 107; Jesuits, 272. 
Church History of Ethiopia (Geddes). 

— Sabbath, 468. 

Church History, Sketches of (Wha- 

rey). — Advent, First, 5, 6. 
Church History, Studies in (Lea). — 

Magna Charta, 292 ; Papacy, 327 ; 

Pope, 379, 383. 
Church Militant (Herbert). — Seven 

Churches, 494. 
Church Missionary Review, organ of the 

Church Missionary Society, London. 

— Armageddon, 39. 

Church of Christ, History of (Mil- 

ner).— Bible, 84. 
Church of Egypt, Story of (Butcher). 

— Eastern Question, 150. 

Church of England, Articles of Re- 
ligion. — Bible, 77, 79; Canon, 101; 
Mass, 297 ; Tradition, 563. 

Church of England Missionary So- 
ciety. — Armageddon, 39. 

Church of Rome, Censorship of (Put- 
nam). — Bible, 91. 

Church of Rome, Destructive Char- 
acter of (Wordsworth). — Antichrist, 
31 ; Heretics, 206. 

Church of Rome, Double Doctrine of 
(Zedtwitz). — Church of Rome, 115. 

Church of Rome, Hippolytus and the 
(Wordsworth). — Infallibility, 245. 

Church of Rome, Idolatry in (Stiling- 
fleet).— Mass, 298. 

Church of Rome, Plain Reasons 
Against Joining (Littledale). — 
Bishop, 94 ; Idolatry, 218 ; Images, 
219 ; Indulgences, 236 ; Infallibility, 
249; Saints, 481, 482; Schism, 484; 
Ultramontanism, 578. 

Church, Seven Ages of (Cotterill). — 
Seven Churches, 488, 490. 

Churches, Eastern and Western, Com- 
parison of Differences Betwixt 
(Philaret).— Bible, 76. 



598 



AUTHORITIES CITED. 



Cicero, Marcus Tullius (106-43 b. a), 
Roman orator and author. — Advent, 
First, 5 ; Rome, 427. 

Civil Establishments of Christian- 
ity (Wardlaw). — Religious Liberty, 
419. 

Civil Power, Papacy and the (Thomp- 
son). — Temporal Power of the Pope, 
549. 

Civil Wars, The. — Greece, 186. 
Clark, Edson L. — Eastern Question, 
150. 

Clarke, Dr. Adam (1762-1832), an Irish 
Methodist itinerant. He wrote many 
elaborate works. — Bible, 80, 84 ; East- 
ern Question, 155 ; Fathers, 170 ; 
Greece, 189 ; Law of God, 282 ; Nature 
of Man, 315, 317, 319 ; Papal Suprem- 
acy, 367 ; Sabbath, 462 ; Seventy 
Weeks, 525 ; Ten Kingdoms, 553. 

Claudian. — Seven Trumpets, 500. 

Clavis Apocalyptica (Mede). — Seven 
Trumpets, 507, 510, 512, 514. 

Clavis Biblica (Clarke), "a compen- 
dium of Scriptural knowledge, con- 
taining a general view of the contents 
of the Old and New Testaments ; the 
principles of Christianity derived from 
them, and the reasons on which they 
are founded." Published by Carlton 
and Lanahan, New York ; E. Thomas, 
San Francisco ; and Hitchcock and 
Walden, Cincinnati, Methodist pub- 
lishers.— Bible, 80. 

Clavis Novi Testamenti. — Baptism, 69. 

Clay, Albert Tobias (b. 1866), arche- 
ologist. Lutheran clergyman and He- 
brew instructor in the University of 
Pennsylvania ; also instructor in Old 
Testament theology, and lecturer in 
Hebrew, Assyrian, and Semitic arche- 
ology in other universities of the 
United States. — Babylon, 57 ; Medo- 
Persia, 309. 

Clemens Alexandrintjs. — Fathers, 168, 
169. 

Clement XIV, Pope (1769-1774).— 
Jesuits, 267. 

Clerke, Agnes Mary (1842-1907), a 
British astronomical writer of con- 
siderable note. — Falling Stars, 163, 
168. 

Clinton, F. H. — Daniel 131, 132. 

Cobern, Rev. Camden McCormack (b. 
1855), American Methodist Episcopal 
clergyman, archeologist, Biblical critic 
and author. — Seventy Weeks, 525. 

Cobham, Lord, an English noble of the 
early part of the seventeenth century. 
— Antichrist, 31. 

Cocceius. — ■ Seven Churches, 487. 

Cochrane, Rev. W. R. — Dark "Day, 142. 

Codex Justinianus, or " The Code of 
Justinian," a compilation of Roman 
civil law, in twelve volumes, completed 
in 534 a. d. The " Digesta," or " Pan- 
dectas," embracing decisions, argu- 
ments, etc., corresponding to our mod- 
ern court reports, was issued later, 
making fifty volumes. — Heretics, 209 ; 
Papal Supremacy, 357 ; Sunday, 537. 



Codex Theodosius. — Sunday Laws, 539. 

Cole, Timothy (b. 1852) , American wood- 
engraver. He was commissioned by 
the Century Magazine in 1883 to exe- 
cute engravings of the paintings of 
the old masters in Europe. — Health 
and Temperance, 200. 

Coleman, Lyman (1796-1882), an Amer- 
ican educator and theological writer ; 
professor of Latin and Greek at La- 
fayette College, 1861-68, and of Latin, 
1868-82. — Sabbath, 466. 

Coleridge, Samuel Taylor (1772-1834), 
an eminent English poet, critic, and 
speculative genius. — Bible, 80 ; In- 
crease of Knowledge, 229. 

Collete, Charles Hastings.— Bible, 
85 ; Indulgences, 234. 

Collett, Sidney, an English writer of 
our own time, author of " The King's 
Declaration — a Protest and Warn- 
ing," " All About the Bible," etc. 
Published by Fleming H. Revell Com- 
pany, New York, Chicago, Toronto, 
London, and Edinburgh. — Bible, 71, 
79, 86, 87, 88, 91, 92, 93 ; Sabbath, 461. 

Collier. — Tradition, 560. 

Columbus, Christopher (1446-1506), 
the discoverer of America. — Increase 
of Knowledge, 223. 

Coming of Christ (Haldeman). — Seven 
Churches, 493. 

Commentary (Clarke). — Eastern, Ques- 
tion, 155: Fathers. 170; Greece, 189 : 
Law of God, 282 ; Nature of Man, 315, 
317, 319 ; Papal Supremacy, 367 ; Sab 
bath, 462 ; Seventy Weeks, 525. 

Commentary (Lange). — Nature of Man, 
316 ; Sabbath, 458, 460. 

Commentary, Comprehensive (Jenks). 

— Azazel, 43 ; Seven Churches, 487. 
Commentary (Henry and Scott). — A 

commentary combining the best fea- 
tures of the work of Matthew Henry 
(1662-1714), a nonconformist minister 
of England, with notes by Thomas 
Scott (1747-1828), a regular English 
clergyman. — Second Advent, 13, 14. 
Commentary on Acts (Hackett) .— Sun- 
day, 533. 

Commentary on the Apocalypse (Stu 
art) .— Sabbath, Change of, 471; 
Seven Churches, 494. 

Commentary on the New Testament 
(Olshausen). — Sunday, 533. 

Commentary on the Psalms (Eusebius). 

— Sabbath, Change of, 471. 

Commentary on St. John's Epistles, 
Speakers'. — Antichrist, 28. 

Commentaries on the Constitution 
(Story). — Religious Liberty, 415. 

Commentaries on Prophecies Refer- 
ring to the Present Times (Gallo- 
way.) — French Revolution, 175; Two 
Witnesses, 573. 

Companion Bible.— Genealogy of Christ, 
183. 

Companion to Roman History (Jones). 

— Sabbath, Change of, 472. 



AUTHORITIES CITED. 



599 



Comte, M., a French editor. — Signs of 
the Times, 527. 

Confessions of Faith, French, Belgic, 
Westminster, Church of England, Bap- 
tist, Freewill Baptist, Methodist, Con- 
gregationalism — Antichrist, 29 ; Bible, 
76, 77, 78, 84. 

Confessions of an Inqtjiking Spirit 
(Coleridge). — Bible, 80. 

Confucius (551-479 b. c), the Chinese 
sage. — Bible, 92. 

Congregational, Church, Declaration of 
Faith. — Bible, 78. 

Congressional Record. — Bible, 82, 83. 

Connecticut Historical Collections. 

— Dark Day, 138. 

Conroy, Kev. James P. — Papal Suprem- 
acy, 362. 

Conscience of the State (Vinet). — 

Religious Liberty, 419. 
Constable, Henry. — Nature of Man. 

322. 

Constantine, Flaverius V. (272-337 
a. d. ) , called "the Great," the "first 
Christian emperor of Rome." He was 
the author of the first Sunday law. 
a. d. 321. — Councils, 119 ; Edict of 
Milan, 160, 161 ; Forgeries, 171 ; Her- 
etics. 208 ; Seven Trumpets, 516 ; Sun- 
day, 536, 537 ; Sunday Laws, 538, 539. 

Constantine, Fragments Collected by 
(Diodorus). — Rome, 429. 

Constantinople (Hutton). — Seven 
Trumpets, 517. 

Constantinople, Fifty Years in (Wash- 
burn). — Eastern Question, 156. 

Constitution, Commentaries on the 
(Story). — Religious Liberty, 415. 

Constitution of the United States. 

— Religious Liberty, 414, 415, 416. 
Constitutional Limitations, Treatise 

on (Cooley). — Persecution, 371. 

Contemporary Review, London, a monthly 
publication established in 1866, and 
long edited by Sir Percy Bunting.— 
Armageddon, 39. 

Contract Tablets. — Babylon, 57. 

Converted Catholic (now the Protestant 
Review), a monthlv magazine, in its 
36th volume (1919). published by 
Christ's Mission, 331 West 57th Street, 
New York. — Mass, 296. 

Conybeare and Howson (Rev. W. J. 
Conybeare and Rev. J. S. Howson), 
joint authors of " the Life and Epis- 
tles of the Apostle Paul." first pub- 
lished in London, 185L- — -Baptism, 68 ; 
Sunday, 533. 

Cook, J. B. — Advent, Second, 23, 24. 

Cooley, Thomas McIntyre (1824-98), 
an eminent American jurist ; author 
of eight volumes of legal reports, and 
a digest of the laws of Michigan, be- 
sides several other volumes on legal 
topics. — Persecution, 371. 

Copernicus, Nicholas. — Galileo, 180, 
181. 

Copinger, Walter Arthur (1847-1901), 
barrister ; author of " The First Half 
Century of the Latin Bible," and sev- 



eral books on history and biography. 
— Bible, 71, 72. 

Cormack, George, a Scotch traveler and 
author. — Armageddon, 38. 

Cormenin, Louis Marie de, a French 
Roman Catholic author whose " His- 
tory of the Popes " was translated 
from the French into English and 
printed in 1851. That De Cormenin 
was in thought and belief as well as 
by profession a true Romanist is 
vouched for by the fact that in the 
English edition of his history the pub- 
lishers felt it necessary to explain that 
" whenever the words ' priest ' and 
' priesthood ' occur, they refer exclu- 
sively to the ministry of the Roman 
Church, as do the words ' church ' and 
' religion ' to that church and its ten- 
ets." — Heretics, 205. 

Corpus Juris Canonici. — Canon Law. 
103, 104, 105 ; Church, 110 ; Papacy, 
342. 

Cottage Bible, a two-volume Bible ed- 
ited by William Patton, D. D., with 
notes prepared by Thomas Williams. 
This work was published in 1864, and 
was highly esteemed for its notes, 
which are for the most part exception- 
ally good. — Increase of Knowledge, 
223. 

Cotterill, Rev. Henry. — Seven 
Churches, 488, 490. 

Coi ncil of Nic^ea. — Canon, 100, 103 ; 
Idolatry, 218 ; Papacy, 345. 

Council of Trent. The sittings of this 
council were held at irregular inter- 
vals from 1545 to 1563. Its work 
was to reorganize the Roman Catholic 
Church, and to repair the damage 
done to it by the German Reforma- 
tion. The third session, lasting from 
January, 1562, to December, 1563. re- 
affirmed the old doctrines with respect 
to the sacraments, indulgences, pur- 
gatory* and the invocation of saints, 
and instituted certain reforms in the 
discipline of the clergy. The utter- 
ances of this council are regarded as 
of the highest possible authority by 
all Roman Catholics. — Bible, 85; 
Canon. 99, 100 ; Celibacy, 106, 107 ; 
Censorship of Books, 108, 109 ; Con- 
fession, 116 ; Council of Trent, 118 ; 
Councils, 121 ; Creed of Pope Pius IV, 
125, 126; Creed, Roman, 126, 128; 
Heretics, 205, 207 ; Indulgences, 236 ; 
Justification, 278 ; Keys, 280 ; Mar- 
riage, 293 ; Mass, 295, 296 ; Papacy. 
343 ; Penance, 370 ; Priesthood, 389. 
390, 392 ; Protestantism, 400 ; Pur- 
gatory, 404 ; Sacraments. 478 ; Saints 
and Images. 480 : Scriptures. 485 ; 
Tradition, 558, 560. 561, 562, 564; 
Transubstantiation, 567. 

Council of Trent, Catholic Doctrine 
Defined by (Nampon). — Antichrist. 
29 ; Justification. 278 ; Priesthood, 
390. 392 ; Tradition, 560, 562. 

Council of Trent, Lectures on 
(Froude). — Diet of Worms, 144; 
Mass, 296 ; Massacre of St. Bartholo- 
mew, 304 ; Protestantism, 400. 

Councils, History of (Labbe and Cos- 
sart), a historical authority recog- 



600 



AUTHORITIES CITED. 



ntzed alike by Roman Catholics and 
Protestants.— Church. Ill: Heretics, 
205; Jesuits, 266; Pope, 377. 

Councils,, Church,, History of (Hefele). 

— Councils, 119, 120; Infallibility, 
241 ; Sabbath, Change of, 471. 

Council^ JacobatIUs on. — Pope, 387. 

Councils, ON the Authority of (Bel- 

larmine). — Pope, 378. 
CoUPS,, Charles.— Syllabus of Errors, 

,146. 

Course of Time (Pollok). — Bible, 71. 
Court of Justinian, Secret History of 

— Papal Supremacy, 356. 
CovErdale, Miles (1488-1568), an Eng- 
lish Augustine friar, a friend of Rob- 
ert Barnes and Thomas Cromwell, and 
the first to translate the entire Bible 
Into the English language. — Bible, 91. 

Cowper, William (1731-1800), English 
poet. His most popular work was 
" The Task," which appeared in 1785, 
and speedily obtained great and uni- 
versal favor.— Advent, Second, 13. 

Cox, Robert, a fellow of the Society of 
Antiquarians of Scotland, not a clergy- 
man but a barrister, who in 1865 gave 
to the world two volumes of " Litera- 
ture on the Sabbath Question," the 
work being designed, as explained by 
the author in his preface, " chiefly as 
=a help to those who study the Sabbath 
"question in a thorough and impartial 
manner." The two volumes contain 
more than nine hundred pages. — 
Sabbath, Change of, 471 ; Sunday, 536, 
537. 

Crafts, Wilbur F. (b. 1850), an Amer- 
ican clergyman, founder of the Ameri- 
can Sabbath Union, and editor of sev- 
eral religious periodicals. — Sunday, 
537. 

Cranmer, Thomas (b. 1489), archbishop 
of Canterbury, England. He abjured 
his allegiance to Rome in 1535, and 
was tried and sent to the stake for 
heresy under " Bloody Mary." — Anti- 
christ, 34; Bible, 91. 

Creasy, Sir Edward Shepherd (1812- 
78), an English jurist and historian. 
At the time of his death he was chief 
justice of Ceylon. — Seven Trumpets, 
505. 

Creation Centred in Christ (Guin- 
ness). — Bible, 88; Law, Ceremonial, 
281 ; Ptolemy's Canon, 404. 

Creeds and Confessions of Faith, 
History of (Curtis). — Creed of Pope 
Pius IV, 125. 

Creeds of Christendom, History of 
(Schaff). — Advent, Second, 10; Ref- 
ormation, 406. 

Creeds of the Evangelical Protestant 
Churches (Schaff). — Bible, 76, 77, 
78, 79, 84. 

Creeds of the Greek and Latin 
Churches (Smith and Schaff). — Ad- 
vent, Second, 10. 

Creighton, Mandell (1843-1901), an 
English historian and Bishop of Lon- 
don. — Isidorian Decretals, 257 ; Pa- 



pacy, 333, 337, 351, 353; Temporal 
Power of the Pope, 549. 

Crime of Christendom (Gregory). — 
Eastern Question, 147. 

Croly, Rev. George (1780-1860), a 
British author, and rector of St. Ste- 
phen's, Walbrook, where he gained a 
reputation for his eloquence. — French 
Revolution, 177 ; Papal Supremacy, 
358, 359; Revelation, 423; Two Wit- 
nesses, 573, 574, 575, 576. 

Crooker, Joseph H.— Health and Tem- 
perance, 197. 

Crosier, O. R. L. — Advent, Second, 21, 
22. 

Cruse, Rev. C. F. — Edict of Milan, 160. 

Cumming, John (1807-81), a Scottish 
clergyman and writer. His works in- 
clude " Apocalyptic Sketches." " The 
Great Tribulation," and " Destiny of 
Nations." — Seven Trumpets, 499. 

CUNINGHAME, WILLIAM (1805-61), a 

Scottish clergyman, theologian, and 
author ; one of the founders of the 
Free Church of Scotland. — Advent. 
Second, 15, 25 ; Bible. 74 ; Papal Su- 
premacy, 358, 359, 363 ; Seven Seals, 
495, 496, 497, 498 ; Seven Trumpets, 
515. 

Curiosities of Popular Custom 
(Walsh).— Sabbath, Change of, 473. 

Current History. — War, 580, 584. 

Curtis, Rev. Wm. Alexander (b. 1876 
at Thurso, Caithness, Scotland) ; pro- 
fessor of systematic theology in the 
University of Aberdeen since 1903. 
In 1911 he published " A History of 
Creeds and Confessions of Faith in 
Christendom and Beyond." — Creed of 
Pope Pius IV, 125. 

Cusa, Cardinal of. — Tradition, 564. 

Cyclopedia (Chambers). — Sabbath, 469. 

Cyclopedia (McClintock and Strong). — 
Calendar, 96 ; Sabbath, 465 ; Sunday, 
533. 

Cyclopedia, American, edited by George 
Ripley and Charles A. Dana. — Falling 
Stars, 166. 

Cyclopedia of American Biography 
(Appleton). — Religious Liberty, 418. 

Cyclopedia of Biblical Literature 
(Kitto).— Sunday, 533. 

Cyclopedia, New Universal. — Creed, 
Roman, 129. 

Cyclopedia, Universal. — Dark Day, 142. 

Cyprian, Thascius Cecilius (about 
200-258), one of the church Fathers. 
He was at one time head of the whole 
African church. He suffered martyr- 
dom. — Fathers. 168 ; Forgeries, 171 , 
172, 173 ; Tradition, 559. 

Cyril. There were four men of this 
name: (1) Cyril of Jerusalem, born 
near that city about 315 A. d., an ec- 
clesiastic and a controversialist; (2) 
Cyril (bishop) of Alexandria in 444, 
who is venerated as a saint by both 
Greek and Roman Churches ; (3) Cy- 
ril of Constantinople, born about 820, 
a native of Thessalonica, who has 
been called the Apostle of the Slavs ; 



AUTHORITIES CITED. 



601 



(4) Cyril Lucar (Cyrillus Lucaris), 
born in Crete in 1572, prelate of the 
Greek Church, who in 1621 sent the 
" Codex Alexandrinus " to England, 
where it is still preserved in the Brit- 
ish Museum. — Antichrist, 32 ; Canon, 
101. 

Cyropjedia (Xenophon). — Babylon, 52; 
Medo-Persia, 307. 

Cyrus., Cylinder or Tablet of. — Baby- 
lon, 53, 55, 58 ; Medo-Persia, 308. 

Dale, Robert William (1829-95), an 
English Congregational clergyman ; 
author of " Sermons on the Ten Com- 
mandments," " The Atonement," etc. 

— Sunday, 535. 

Dana, William B. — Sabbath, Change 
of, 471. 

Daniel (Driver). — Daniel, 131. 
Daniel and Its Critics (Wright). — 

Increase of Knowledge, 223. 
Daniel and His Prophecies (Wright). 

— Antichrist. 33 ; Babylon, 55, 58. 
59 ; Bible, 90 ; Greece, 187. 

Daniel and the Revelation (Smith). 

— Seven Seals, 498 ; Ten Kingdoms, 
553, 555. 

Daniel and the Revelation (Tanner). 

— Antichrist, 28, 30. 31, 32; Seventy 
Weeks, 519, 520, 523, 526. 

Daniel, Commentary on (Keil). — 
French Revolution, 177. 

Daniel in the Critics' Den (Ander- 
son). — Daniel, 132. 

Daniel, Notes on Book of (Barnes).- — 
Daniel, 134 ; Rome, 435 ; Sabbath, 
Change of, 474 ; Seventy Weeks, 518 : 
Ten Kingdoms, 552, 553, 554. 

Daniel, Prophecies and Explanation 
of (Jerome). — Daniel, 133. 

Daniel, Prophetic Visions in the Book 
of. Remarks on (Tregelles). — Daniel. 
130, 133. 

Daniel's Prophetic Number of Twe.v- 

TY-THREE HUNDRED DAYS (Mason). 

Twenty-three Hundred Days, 569. 
Daniel the Prophet (Pusey). — Daniel. 
130. 131 ; Seventy Weeks, 520, 524, 
526. 

Daniel, the Prophet, Explained 
(Gaussen). — Rome, 439. 

Daniel, Studies in the Book of (Wil- 
son) .— Babylon, 57, 58, 59. 

Daniel, Two Late Visions of (Birks). 

— Seven Trumpets, 518. 

Daniel. — See also Apocalypse, Commen- 
tarv ; Prophecy ; Prophecies ; Revela- 
tion. 

Daniells, Arthur Grosvenor (b. 1858), 
president of the General Conference 
of Seventh-day Adventists since 1901. 

— War, 581. 

D'AuBiGNfi, Jean Henri Merle (1794- 
1872), a celebrated Swiss Protestant 
church historian ; professor of histor- 
ical theology at Geneva. — Bible, 79 : 
Reformation. 406, 407, 408, 409, 411 : 
Religious Liberty, 413, 418. 

David. — Seven Trumpets, 514. 



Davis, William E. — Advent, Second, 
17 ; Twenty-three Hundred Days, 569, 
570. 

Day Changed and Sabbath Preserved 

(Hodges). — Sabbath, 460. 
Day for Rest and Worship (Dana). — 

Sabbath, Change of, 471. 
Day Star.— Advent, Second, 21, 22. 

Dearden, Rev. H. W., an English clergy- 
man and author whose book, " Modern 
Romanism Examined," published in 
1899, is one of the most temperate 
ever written upon a live controversial 
subject. — Immaculate Conception, 221. 

Debates in Congress, Register of. — 
Sunday Laws, 542. 

Dechamps, Victor Augusts Cardinal. 

— Infallibility, 248. 

Decisive Battles of the World 
(Creasy). — Seven Trumpets, 505. 

Decisive Battles of the World (King). 

— Eastern Question, 148. 

Declaration of Faith of the National 
Council of Congregational Churches, 
held at Boston, Mass., June 14-24, 
1865. — Bible, 78. 

Declaration of Rights, Virginia. — 
Religious Liberty, 417. 

Decretals of Gregory. " In the wide 
sense of the term, Decretalis signi- 
fied a pontifical letter containing a 
decretum, or pontifical decision. In 
the strictest sense of the word, it 
means a rescript, i. e., an answer of 
the pope when he has been appealed to 
or his advice has been sought on a 
matter of discipline. Papal decretals, 
therefore are not necessarily general 
laws of the church." — Catholic Ency- 
clopedia. Among the greatest achieve- 
ments of Gregory IX must be counted 
a collection of papal decretals, a work 
which he entrusted to Raymond of 
Pennaforte and which was completed 
in 1234. Of the 1971 chapters which 
the decretals of Gregory contain, 
1771 are taken from " Quinque Compi- 
lationes Antiquw Decretalium/' 191 
are due to Gregory himself, seven are 
taken from the decretals of Innocent 
III, and two are of unknown origin. 

Decretum de Rbformatione. — Creed, 

Roman, 127. 
Defensor Pacis (Marsilius). — Pope. 

381. 

De Fide. — Bible, 74. 
Declaire, Mme. Jean.— Spiritualism, 
532. 

Delambre. — Calendar, 95. 
Demonstratis Evangelica (Eusebius). 

— Seventy Weeks, 524. 

Dens, Peter (1690-1775), a Belgian Ro- 
man Catholic theologian. His great- 
est work, the " Theologia Noralis et 
Dogmatica," is a compendium of Roman 
Catholic doctrine and ethics, and is 
much used as a textbook in Catholic 
schools. — Indulgences, 234 ; Purga- 
tory, 404, 405. 

Dent, Arthur. — Two Witnesses, 571. 



602 



AUTHORITIES CITED. 



Devens, Richard Miller, author of 
"American Progress" (1886), "Cy- 
clopedia of Commercial and Business 
Anecdotes" (1864), "The Glory of 
Our Youth" (1909), " Our First Cen- 
tury" (1876), etc. — Dark Day, 138, 
140. 

De Wette. — Baptism, 67. 
Diary of an Invalid (Matthews). — Pa- 
ganism, 325. 

Diary op Matthew Patten. — Dark Day, 
138. 

Dictates,, The, of Hildebrand (Pope 
Gregory VII). This is a document, 
says Canon Robertson, known as Greg- 
ory's "Dictate" (Dictatus) , which, it 
has been well said, may be regarded as 
embodying the principles of his sys- 
tem. Its origin is, however, uncertain. 
Some have supposed it to have been 
drawn up by the Pope himself ; and 
here again we have a consent between 
the extreme Romanists, who think 
both him and the Dictate perfectly 
right, and the extreme Protestants, 
who abominate both Gregory and the 
principles ascribed to him in that doc- 
ument. Others hold, not only that it 
was not drawn up by Gregory, but that 
it is an enemy's misrepresentation of 
him ; but this view would seem to have 
been devised merely in order to save 
the Pope's credit, by writers of the 
Gallican school, who disliked the Dic- 
tate, but had no wish to quarrel with 
Gregory's memory. Gieseler says that 
the propositions in the Dictate look 
much as if they were the headings and 
summaries of a set of canons passed at 
some Roman council held under Greg- 
ory ; and this view of their origin 
seems very probable. But however the 
collection may have come into existence, 
it seems certain, notwithstanding the 
denial of the Gallican writers, that 
there is nothing in the Dictate but 
what might be paralleled from the un- 
questioned writings of Gregory him- 
self, or from the actions in which his 
principles were exemplified. 

Dictionary and Cyclopedia, Century, a 
work of universal reference and ac- 
knowledged authority in all depart- 
ments of knowledge. Published by the 
Century Company, New York, first 
edition, 1891.— Arian, 38; Religious 
Liberty, 412. 

Dictionary, Biblical and Theological 
(Watson).— Sabbath, 458, 466. 

Dictionary, Catholic. — Censorship of 
Books, 109 ; Inquisition, 251 ; Pen- 
ance, 370 ; Tradition, 558. 

Dictionary, Ecclesiastical (Ferraris). 
— Pope, 377. 

Dictionary, Encyclopedic. — Paganism, 
323. 

Dictionary, New Standard. — Creed, 

Roman, 127 ; Gnosticism, 183. 
Dictionary of Christian Antiquities 

(Smith and Cheetham). — Sunday, 535. 
Dictionary of Christian Biography 

(Smith and Wace). — Papacy, 346; 

Papal Supremacy, 362. 



Dictionary of Dates (Haydn). — Sun- 
day, 536. 

Dictionary of the Bible (Hastings). — 
Seventy Weeks, 521, 522. 

Dictionary of the Bible (Smith). — 
Calendar, 94 ; Daniel. 129 ; Easter, 
147 ; Nature of Man, 320 ; Sabbath, 
462 ; Sunday, 533. 

Dictionary of the Holy Bible (Cal- 
met), revised and enlarged by Edward 
Robinson (1832), prof essor extraordi- 
nary of sacred literature in the Theo- 
logical Seminary, Andover ; author of 
" Biblical Research in Palestine." — 
Baptism, 68 ; Marriage, 293 ; Nature 
of Man, 320. 

Dictionary of Islam. — Eastern Ques- 
tion, 156. 

Dictionary, Oxford English. — Roman 

Catholic, 425. 
Dictionary, Temple Bible. — Nature of 

Man, 320. 

Dictionary, Theological (Buck). — 
Law of God, 284 ; Sunday, 533. 

Dictionary, Unabridged (Webster). — 
Dark Day, 140. 

Digonet, Letter to. — Seven Churches, 
488. 

Dio Cassius. — Calendar, 96 ; Rome, 435 ; 
Seventy Weeks, 521. 

Diodorus Siculus. — Babylon, 48; 
Greece, 188, 189 ; Rome, 429. 

Diplomatic Background of the War 
(Seymour). — Eastern Question, 152. 

Dissenters, History of (Bogue). — 
Sabbath, 469. 

Divine Program of the World's His- 
tory (Guinness).- — Ten Kingdoms. 
551. 

Divine Institutes (Lactantius). — An- 
tichrist, 32 ; Apostasy, 37. 

Divine Unity of Scripture (Saphir). 
— Bible, 85. 

Divinity of Our Lord (Liddon). — Isi- 
dorian Decretals, 256. 

Documenta ad Illustrandum Concilium 
Vaticanum (Friedrich). — Infallibility, 
241, 247. 

Dods, Marcus (1834-1909), British the- 
ologian and author ; professor of New 
Testament exegesis in New College, 
Edinburgh. — Bible, 73, 88. 

Dogmatic Canons and Decrees, pub- 
lished bv the Devin-Adair Company 
(Roman 'Catholic), New York City. — 
Bible, 85 ; Celibacy, 107 ; Confirma- 
tion, 117 ; Extreme Unction, 162 ; 
Idolatry, 217 ; Immaculate Concep- 
tion, 220 ; Indulgences, 236 ; Justifi- 
cation, 277 ; Mass, 296, 298 ; Order, 
323 ; Penance, 370 ; Priesthood, 389, 
392 ; Purgatory, 404 ; Sacraments, 
478 ; Saints and Images, 480 ; Tradi- 
tion, 560 ; Transubstantiation, 565, 
566. 

DOLLINGER, JOHANN JOSEPH IGNAZ VON 

(1799-1890), a German theologian, 
and after 1871 a leader in the " Old 
Catholic " movement ; he opposed the 
decree of papal infallibility of the 
Vatican Council of 1869-70, and was 



AUTHORITIES CITED. 



603 



excommunicated in 1871. His book, 
"The Pope and the Council" (1869), 
written under the pseudonym " Janus," 
contains his arguments against the 
dogma of papal infallibility. — For- 
geries, 171, 172 ; Infallibility, 241, 
242, 247, 248 ; Isidorian Decretals, 
255 ; Magna Charta, 292 : Papacy, 334. 
Domenici, Domenicus Dei. — Infallibil- 
ity, 243. 

Domville, Sir William, an English bar- 
onet, a polemic writer of the middle 
of the 19th century. — Sunday, 537. 

Donovan,, Rev. J., a Roman Catholic 
priest and educator ; domestic prelate 
to His Holiness Gregory XVI ; mem- 
ber of the Archeological Society of 
Rome ; honorable member of the So- 
ciety of British Artists, etc. He trans- 
lated the " Catechism of the Council 
of Trent." — Keys, 280 : Mass, 295 : 
Priesthood, 389 ; Sacraments, 479 ; 
Transubstantiation, 567. 

Dorr, Joseph. — Dark Day, 136. 

Douay Bible. — Bible, 91. 

Douay Catechism, an abridgment of 
Christian Doctrine, with proofs of 
Scripture for points controverted. 
Catechistically explained by way of 
question and answer. The author was 
Henry Tuberville, a Douai priest. The 
first edition was printed at Douai in 
1649 ; another in 1661, and so con- 
stantly. The last editions mentioned 
by Gillow are, London, 1793 ; and 
Dublin, 1828. There was also a 
smaller edition, " An Abstract of the 
Douay Catechism," for the use of chil- 
dren and ignorant persons. Printed in 
London in the year 1688. It was re- 
printed many times. 

Double Doctrine of the Church of 
Rome (Zedtwitz). — Church of Rome, 
115. 

Douglass, Frederick A. (1817-95), an 
American mulatto. Born a slave, he 
escaped from bondage in 1838, and 
made his way to New York. Subse- 
quently he rose to prominence as a 
forceful writer and an eloquent 
speaker. He served for a time as 
United States marshal, and was re- 
corder for the District of Columbia 
from 1881 to 1886.— Falling Stars. 
164. 

Doyle, Sir Arthur Conan (b. 1859), a 
well-known English author and jour- 
nalist. Forsaking the practice of medi- 
cine for the pursuit of literature, Sir 
Arthur has proved himself both a ver- 
satile and a voluminous writer. — 
Spiritualism, 530, 531, 532. 

Draper, John William (1811-82), born 
near Liverpool, England : died at 
Hastings-on-the-Hudson, N. Y. A 
noted chemist, physiologist, and his- 
torian. — Confession, 117 : Galileo, 180 : 
Idolatry, 219 ; Magna Charta, 291 ; 
Papacy. 331, 335, 338 ; Persecution. 
373 ; Sabbath, Change of. 472 ; Seven 
Churches, 490 ; Sunday Laws, 539. 

Driver, Dr. — Daniel, 131. 

Ductor Dubitantium (Taylor). — Sun 
day, 535. 



Dudden, Frederick Homes (b. 1874). 
English clergyman and author. His 
book, " Gregory the Great, His Place 
in History and Thought," is listed by 
the Catholic Encyclopedia as one of 
its authorities. — Papal Supremacy, 
357 ; Seven Trumpets, 507. 

Duggan, Stephen H. Pierce (b. 1870). 
a college professor, and author of the 
" Eastern Question ; a Study in Di- 
plomacy " (1902). — Eastern Question, 
151. 

Duke of Argyle (George John Douglas 
Campbell), (1823-1900), the 8th duke 
of Argyle, a Scotch nobleman, states- 
man, and author. His work on the 
Eastern question was written with 
special reference to India. — Eastern 
Question, 155. 

Dunbar, George. — Baptism, 69. 

Duruy, Jean Victor (1811-^4), a French 
historian and statesman ; minister of 
public instruction 1863-69 ; and sena- 

• tor. — Greece, 188, 190; Rome, 430. 

Dutch Republic, Rise of (Motley). — 
Persecution, 372. 

Duvergier, J. B. — Two Witnesses, 577. 

Dwight, Timothy. — Sabbath, 465. 

Dyer and Has sell. — Eastern Question. 
148. 



Earth's Earliest Age (Pember). — 

Spiritualism, 531. 
Earthquakes (Hobbs). — Earthquakes. 

145. 

Earthquakes, Historical Account of 
(Hunter). — Earthquakes, 146. 

Earthquakes, History and Philosophy 
of (Nourse). — Earthquakes, 145. 

Earthquakes, Volcanoes and (Knee- 
land). — Earthquakes, 145. 

East and West Through Fifteen Cen- 
turies (Young). — Papal Supremacy, 
361 ; Seven Trumpets, 505. 

Eastern Question, The. — Seven 
Trumpets, 516. 

Eastern Question (Duggan). — Eastern 
Question, 151. 

Eastern Question (Marriott). — East- 
ern Question, 152. 

East, Sacred Books of. — Bible, 92, 93. 

Ecce Venit (Gordon). — Advent, Sec- 
ond, 7, 8, 14, 15. 

Ecclesia Militante, De (Bellarmine) . 
— Church, 110. 

Ecclesiastical History (Eusebius). — 
Edict of Milan, 161 ; Jerusalem, 250, 
262; Seven Churches, 489. 

Ecclesiastical History (Gieseler). — 
Hildebrand, Dictates of, 211. 

Ecclesiastical History (Mosheim). — 
Apostasy, 36 ; Fathers, 169 ; Isidorian 
Decretals, 257. 

Ecclesiastical History (Philostor- 
gius). — Seven Trumpets, 500. 

Ecclesiastical History (Socrates). — 
Sabbath, Change of, 471. 

Ecclesiastical History, Institutes of 
( Mosheim ) .— Papacy, 336, 



604 



AUTHORITIES CITED. 



Ecclesiastical History (Sozomen). — 
Sabbath, Change of, 471 ; Seven 
Trumpets, 502. 

Ecclesiastical History, Remarks on. 

— Saints, 481. 

Ecclesiastical Law, Elements of 
(Smith). — Heretics, 204; Order, 322. 

Eck, Johann (1486-1543), the German 
Roman Catholic controversialist who 
for a short time in the spring of 1517 
posed as a friend of Luther, but who 
later bitterly opposed not only Luther 
but Carlstadt and Melanchthon. In 
1519 Eck issued no less than eight 
publications against the Reformation. 

— Reformation, 407 ; Sabbath, Change 
of, 476. 

Edersheim, Rev. Alfred (1825-89), 
born at Vienna, of Jewish parents : 
a Christian theologian and missionary 
to the Jews. His works include : " A 
History of the Jewish Nation after 
the Destruction of Jerusalem," " The 
Temple : Its Ministry and Services," 
" Life and Times of the Messiah," 
" Prophecy and History in Relation 
to the Messiah." — Advent. First. 5 ; 
Nature of Man, 319 ; Sabbath, 464 ; 
Seventy Weeks, 523. 

Edgar, Rev. R. M'Cheyne, a Scotch 
clergyman and educator, from 1885 to 
1900, instructor of the class of senior 
freshmen, Trinity College, Dublin, in 
the history of the Reformation.— 
Protestantism. 398. 

Edict of Nantes. — Increase of Knowl- 
edge, 221. 

Edinburgh World Missionary Confer- 
ence. — Religious Liberty, 415. 
Edson, Hiram. — Advent, Second, 21. 

Edward, Henry, Roman Catholic Arch- 
bishop of Westminster (1875). His 
book, " The Vatican Decrees," was 
written in reply to Mr. Gladstone's 
" Vatican Decrees and Their Bearing 
on Civil Allegiance." — Pope, 383. 

Edwards, Jonathan (1703-1758), an 
eminent American theologian, meta- 
physician, and author. He was presi- 
dent of Princeton College in 1758. — 
Law of God, 283. 

Edwards, Justin (1787-1853), an Amer- 
ican clergyman, president of the sem- 
inary at Andover, Mass. ; author of 
numerous popular tracts, and of a 
work upon the Sabbath. He should 
not be confounded with Jonathan Ed- 
wards, or with his son of the same 
name, both of whom were noted clergy- 
men of New England. — Law of God, 
284; Sabbath, 460. 

Egypt in Asia (Cormack). — Armaged- 
don, 38. 

Egyptian Revolution, History of (Pa- 
ton). — Eastern Question, 148. 

Electricians, Lives of (Jeans). — In- 
crease of Knowledge, 230. 

Eliot, Charles William (b. 1834), an 
American educator and author. He 
was called to the presidency of Har- 
vard University in 1869, which posi- 
tion he resigned in 1909. — Increase 



of Knowledge. 232 ; Seven Trumpets. 
517. 

Elliott, Rev. Charles (1792-1869), 
was licensed as a local Methodist 
preacher in 1813, and in 1815 came to 
America from Ireland. He served in 
various capacities, as preacher, editor, 
professor, and president of the Iowa 
Wesleyan University. — Heretics, 205 ; 
Transubstantiation, 567. 

Elliott, Rev. Ezekiel Brown (1823- 
88), an American scientist. The im- 
portance of his researches has been 
recognized in Europe as well as the 
United States. — Advent, Second, 12 : 
Antichrist, 35 ; Easter, 147 ; Papal Su- 
premacy, 356, 363, 364, 365 ; Revela- 
tion, 419, 420, 422 ; Rome, 435 ; Seven 
Churches, 487 ; Seven Trumpets, 500. 
502, 503, 505, 506, 508, 509, 511, 513, 
515; Ten Kingdoms, 551, 555, 556; 
Two Witnesses, 576 ; Year-Day Prin- 
ciple, 586. 

Elliott, George. — Sabbath, 464. 

Enchiridion (Eck). — Sabbath, Change 
of, 476. 

Encyclical Letters of Leo XIII, the 
Great. — Pope, 377. 

Encyclopedia Americana, edited since 
1902 by Frederick C. Beach. — Arma- 
geddon, 38 ; Falling Stars, 165. 

Encyclopedia, Baptist. — Baptism, 68, 
69. 

Encyclopedia Biblica. — Azazel, 44. 

Encyclopedia Britannica. — Calendar, 
95, 97 ; Conclave, 116 ; Diets, 143 ; 
Eastern Question, 152 ; Greece, 193, 
194 ; Holy Roman Empire, 212 ; Jesu- 
its, 265, 275 ; Jewish League, 276 ; 
Marriage, 292 ; Medo-Persia, 309, 310 ; 
Rome, 441, 442, 450, 451, 454, 456 : 
Spiritualism, 529 ; Sunday, 537 ; Ten 
Kingdoms, 553. 

Encyclopedia, Catholic, a work con- 
sisting of fifteen large volumes besides 
the Index and Reading Lists. The 
first volume was issued in 1907 by 
Robert Appleton Company, New York, 
and the set was completed by the 
publication of the Index in 1914. Of 
the authority of the Catholic Ency- 
clopedia, in an article in America, 
April 18, 1914, Charles G. Hebermann, 
editor-in-chief of the work, styles it 
" this authoritative and complete sum- 
mary of the doctrines, history, and 
liturgy of the Catholic Church and her 
deeds, especially in the English-speak- 
ing world." — Antichrist, 29 ; Bible, 
76 ; Canon, 100 ; Canon Law, 105 ; 
Censorship of Books, 109 ; Church, 
113 ; Confession, 117 ; Confirmation, 
118 ; Creed of Pope Pius IV, 126 ; Ex- 
treme Unction, 162 ; Forgeries, 171 ; 
Gallicanism, 181 ; Heresy, 202 ; Indul- 
gences, 237 ; Infallibility, 239 ; Inqui- 
sition, 250, 251 ; Interdict, 254 ; Isi- 
dorian Decretals, 255 ; Jesuits, 265, 
267, 275 ; Marriage, 293 ; Mass, 299 ; 
Order. 323 ; Persecution, 372 : Pope, 
377, 378 : Roman Catholic, 425 ; Rome, 
455 ; Sabbath. 475 : Schism, 483 ; Tra 
dition, 558. 559 ; Triple Crown, 568 ; 
Ulframontanism, 578. 



AUTHORITIES CITED. 



605 



Encyclopedia (Chambers), edited in 
part by the publishers, but under the 
charge of Dr. Andrew Findlater as 
•' acting editor." Published by W. and 
R. Chambers. Edinburgh, in 1860-68. 
Revised editions appeared in 1874. 
1888-92, 1895. and 1901. — Calendar, 
96 ; Sunday, 537. 

Encyclopedia., Inteenational Standard 
Bible. This valuable work, edited by 
James Orr, M. A., D. D., is scholarly 
without being unnecessarily technical. 
It is conservative, and is designed to 
strengthen rather than to undermine 
faith in the inspiration and authority 
of the Sacred Scriptures. — Daniel. 
129 ; Easter. 147 ; Priesthood, 393 ; 
Seventy Weeks, 523 ; Week, 585. 

Encyclopedia, Jewish, prepared by 
more than four hundred specialists and 
scholars, complete in twelve volumes. 
Published by Funk and Wagnalls Com- 
pany, New York. — Azazel, 43 ; Tradi- 
tion, 557. 

Encyclopedia (Nelson), perpetual loose- 
leaf. Published in 1907 and kept up 
to date by new pages furnished to sub- 
scribers every year. Thomas Nelson 
and Sons, New York, London. Edin- 
burgh, and Dublin. — Diets of Worms. 
144 ; Greece, 192 ; Magna Charta, 291 : 
Medo-Persia, 311 ; Rome, 440, 443, 445. 
452, 453, 456, 457 ; Signs of the Times, 
528. 

Encyclopedia., The New Schaff-Her- 
zog, is more than a revision of the 
original Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia ; 
it is a new work, prepared by more 
than six hundred scholars and special- 
ists, under the supervision of Samuel 
Macauley Jackson, D. D., LL. D., as- 
sisted by a corps of ten associate and 
departmental editors. It is complete 
in thirteen volumes, including the in- 
dex. The last volume was copvrisrhted 
in 1912. Published by Funk and Wag- 
nalls Company, New York and London. 
— Advent, Second, 11 ; Bible, 88, 89 ; 
Calendar, 96 ; Celibacy, 107 ; Censor- 
ship of Books, 108 ; Church 111, 112 : 
Confession, 116 ; Councils. 121 : Greek 
Church, 196 ; Heresy, 202 ; Jesuits. 
269, 274 ; Protestant, 396 : Protestant 
ism, 398 : Reformation, 406 : Sacra- 
ments, 478 : Schism, 483 : Sabbath. 
Change of, 472 ; Seven Trumpets, 509. 

Encyclopedia, Religious (Kitto). — Na- 
ture of Man, 316. 

Encyclopedia of the World's Knowl- 
edge, Standard, a set of twenty-four 
small volumes, published in 1912 by 
Funk and Wagnalls Company, New 
York and London. — Babvlon, 46, 47 ; 
Cardinal, 106 ; Rome, 450. 

End Near (Kelber). — Advent. Second, 
16. 

End of Religious Controversy (Mil- 
ner). — Rule of Faith, 457; Tradition. 
564. 

Engineering. — Increase of Knowledge. 
229. 

England. — See Great Britain. 
English People, Short History of 
(Green).— Bible, 81. 



Epidemic and Pestilential Diseases, 
Brief History of (Webster). — Dark 
Day, 141. 

Erasmus (1466-1536), a Dutch scholar 
and theologian. He taught at Cam- 
bridge, England. — Censorship of 
Books, 109 ; Seven Seals, 497. 

Erbkam, Wilhelm Heinrich (1810- 
84), councilor of the consistory and 
professor of theology at Konigsburg. 
Prussia. — Sabbath, 467. 

Erdman, Prof. Charles Rosenbury (b. 
1866), Presbyterian, author of "Com- 
ing to the Communion" (1902), "The 
Ruling Elder" (1902), "Sunday Aft- 
ernoon with Railroad Men" (1906). 
etc. — Advent, Second, 10, 11. 

Ernesti, Johann August (1707-81). 
professor of theology at Leipsic ; the 
author of several works. — Bible, 84. 

Essays (Mill). — Bible, 73. 

Essex Antiquarian .— Dark Day, 143. 

Eucharist, Sacrament of (Bellarmine) . 

— Transubstantiation, 566. 
European Morals, History of (Lecky). 

— Seven Churches, 489. 

Europe, Historical Geography of 

(Freeman).— Rome, 456; Seven 

Trumpets, 499. 
Europe, History of (Alison). — Eastern 

Question, 149 ; French Revolution, 175. 

178 ; Papal Supremacy, 363, 364, 366 ; 

Two Witnesses, 573, 577. 

Europe, History of, During Middle 
Ages (Hallam). — Isidorian Decretals. 
255 ; Saints, 482 ; Seven Trumpets. 
516. 

Europe, Medieval (Bemont and Monod). 

— Papal Supremacy, 361. 

Europe, Modern (Phillips). — Eastern 
Question, 150, 154. 

Europe, Modern, Historical Develop- 
ment of (Andrews). — French Revo- 
lution, 179 ; Two Witnesses, 578. 

Europe, Modern, History of (Dyer and 
Hassejl). — Eastern Question, 148. 

Europe, Western, in the Fifth Cen- 
tury (Freeman). — Rome, 440. 

Eusebius (264-349), bishop of Csesarea. 
a celebrated theologian and historian, 
sometimes called " the Father of Ec- 
clesiastical History." He wrote an 
ecclesiastical history, a universal his- 
tory, and a " Life of Constantine." — 
Apostasy, 37 ; Babylon, 62 ; Daniel. 
133 ; Edict of Milan, 161 ; Jerusalem, 
259, 262, 263; Sabbath, Change of. 
471 ; Seven Churches, 489 ; Seventy 
Weeks, 524 ; Sunday, 537. 

Everybody's Magazine, a popular monthly 
published in New York, having a cir- 
culation of about 500, 000 copies per 
issue. — Armageddon, 39. 

Evidences of Christianity (Campbell). 

— Sabbath, 463. 

Examen Critique (Humboldt). — In- 
crease of Knowledge, 223. 
Examination of Six Texts (Domville). 

— Sunday, 537. 



606 



AUTHORITIES CITED. 



Excavations at Babylon (Koldeway). 

— Babylon, 48, 60. 

Exile to Overthrow,, From (Mears). — 

Jerusalem, 262. 
Explorers., Great, of the Nineteenth 

Century (Yerne). — Increase of 

Knowledge, 224. 
Exposicion of Daniel the Prophete 

(Joye). — Sabbath, Change of, 474. 
Expositions of the Famous Divine., 

Thomas Goodwin.— Two Witnesses, 

571. 

Expository Times. — Babylon, 57. 
Expresso Verbo Dei (Hosius): — Bible, 
85. 

Extravag antes Communes, a collection 
of decretals found in all editions of 
the " Corpus Juris Canonici," that is. 
in the body of the canon law of the 
Catholic Church. " This word," says 
the Catholic Encyclopedia, art. " Ex- 
travagantes," " is employed to desig- 
nate some papal decretals not con- 
tained in certain canonical collections, 
. . . but which, however, were obliga- 
tory upon the whole church ; also to 
other decretals of a later date, and 
possessed of the same authority." — 
Canon Law, 104, 105 ; Church, 110 ; 
Indulgences, 235. 236 ; Pope, 377, 378. 

Eyton, Canon. — Sunday, 535. 

Faber, George Stanley (1773-1854), an 
English divine and controversialist, 
graduate of Oxford and Fellow Lincoln 
College. — Advent, Second, 15 ; French 
Revolution, 174, 176, 177 ; Idolatry. 
214 ; Papal Supremacy, 358 ; Ptolemy's 
Canon, 404 ; Seven Trumpets, 510 ; 
Ten Kingdoms, 553 ; Two Witnesses, 
575. 

Fables Respecting the Popes of the 
Middle Ages (Dollinger). — Infallibil- 
ity, 243. 

Fairchild, James Harris (1817-1902). 
an American educator ; graduate of 
Oberlin College, 1838 : later, professor 
of languages in the college, then pro- 
fessor of moral philosophy and theol- 
ogy, and finally college president. — 
Religious Liberty, 418. 

Faith of Our Fathers (Gibbons). — 
Infallibility, 240, 244; Religious Lib- 
erty, 418 ; Sunday, 536. 

Farrar. Frederick William (1831- 
1903), an English clergyman and a 
productive author. He wrote a " Life 
of Christ," a " Life of St. Paul," 
" The Bible, Its Meaning and Suprem- 
acy," and other theological works. 

— Fathers, 169 ; Jerusalem, 260 ; Sab- 
bath, Change of, 471. 

Fascination of the Book (Work). — 
Bible, 82. 

Fasti Hellenici (Clinton). — Daniel, 
131. 

Fathers, Apostolic. In a broad sense 
this term is applied to all the immedi- 
ate pupils of the apostles. In its nar- 
row sense it means only such pupils 
of the apostles as left writings which 
have come down to our day. These 
Fathers are Barnabas, Clemens, Ro- 
manus, and Hermas, disciples of Paul ; 



and Ignatius, Polycarp, and Papias. 
disciples of John. Dionysius Areopa- 
gita, sometimes reckoned among the 
Apostolic Fathers as having been 
taught directly by Paul, is now known 
to have lived much later. — See Fathers. 

Faustus. — Sabbath, Change of, 472. 

Ferguson, William Scott, born in 
Prince Edward's Island, Canada, 1875 ; 
historian, statesman, and educator. — 
Greece, 191. 

Ferraris, Lucius, an eighteenth century 
canonist of the Franciscan order. He 
was also professor, provincial of his 
order, and consultor to the Holy OfSce. 

— Pope, 377, 383. 

Fifty-three Years in Syria (Jessup). 

— Falling Stars, 167. 

Fifty Years in Constantinople 
(Washburn). — Eastern Question, 156. 

Finlay, George (1799-1875), a British 
historian. Among his works are 
" Greece and the Romans," " History 
of the Byzantine and Greek Empires 
from 1057-1453," and " Greece under 
the Othman and Venetian Dominion 
from 1453 to 1821." — Papal Suprem- 
acy, 356, 360; Rome, 457; Seven 
Trumpets, 510, 516. 

First Crossing of Greenland (Nan- 
sen). — Health and Temperance, 199. 
200. 

Firth, John Benjamin (b. 1868), of 
England, author of " Augustus Caesar 
and the Organization of the Empire 
of Rome" (1903), " Constantine the 
Great" (1905), etc. — Eastern Ques- 
tion, 157. 

Five Great Monarchies (Rawlinson). — 
Babylon, 49, 50, 52, 60 ; Daniel, 131 ; 
Medo-Persia, 307, 310, 311. 

Flammarion, Camille (b. 1842), a noted 
French astronomer, author of "Omega, 
the Last Days of the World," " Popu- 
lar Astronomy," etc. — Falling Stars, 
162. 

Fleming's Tracts. — Seven Churches, 
491, 494. 

Flick, Alexander Clarence (b. 1869), 
American university professor, lec- 
turer on history, and author of sev- 
eral historical works. — Advent, First. 
5 ; Gregory VII, 197 ; Holy Roman 
Empire, 213 ; Magna Charta, 292 ; 
Papacy, 333, 337, 353. 

Floody, Robert John (b. 1859), a cler- 
gyman of Boston, Mass. — Sabbath, 
466. 

Florence, History of (Machiavelli). — 
Ten Kingdoms, 553. 

Ford, Henry (b. 1863), the well-known 
automobile manufacturer, of Detroit, 
Mich. — Health and Temperance, 201. 

Foreign Affairs of Great Britain 
(Cargill). — Eastern Question, 151. 

Foreign Policy, Thirty Years of (Mac- 
Knight). — Eastern Question, 155. 

Forsyth. — Paganism, 326. 

Fortnightly Review, a popular review 
established in London in 1865. Since 
1866 it has been published monthly, 
but retains its original name. — Arma- 



AUTHORITIES CITED. 



607 



geddon, 39 : Eastern Question, 148, 
157. 

Fossa., Caspar del, Archbishop of Reg- 
gio. — Tradition, 560, 561. 

Fournier, Cardinal Jacob. — Infallibil- 
ity. 242. 

Four Prophetic Empires (Birks). — 
Babylon, 50 ; Little Horn. 290 ; Ptol- 
emy's Canon, 404 : Ten Kingdoms. 552. 

Fourteen Years a Jesuit (Hoens- 
broech).— Jesuits. 265, 267, 270. 271. 
272. 

Fox, C. Vernon. — Tithing. 557. 

Fox, J. D. — Spiritualism, 529. 

Foxe, John (1516-87), author of 
" Foxe's Book of Martyrs : the Acts 
and Monuments of the Church," writ- 
ten in Latin and printed in that lan- 
uage in 1559 : translated and pub- 
lished in English in 1563. Foxe num- 
bered among his intimate friends and 
correspondents. Dean Nowell. Hugh 
Latimer, and William Tyndale. — 
Seven Seals. 498 ; Seven Trumpets. 
513. 

Foxes and Firebrands (Usher). — Jes- 
uits, 266. 

France, History of (Anderson). — Two 
Witnesses, 577. 

France, History of, from 1790 (Adol- 
phus). — Papal Supremacy, 367. 

Franklin, Benjamin (1706-90), an emi- 
nent American philosopher and states- 
man. — Bible, 80. 

Freedom, History of (Acton). — Coun- 
cils. 121, 122, 124 ; Fathers, 170 ; 
Heretics. 206 ; Massacre of St. Bar- 
tholomew, 300-304 ; Tradition, 564. 

Freeman, Edward A. (1823-92), a noted 
English historian. Mr. Freeman had 
few equals, and in some respects no 
superior, as a historian. — Eastern 
Question. 150 : Holy Roman Empire. 
212 : Rome, 440, 456 ; Seven Trump- 
ets. 499, 512. 

Freewill Baptist Church, Confession 
i.f Faith. — Bible, 77. 

Freewill Baptists, Treatise on the 
Faith and Practice of. — Bible, 77. 

French Confession of Faith. — Bible 
76. 

French National Convention. — French 

Revolution. 179. 
French Revolution (Carlyle). — Two 

Witnesses, 572. 
French Revolution (Mallet). — French 

Revolution, 176 ; Papal Supremacy. 

363. 

French Revolution and Religious Re- 
form (Sloane). — Two Witnesses, 575. 

French Revolution Foreseen in 1639 
(Goodwin). — Two Witnesses, 570. 

French Revolution, Prophecy of 
(Willison). — Two Witnesses, 572. 

Fr£re, James Hatley, an English au- 
thor and educator who about 1838 in- 
troduced an alphabet for the blind 
based on the principles of stenography. 
— Advent, Second, 16 ; French Revo- 
lution, 177 ; Increase of Knowledge. 
222. 



Frledrich, Dr. Johann. — Infallibility, 

Froude, James Anthony (1818-94), a 
noted English historian, essayist, and 
biographer. — Diet of Worms, 144 ; 
Mass, 296 ; Massacre of St. Bartholo- 
mew, 304 ; Protestantism, 400. 

Fulfilled Prophecy (Goode). — Arta- 
xerxes, 41 ; Babylon, 62 ; Idolatry, 
218; Prophecy, 395, 396. 

Fuller, F. W. — Popes, 388. 

Fundamentals, The, a series of four- 
teen small volumes of approximately 
125 pages each, printed in Chicago 
from 1912 to 1915, by the Testimony 
Publishing Company. These volumes 
were distributed gratuitously to pas- 
tors, evangelists, missionaries, theo- 
logical students, Sunday school super- 
intendents, and Y. M. C. A. secretaries, 
throughout the English-speaking world. 
The work was financed by " two in- 
telligent, consecrated Christian lay- 
men," because, as stated at the time, 
they believed that the time had come 
when a new statement of fundament- 
als of Christianity should be made. 
The same matter is now issued in four 
cloth-bound volumes by the Bible In- 
stitute, Los Angeles, Calif. — Advent. 
Second. 8, 9, 10, 11 ; Bible. 72, 80, 81. 
82 ; Daniel, 133 ; Spiritualism, 530. 

Funk, Dr. Franz Xavier (1840-1907). 
a German Roman Catholic priest, edu- 
cator, and author. — Celibacy, 107 ; 
Jesuits, 272. 

Future Punishment, Duration and Na- 
ture of (Constable). — Nature of Man, 
322. 

Gaebelein, Arno C, editor of Our Hope ; 
author of several expository works, 
and a well-known lecturer and plat- 
form speaker. — Daniel, 133. 

Gallery of Nature (Milner). — Falling- 
Stars, 163. 

Galloway, Joseph (1730-1803), a mem- 
ber of the first Continental Congress 
in 1774. He published several works 
on the prophecies. — French Revolu- 
tion, 175 ; Two Witnesses, 571, 573. 

Gamble, Samuel Walter (b. 1852), a 
Methodist clergyman, prominent in the 
defense of the Sunday institution as 
against the ancient Sabbath. His 
chief argument is based on a claim 
that Sunday is the original seventh 
day of the week. — Sunday, 534. 

Garnier, Jean (1612-81), a French Jes- 
uit ; author of several able works.— 
Babylon. 64 ; Bible, 74 ; Idolatry, 214, 
215, 216, 217 ; Priesthood, 392. 

Garrison, William Lloyd (1805-79). 
an American journalist, an able and 
forceful writer, and a fearless advo- 
cate of antislavery. — Sunday Laws, 
544. 

Gaussen, Francois Samuel Robert 
Louis (1790-1863), a Swiss Protest- 
ant theologian. His chief work was 
" Theopneustia : The Plenary Inspira- 
tion of the Holy Scriptures." — Canon. 
100, 101, 102 ; Little Horn, 289 ; 
Rome, 439. 



608 



AUTHORITIES CITED. 



Geddes, Alexander (1737-1802), a Scot- 
tish Roman Catholic priest, pastor, 
and author. He was deprived of his 
charge in 1779 for attending Presby- 
terian service, and when he died, mass 
was prohibited over his remains. — 
Sabbath, 468. 

Gelasius, Pope. — Ten Kingdoms, 555. 

Geieeman, Rev. Peter. — Sabbath, 
Change of, 475. 

Genealogy of Jesus., Study in (Bates). 

— Genealogy of Christ. 183. 
General Conference Bulletin (S. D. A.) 

— Advent, Second, 25. 

Genesis, Notes on (Bush). — Bible, 89; 
Sabbath, 458. 

Genesis, Sermons on (Luther). — Sab- 
bath, 460. 

Geographical Journal (London). — Mis- 
sions, 312. 

Geography, International (Mill). — In- 
crease of Knowledge, 225. 

Geography of Strabo. — Babylon, 59 ; 
Rome, 428. 

Gesenius, Justus (1601-73), the stand- 
ard Hebrew lexicographer, was a Luth- 
eran theologian. His chief importance, 
remarks the New Schaff-Herzog Ency- 
clopedia, " lies in the services he ren- 
dered in the production of good hym- 
nals and catechisms." — Nature of 
Man, 316, 318 ; Rome, 435 ; Sabbath, 
459, 464. 

Geschichte der Bohmischen Bruder. 

— Sabbath. 469. 

Gibbon, Edward (1737-94), a noted Eng- 
lish historian, known to fame almost 
wholly by his great work, " The His- 
tory of the Decline and Fall of the 
Roman Empire," one of the greatest 
histories ever written. — Isidorian De- 
cretals, 256 ; Paganism, 323 ; Papal 
Supremacy, 359, 360. 362 ; Rome, 426, 
427, 428, 434, 439, 452 ; Sabbath, 468 ; 
Sabbath, Change of, 473 ; Seven 
Churches, 490 ; Seven Seals, 496 ; 
Seven Trumpets, 500, 501, 502, 503. 
507, 510, 511, 512, 515, 516, 517; 
Ten Kingdoms, 551, 553. 

Gibbons, James Cardinal, D. D. (b. 
1834), an American Roman Catholic 
prelate ; author of " The Faith of Our 
Fathers," and " Our Christian Herit- 
age." — Health and Temperance, 199; 
Infallibility, 240, 244; Religious Lib- 
erty, 418; Sunday, 536. 

Gieseler, Johann Karl Ludwig (1792- 
1854), a German Protestant church 
historian and theologian ; professor of 
theology at Bonn and Gottingen. His 
principal work is the " Lehrbuch der 
Kirchengeschichte " (Textbook of 
Church History), of which the New 
Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia says it is 
" one of the most remarkable produc- 
tions of German learning, distin- 
guished by erudition, accuracy, and 
careful selection of passages." — Hil- 
debrand, Dictates of, 211. 

Gill, Thomas H. (b. 1819), an English 
clergyman, a Low Churchman, author 
of "The Papal Drama" (1866), "a 
historical work of much force and 



learning." — Council of Trent, 118 ; 
Reformation, 410 ; Seven Churches, 
493 ; Two Witnesses, 572. 

Gilson, Dr. A. E. — Health and Tem- 
perance, 201. 

Girondists, History of (Lamartine). — 
Papal Supremacy, 363. 

Gladstone, William Ewart, an eminent 
English statesman, orator, and author ; 
born Dec. 29, 1809 ; died May 19, 1898. 
He was for many years in public life, 
being much of the time a member of 
Parliament and thrice prime minister 
of Great Britain. — Bible, 73, 80 ; 
Councils, 123, 124 ; Increase of Knowl- 
edge, 225 ; Infallibility, 250 ; Papacv, 
343 ; Sabbath, Change of, 470. 

Gobel. — French Revolution, 174. 

Gondon, M., Letters to (Wordsworth). 

— Canon, 100, 101, 103; Creed of 
Pope Pius IV, 125; Pope, 379, 384, 
386 ; Popery, 388 ; Scriptures, 485 ; 
Tradition, 562, 563. 

Gondon, M., Sequal to Letters to 
(Wordsworth). — Antichrist, 31; Her- 
etics, 206. 

Goods, Rev. William, D. D., F. S. A., 
author of " The Divine Rule of Faith 
and Practice ; " or a defense of the 
Catholic (not Roman Catholic) doc- 
trine that the whole Scripture has 
been, since the times of the apostles, 
the sole divine rule of faith and prac- 
tice to the church. — Artaxerxes, 41 ; 
Babylon, 62 ; Idolatry, 218 ; Prophecy, 
395, 396 ; Seventy Weeks, 525. 

Goodspeed, George Stephen. — Greece, 
184, 185 ; Medo-Persia, 306 ; Rome, 
431, 432, 438. 

Goodwin, Thomas (1600-80), was or- 
dained a clergyman of the Established 
Church of England, but in 1633 he re- 
signed his pastorate and became an 
Independent. He was one of Oliver 
Cromwell's chief advisers, and at- 
tended the Protector on his deathbed. 

— Advent, Second, 10 ; Two Witnesses, 
570. 571. 

Gordon, Adoniram Judson, D. D. (1830- 
95), an American clergyman and au 
thor. — Advent, Second, 7, 8, 9, 14, 15. 

Gordon, S. D. (b. 1859), a well-known 
author of religious books, mostly 
" Quiet Talks " on various practical 
subjects ; since 1895 a much-sought 
and popular speaker on religious top- 
ics. — Advent, Second, 6 ; Nature of 
Man, 320. 

Gordon, William Robert, clergyman, 
born in New York City, March 19. 
1811. He held various pastorates, and 
the degree S. T. D. was conferred on 
him by Columbia in 1859. — Dark Dav. 
137 ; Spiritualism, 532. 

Gospel of Life in the Syriac New 
Testament (Pettingell ) . — Apostasy. 
37. 

Gospels, Notes on (Barnes). — Law of 
God, 283. 

Gosselin, M., director of the Seminary 
of St. Sulpice, Paris. His book, " The 
Power of the Pope," was first pub- 
lished in 1839. It was subsequently 



AUTHORITIES CITED. 



609 



translated into English by the Rev. 
Matthew Kelly, of St. Patrick's Col- 
lege. Mavnooth, Ireland, and published 
in London in 1853. — Heresy, 203 : 
Heretics, 209. 
Gothofred, Sir. — Papal Supremacy, 
358. 

Goths, Origin and Deeds of (Jordanes). 

— Seven Trumpets, 500, 504. 
Grant, Gen. Ulysses Simpson (1822- 

85). the chief leader of the Union 
armies in the Civil War, and subse- 
quently President of the United States 
for eight years. — Bible, 80 ; Eastern 
Question, 156 ; Religious Liberty, 418. 

Gratian, an Italian Benedictine monk, 
a native of Tuscany ; lived about 1125- 
60, and was the author of a work en- 
titled " Decretum," it being a collec- 
tion of the canons of the Roman Cath- 
olic Church. It was received with 
great favor by the Pope, and has been 
generally adopted by the Catholic col- 
leges. — Canon Law. 103, 104, 105 ; 
Forgeries. 171, 172 : Heretics, 204 ; 
Papacy, 342 ; Pope, 378, 386. 

Great and Memorable Events. — Dark 
Day, 140. 

Great Britain, Foreign Affairs of 
(Cargill). — Eastern Question, 151. 

Greatest English Classic. — Bible. 82. 

Greece, History of (Bury). — Greece. 
185. 

Greece. History of (Duruv). — Greece, 
1S8. 190. 

Greece, History of (Finlay). — Rome. 

457 ; Seven Trumpets, 510, 516. 
Greece, History of (Mvers). — Greece 

189. 

Greece., Story of (Harrison). — Greece, 
184. 

Greece under the Romans (Finlay). — 

Papal Supremacy, 356, 360. 
Greek Church. — Bible, 76. 
Greek Empire. Destruction of (Pears). 

— Seven Trumpets, 513, 516, 517. 
Greek Imperialism (Ferguson). — 

Greece, 191. 

Greenfield. — Nature of Man, 317, 321. 

Green, John Richard (1837-83), a 
noted English historian. Among his 
principal works are a " Short History 
of the English People," " The Making 
of England," " The Conquest of Eng- 
land."— Bible, 81. 

Greenland, First Crossing of (Nan- 
sen). — Health and Temperance, 199, 
200. 

Gregory, Daniel Seelye (b. 1832), an 
American clergyman, editor, and au- 
thor of numerous valuable works. — 
Eastern Question, 147. 

Gregory I, surnamed the Great (540- 
604), saint, doctor of the church, and 
Pope the last fourteen years of his 
life. He restored the monastic dis- 
cipline, enforced the rule of celibacy 
of the clergy, and displayed great zeal 
in propagating Latin Christianity. 
He was a prolific writer. — Antichrist. 
33 ; Bible, 78, 81 ; Bishop, 93, 94 : 



Papal Supremacy, 359 ; Mass. 298. 
299; Papacy, 335, 347-349; Sabbath, 
467; Seven Trumpets, 507. 
Gregory the Great, Life of (Dudden). 

— Papal Supremacy, 357 ; Seven 
Trumpets, 507. 

Gregory VII (Hildebrand) , (b. about 
1020, d. 1085), is styled by the Cath- 
olic Encyclopedia, " one of the great- 
est of the Roman Pontiffs, and one of 
the most remarkable men of all times." 

— Canon, 103 ; Celibacy, 106 ; Greg- 
ory VII, 196, 197; Hildebrand. Dic- 
tates of, 210, 211 ; Papacy, 331, 349- 
351; Pope, 382. 

Gregory the Great, Life of (Ville- 
main). — Pope, 385. 

Gregory IX (1145-1241), Pope from 
1227 to his death at the advanced 
age of ninety-six years. He made a 
collection of Decretals. — Heretics, 205. 
209 ; Oaths, 322 ; Pope, 379, 380, 386. 

Grey, Sir Edward (b. 1862), an English 
statesman, secretary of state for for- 
eign affairs, Great Britain, from 1905- 
1916. — Armageddon, 39. 

Grotius, Hugo (1585-1645), a Dutch 
publicist, statesman, historian, and 
theologian. — Sunday, 537. 

Guide to Knowledge, edited by Robert 
Sears. — Dark Day, 140. 

Guinness, H. Grattan, D. D., Fellow of 
the Royal Astronomical Society ; an 
English clergyman and writer, author 
of " The Approaching End of the Age," 
" Light for the Last Days," " Creation 
Centred in Christ," etc., all published 
by Hodder and Stoughton, London. 
The last-named work was issued in 
1896.— Advent, Second, 10, 13 ; Anti- 
christ, 31 ; Babylon. 53. 64, 65 : Bible. 
88 ; Creed of Pope Pins IV, 126 ; Dan- 
iel, 134 : Inquisition, 253 ; Law. Cere- 
monial. 281 ; Little Horn. 286 ; Pagan- 
ism, 327 ; Panacy, 327, 328. 329, 332 ; 
Persecution. 374, 375 ; Ptolemy's " Al- 
magest," 401 ; Ptolemy's Canon. 402, 
404; Reformation. 411; Revelation, 
421 ; Rome, 440 ; Ten Kingdoms. 551 ; 
Year-Day Principle, 587. 



Habershon, Matthew (b. 1821), an 
English author and historian. — Ad- 
vent, Second, 16 ; Seven Churches, 
488, 492; Seven Trumpets, 499, 500, 
512, 518. 

Hackett, Horatio Balch (1808-75), 
professor of Biblical literature in New- 
ton Theological Institution, 1839-69 ; 
in 1870 he became professor of New 
Testament Greek in Rochester (New 
York) Theological Seminary. — Sun- 
day, 533. 

Hagenbach, Dr. Karl Rudolph (1801- 
71), a German-Swiss church historian 
and Protestant theologian. — Diets. 
143 ; Indulgences, 239 ; Papacy. 340 : 
Protestantism, 400 : Rome, 440 ; Sac- 
raments, 480 ; Servetus, 486. 

Hague, Canon Dyson. — Bible, 72. 

Haldeman, Isaac Massey (b. 1845). 
American clergyman (Baptist), author 
of several books and many pamphlets 



610 



AUTHORITIES CITED. 



on religious subjects, among them be- 
ing, " The Coming of Christ," a pub- 
lication which reached five editions. 
— - Seven Churches, 493. 

Hales, Rev. William (1747-1831), an 
Irish clergyman and scientific author. 
Besides works on mathematics and the- 
ology, he wrote " A New Analysis of 
Chronology and Geography," in three 
volumes. — Antichrist, 28 : Artaxerxes, 
41, 42 ; Calendar, 95, 97 ; Nature of 
Man, 315 ; Ptolemy's Canon, 403 : 
Rome, 434 ; Seven Trumpets, 512 ; 
Seventy Weeks, 518, 524, 525, 526 : 
Twenty-three Hundred Days, 568, 569. 

Half-Hours with the Servants of 
God. — Inquisition, 253. 

Hall, Isaac Hollister (1837-96), an 
American philologist and Biblical 
scholar. — Bible, 86. 

Hall, Robert (1764-1831), a very pop- 
ular and forceful Baptist minister in 
England, whose published works were, 
in 1832, collected into six volumes, 
and were issued in both England and 
America. — Religious Liberty, 414. 

Hallam, Henry (1777-1859), an English 
historian and critic of great merit. — 
Isidorian Decretals, 255 ; Saints, 482 ; 
Seven Trumpets, 516. 

Hampton, N. H., History of Town of 
(Dorr). — Dark Day, 136. 

Hand of God in History (Spicer). — 
Artaxerxes, 39-41, 43. 

Hanly, J. Frank (b. 1863), ex-Governor 
of Indiana ; prohibition nominee for 
President in 1916 ; editor-in-chief of 
the National Enquirer, and president 
of the Pyling Squadron. — Health and 
Temperance, 199. 

Hansard, Luke 1752-1828). "an Eng- 
lish printer best known from his pub- 
lication of parliamentary reports. He 
printed the Journal of the House of 
Commons from 1774." — Private Judg- 
ment, 394. 

Harduin. — Ten Kingdoms, 555. 

Harmony of the Four Evangelists, 
Short View of (Whiston). — Seventy 
Weeks, 522. 

Harmony of the Gospels, Commentary 
on (Calvin). — Law of God, 284. 

Harper, Edward, editor of The Consti- 
tution, author of " Popery and Britain 
Betrayed," " Protestantism on Its 
Trial," both previous to 1861. the 
year of his epistolary discussion with 
Rev. Dr. Manning (Roman Catholic 
priest, and later Archbishop and Car- 
dinal), printed shortly thereafter in 
book form.— Idolatry, 219 ; Mass, 299. 

Harrison, J. A. (1848-1911), an Amer- 
ican writer, and author of a number 
of historical works. — Greece, 184. 

Hase, Karl August von (1800-90), a 
noted German Protestant theologian 
and church historian. — Infallibility, 
244, 245, 248; Justification, 279 ; Tra- 
dition, 558. 

Hastings, II. L. (d. 1915), an American 
scholar, author of " The Bible and Its 
Critics" (1858), "Reasons for My 



Hope" (1860). "A Greek-English 
Lexicon of the New Testament " 
(1896), besides numerous smaller 
works.— Bible, 70, 73, 83, 87, 88 ; 
Spiritualism, 532. 

Hastings, James, author of " A Diction- 
ary of the Bible," in several large vol- 
umes. — Seventy Weeks, 521, 522. 

Haydn, Joseph (d. 1856), an English 
author who published a " Dictionary 
of Dates and Universal Reference," 
also a " Hand-Book of Dignities." — 
Sunday, 536. 

Hearst's Magazine. — Signs of the Times, 
528. 

Hefele, Karl Joseph von (1809-93), a 
German Catholic ecclesiastic and 
church historian. He opposed the 
dogma of infallibility at the Vatican 
Council of 1870, but in 1871 submitted 
to the papal authority. — Councils, 119, 
120 ; Infallibilitv. 241 ; Sabbath, 
Change of, 471. 

Hell, Sight of (a Catholic Priest). — 
Nature of Man. 321. 

Hengstenberg. — Azazel, 44. 

Henry and Scott, editors of a " Com- 
mentary upon the Holy Bible."— Ad- 
vent, Second, 14. 

Henry Matthew (1662-1714), an emi- 
nent, non-conformist English divine. 
He published many sermons and theo- 
logical works, the most important of 
which is his " Commentary on the Old 
and New Testaments." 

Henry, Patrick (1736-99), a celebrated 
American orator and patriot. He was 
a devout believer in Christianity, but 
was not a member of any religious de- 
nomination. — Bible, 81- : Religious Lib- 
erty, 416, 417. 

Henry Patrick, Life of (Tyler). — Re- 
ligious Liberty, 417. 

Herbert. — Seven Churches, 494. 

Here and Hereafter (Smith). — Nature 
of Man. 316, 317, 318, 320, 321. 

Herodotus (484-424 b. c), the Greek 
historian known as " the Father of 
History." — Babylon, 46, 48, 51, 54. 
54; Medo-Persia, 310; Nature of Man. 
315. 

Herschel, Sir John Frederick Wil- 
liam (1792-1871), one of the foremost 
English astronomers and physicists. 
He produced a number of works, chief 
of which is " Results of Astronomical 
Observations Made 1834-38, at the 
Cape of Good Hope."— Bible, 81. 

Heylyn, Dr. Peter (1600-62), a prolific 
English writer ; author of " Life of 
Bishop Laud," " A Defense of the 
Church of England," besides theolog- 
ical and other works, more than fifty 
in number. — Sunday, 535, 538. 

Hilary, St. — Forgeries, 173 ; Religious 
Liberty, 412. 

Hildebrand. — See Gregory VII. 

Himes, Joshua V. — Advent, Second, 20, 
21 ; Robes, Ascension, 424, 425. 

Hippolytus (d. 236), a distinguished ec- 
clesiastical writer. At the beginning 



AUTHORITIES CITED. 



611 



of the third century he was a presby- 
ter, conspicuous for learning, eloquence, 
zeal, and moral earnestness. Greek 
was his native tongue. — Fathers. 1 68 ; 
Rome, 428. 
Hippolytus, Saint, and the Church 
of Rome (Wordsworth). — Infallibil- 
ity, 245. 

Hiscox, Dk. Edward T. — Sabbath, 
Change of, 474. 

Hislop, Rev. Alexander, a clergyman 
of the Free Church of Scotland. His 
most important work, " The Two 
Babylons," passed through several edi- 
tions, the fourth of which was pub- 
lished in London in 1907, several years 
after the death of the author. — Baby- 
lon, 63, 64, 66 ; Popery, 389 ; Purga- 
tory, 405 ; Revelation, 423 ; Seven 
Churches, 491. 

Historians' History of the World, 
edited by Henry Smith Williams, as- 
sisted by a board of distinguished ad- 
visers and contributors. Published in 
1905 in twenty-five volumes, by The 
Outlook Company, New York, and the 
Historical Association, London. — 
Babylon, 46 ; Hittites, 211 ; Medo- 
Persia, 311 ; Papal Supremacy, 369 ; 
Rome, 455. 

Historical Connection of Old and 
New Testaments (Prideaux). — Sev- 
enty Weeks, 520, 521. 

Historical Library (Diodorus). — 
Greece, 188, 189. 

Historical Studies (Lawrence).- — 
Gregory VII, 196 : Inquisition. 253 ; 
Jesuits, 268, 272 ; Papacy, 36, 340. 

Histories of Polybius. — - Rome, 427. 

History (Marcellinus) . — Rome, 438. 

History, Ancient (Rollin). — Rome. 
428, 430. 

History, General (Myers). — Greece. 
187, 188, 191 ; Medo-Persia, 305 : 
Rome, 431, 432, 433, 436 : Ten Tribes. 
556. 

History, Medieval and Modern (My- 
ers). — Interdict, 254; Magna Charta, 
292 ; Monasticism, 314 ; Papacy, 336. 

History, Medieval, Cambridge (Bury). 

— Rome, 439. 
History of All Nations (Pflugk-Hart- 

tung). — Papal Supremacy, 361 ; Rome, 

443. 

History of the Ancient World (Bots- 
ford).— Greece, 188, 189. 

History of the Ancient World (Good- 
speed). — Greece, 184, 185; Medo- 
Persia, 306 ; Rome. 41, 432, 438. 

History of the World (Justin). — 
Greece, 187. 

History of the World (Ridpath). — 
French Revolution, 180 ; Jerusalem, 
258, 264 ; Rome, 426, 442, 444, 445- 
449, 451, 454, 455. 

History, Universal (Bossuet). — Sev- 
enty Weeks, 518, 523. 

History, Universal (Weber). — Ten 
Kingdoms, 553. 



Hobart Church News, a Church of Eng- 
land weekly, printed in Hobart, Tas- 
mania. — Sunday, 536. 

IIobbes. Thomas (1588-1679), a cele- 
brated English philosopher whose 
moral and political works were first 
collected in 1750. — Papacy, 334; Pa- 
pal Supremacy, 355. 

Hobbs, William Herbert, an American 
geologist. He held professorships at 
the University of Wisconsin and the 
University of Michigan, and was con- 
nected with the United States Geolog- 
ical Survey. — Earthquakes, 145. 

Hobson, Hon. Richmond P. (b. 1870), a 
graduate of the United States Naval 
Academy, and of the Southern Uni- 
versity, 1906 ; member of the 60th, 
61st, and 62d Congresses, elected from 
Alabama.— Health and Temeprance, 
197, 198. 

Hodge, Charles (1797-1878), an Amer- 
ican Presbyterian theologian ; profes- 
sor in Princeton Theological Seminary. 
His chief work was " Systematic The- 
ology." — Bible, 84. 

Hodges, Archibald Alexander (1823- 
86), an American Presbyterian clergy- 
man, author, and theologian ; profes- 
sor of didactic and polemic theology at 
Princeton Theological Seminary- His 
chief works are " Outlines of Theol- 
ogy," " The Atonement," and " Manual 
of Forms."— Sabbath, 460. 

Hodges, Col. G. Lloyd, British consul- 
general in Cairo, Egypt, in 1840. — 
Eastern Question, 153, 154, 159, 160. 

Hodgkin, Thomas (b. 1831), a British 
historian, reared and educated as a 
member of the Society of Friends. His 
principal work, " Italy and Her Invad- 
ers," is recognized as an authority 
second to none. — Papal Supremacy. 
360, 362 ; Rome, 443, 449 ; Seven 
Trumpets, 504. 

Hoe. Richard March (1812-86), an 
American inventor, son of Robert Hoe 
(1784-1833). He was the inventor of 
the Hoe printing press, further im- 
proved under the name of the Hoe Web 
Perfecting Press. — Increase of Knowl- 
edge, 233. 

IIOENSBROECH, COUNT PAUL VON. JeS- 

uits, 265, 267, 270, 271, 272. 
Holiest of All (Murray). — Priesthood. 
393. 

Holland, Hezekiah. — Seven Trumpets, 
514. 

Holtzman, Dr. Heinrich Julius (b. 
1832), a leading German university 
professor and author. One of his best- 
known works, " Kanon unci Tradition/' 
was published in Basle in 1859.- — 
Sabbath, Change of, 477 ; Tradition, 
560. 

Holy Roman Empire (Bryce). — Holy 

Roman Empire, 211, 212 ; Papacy. 350 ; 

Pope, 385 ; Religious Liberty. 413 ; 

Two Witnesses, 578. 
Holy Sacrifice of the Mass (Vaughn). 

— Mass. 297. 
Holy Scripture, On Inspiration of 

(Wordsworth). — Canon, 98, 99, 101, 

103. 



612 



AUTHORITIES CITED. 



Holy Scriptures, Canon of (Gaussen). 

— Canon, 100, 101, 102. 

Holy Scriptures, Introduction to 
Study of (Home). — Bible, 87 ; Canon, 
98. 

Homiletic Review. — Protestantism, 399 ; 
Sunday Laws, 539. 

Homilies (Chrysostom). — Antichrist, 
33 ; Bible, 78. 

Homilies of the Church of England, 
a collection of sermons issued by the 
Church of England with the title, 
" The Two Books of Homilies Ap- 
pointed to be Read in Churches." — 
Antichrist, 35; Mass, 297. 

Hooper, John (1495-1553), an English 
bishop, reformer, and martyr ; author 
of a number of theological works. — 
Antichrist, 34. 

Hope of Israel. — Advent, Second, 23. 

Horace, Quintus Horatius Flaccus 
(65-8 b. c), a famous Roman lyric 
poet. — Rome, 427. 

HoRiB Apocalyptic^, by E. B. Elliott, 
vicar of Tuxford, and Fellow of Trin- 
ity College, Cambridge. — Advent, Sec- 
ond, 11 ; Antichrist, 35 ; Easter, 147 ; 
Papal Supremacy, 356, 358, 363, 364, 
365 ; Revelation, 419, 420, 422 ; Rome, 
435 ; Seven Churches, 487 ; Seven 
Trumpets, 500, 502, 503, 505, 506, 
508, 509, 511, 513, 515; Ten King- 
doms, 551, 554, 555, 556; Two Wit- 
nesses, 576 ; Year-Day Principle, 586. 

Horne, Thomas Hartwell (1780-1862), 
an English Biblical scholar, whose 
chief work, " Introduction to the Crit- 
ical Study and Knowledge of the Holy 
Scriptures," was published in 1818. 

— Bible, 87; Canon, 98. 

Horton, Rev. Robert Forman (b. 1855). 
an English clergyman and author. 
Among his works are : " History of the 
Romans," " Inspiration and the Bible," 
" The Book of Proverbs," " The Teach- 
ing of Jesus," " The Apostles' Creed." 
" The Four Pillars of the Home," 
"Great Issues" (1909), "The Hero 
of Heroes" (1911).— Bible, 72. 

Hosius, Cardinal (257-359), bishop of 
Cordova, Spain. He was a leader of 
the orthodox or Catholic party, and a 
champion of Athanasius as against the 
Arians. — Bible, 85 ; Tradition, 563. 

Hostiensis. — Temporal Power of the 
Pope, 549. 

House of Seleucus (Bevan). — Greece. 
189. 

How Christ Came to Church (Gor- 
don). — Advent, Second, 9. 

Hughes, Thomas Patrick. — Eastern 
Question, 156. 

Humboldt, Friedrich Heinrich Alex- 
ander von (1796-1859), a celebrated 
German scientist and author. Some of 
his works show great research. — In- 
crease of Knowledge, 223. 

Humphrey, Heman (1779-1859), an 
American divine. — Sabbath, 464. 

Humphreys, Dr. — Falling Stars, 163. 

Hunter, Thomas. — Earthquakes, 146. 



Hurlbut, Rev. Jesse Lyman (b. 1843). 
a Methodist Episcopalian minister. 
Since 19U4 he has held a pastorate in 
New Jersey. He has been active in 
Chautauqua work, and was one of the 
founders of the Epworth League. Be- 
sides writing several books, he has pre- 
pared numerous volumes on Sunday 
school lessons. — Greece, 191. 

Huss, John (1369-1415), a celebrated 
Bohemian religious Reformer ; burned 
at Constance, Baden, July 6, 1415. — 
Church, 111, 112 ; Servetus, 486. 

Hussey, Robert (1801-56), an English 
scholar, clergyman, and university 
professor; Regius professor of eccle- 
siastical history at Oxford from 1842. 
— Papacy, 330, 331, 333, 335. 

Hutton, William Holden (b. 1860), a 
clergyman of the Church of England, 
fellow and tutor of St. John's College, 
Oxford, later lecturer in ecclesiastical 
history at Trinity College ; author of 
numerous able works. — Papal Suprem- 
acy, 364 ; Seven Trumpets, 517. 



Ideal Catolico, El. — Mass, 296. 

Idolatry Practised in the Church of 
Rome, Discourse Concerning (Stil- 
ingfleet). — Mass, 298. 

Ignatius of Loyola. — Celibacy, 106 ; 
Church, 113 ; Jesuits, 264. 

Immaculate Conception (Ullathorne) . 
— Immaculate Conception, 221. 

Impregnable Rock of Holy Scripture 
(Gladstone). — Bible, 73, 80. 

Independent, The (established in 1848), 
one of the leading weeklies, not only 
of this country, but of the world. — 
Advent, Second, 26. 

Index Librorum Expurgatorum. — Cen- 
sorship of Books, 108. 

Index Librorum Prohibitorum. — Cen- 
sorship of Books, 108, 109. 

Indiana General Assembly Protest 
Regarding Sunday Mails. — Sunday 
Laws, 542, 543. 

Infallibility of the Church (Sal- 
mon).— Bible, 74; Galileo, 181; Gal- 
licanism, 181, 182 ; Infallibility, 244, 
245, 246; Tradition, 559, 561. 

Inglis, Sir Robert, a member of the 
English knighthood, and one of the 
leading scientists of the first half of 
the nineteenth century. — Increase of 
Knowledge, 230. 

Innes, A. Taylor, a Scotch advocate 
and writer ; author of " The Law of 
Creeds in Scotland," " Church and 
State, a Historical Hand-Book," etc. 
His " Church and State " is without 
date, but the book itself reveals the 
fact that it was written during the in- 
cumbency of Leo XIII, which ended in 
1903. — Pope, 382; Reformation, 407. 

Innocent III (1161-1216), Pope from 
1198 to 1216. During his pontificate 
the papal power attained its greatest 
height. — Confession, 117; Inquisition, 
252 ; Magna Charta, 292 ; Papacy, 337, 
338, 351-353; Persecution, 373; Tem- 
poral Power of the Pope, 549. 



AUTHORITIES CITED. 



613 



Innocent IV (d. 1254), Pope from 1243 
to 1254. — Persecution, 372. 

Inquisition, The (Yacaudard). — Reli- 
gious Liberty, 412. 

Inspiration and the Bible (Horton). — 
Bible, 72. 

Inspiration of Holt Scripture, On 
the (Wordsworth). — Canon, 98, 99, 
101, 103. 

INSTITUTIONES JURIS ECCLESIASTICI 

Publici (Luca). — Heretics, 208. 

Intellectual Development op Europe, 
History of (Draper). — Confession, 
117 ; Galileo, 180 ; Idolatry. 219 ; 
Magna Charta, 291 ; Papacy, 331, 335. 
338 ; Persecution, 373 ; Sabbath, 
Change of, 472 ; Seven Churches, 490 ; 
Sunday Laws, 539. 

Inter-Ocean. — Sunday Laws, 544. 

Interpretation, History of (Farrar). 
— Fathers, 169. 

Introduction to the Critical Study 
and Knowledge of the Holy Scrip- 
tures (Home). — Bible, 87; Canon, 
98. 

Inventions, "Wonderful (Timbs). — In- 
crease of Knowledge, 226, 227, 228. 

Iren.eus, Saint, bishop of Lyons ; a 
Christian martyr in the second cen- 
tury. — Easter, 147 ; Fathers, 169 ; 
Mass, 300. 

Irvingism, History and Doctrines of 
(Miller). — Advent, Second, 16. 

Isaacson, Rev. Charles Stuteville, 
English clergyman, rector of Harding- 
ham, and sometime Fellow of Clare 
College, Cambridge ; author of " Roads 
from Rome," " Rome in Many Lands," 
" Roads to Christ," " Our Brief 
Against Rome," tbe latter work being 
published in 1905. — Jesuits, 274 : 
Pope, 384. 

Islam, Future of (Blunt). — Eastern 

Question, 157. 
Islamism (Neale). — Seven Trumpets. 

513. 

Italy (Forsyth). — Paganism, 326. 
Italy and Her Invaders (Hodgkin). — 

Papal Supremacy, 360, 362 ; Rome, 

443, 449. 

Tvanovitch, M. R. — Eastern Question, 
148. 



Jacobatius on the Councils. — Pope, 
387. 

Jacobinism, Memoirs Illustrating His- 
tory of (Burruel). — Two Witnesses. 
572. 

•Talalan. — Eastern Question, 156. 

Janus, a pseudonym used at one time by 
Dbllinger, q. v. 

Jastrow, Morris, Jr. (b. 1861), pro- 
fessor of Semitic languages, and libra- 
rian of the University of Pennsylva- 
nia ; author of several valuable works. 
— Babylon, 49. 

Jeans, W. F. — Increase of Knowledge, 
230. 

Jefferson, Thomas (1743-1836), an 
eminent American statesman, author 



of the Declaration of Independence, 
and third President of the United 
States. The book, " The Writings of 
Thomas Jefferson," was compiled from 
manuscripts purchased by Congress 
after his death, and published in 1853- 
55.— Bible, 81 ; Religious Liberty, 416, 
418. 

Jefferson, Thomas, Life of (Parton). 
— ■ Religious Liberty, 417. 

Jenkins, Rev. Robert Charles (b. 
1815), an English clergyman, author 
of " Bullum IneffaUUs " (1867), "Can- 
terbury" (1880), "Heraldry, Eng- 
lish and Foreign" (1886). — Idolatry. 
216; Tradition, 559, 561; Transub- 
stantiation, 567. 

Jenks, Rev. William (1778-1866), one 
of the founders of the American Ori- 
ental Society ; editor of two commen- 
taries, which were very extensively 
sold. — Azazel, 43 ; Seven Churches, 
487. 

Jeremias. — Babylon, 59. 

Jerome, Saint (340-420), one of the 
Latin Church Fathers, and for a time 
secretary to Pope Damasus. — Anti- 
christ, 33 ; Babylon, 61, 62 ; Bible, 74 ; 
Daniel, 133 ; Priesthood, 391 ; Sacra- 
ments, 477 ; Servetus, 486 ; Seven 
Trumpets, 502, 506 : Tradition, 561. 

Jessup, Henry Harris (1832-1910), Pres- 
byterian. In theology he was Calvin- 
istic, according to the Revised Confes- 
sion of Faith of his church. He wrote 
several books. — Falling Stars, 167. 

Jesuits. History of (Nicolini). — Jes- 
uits, 274. 

Jesus, Study in Genealogy of (Bates). 

— Genealogy of Christ, 183. 

Jewel, John (1522-71), bishop of Salis- 
bury. His complete works were col- 
lected under the direction of Arch- 
bishop Bancroft and published in 1609. 

— Antichrist, 35. 

Jewish and Heathen Testimonies 

(Lardner). — Daniel, 133. 
Jews, History of (Mears). — Jerusalem, 

262. 

Johnson, Franklin (b. 1836), Baptist. 
From 1892 he was for some years pro- 
fessor of church history and homiletics 
in the University of Chicago, and 
wrote several books. — Sunday, 537. 

Johnston, Howard Agnew (b. I860), 
an American clergyman ; from 1899 to 
1905 he was pastor of Madison Ave- 
nue Church, New York City ; author of 
" Bible Criticism and the Average 
Man," and other works. — Bible, 74, 
81. 

Johnston, Sir Henry Hamilton (b. 
1858), an English traveler. He held 
several consulships in Africa, and in 
1891 was made consul-general for 
British CentraT Africa. He wrote sev- 
eral books. — Missions, 312. 

Jones, H. Stuart (b. 1867), an English 
scholar and historian ; author of The 
Roman Empire" (1908), "Companion 
to Roman History," " Select Passages 
from Ancient Writers" (1895), "A 
Catalogue of Ancient Sculptures " 



614' 



AUTHORITIES CITED. 



(1912), etc.— Sabbath, Change of, 
472. 

•Tones, Mary. — Increase of Knowledge, 
233. 

Jordan, Camille (1771-1821), a French 
politician ; author of a history and sev- 
eral other works. — Two Witnesses, 
574, 575. 

.Tordanes, the historian of the Gothic 
nation, who wrote about the middle 
of the sixth century. — Rome, 450 ; 
Seven Trumpets, 500, 504. 

.Tort in, John (1698-1770), an English 
church historian and critic. Among 
his works are " Life of Erasmus " and 
" Sermons and Charges." — Saints. 
, 481. 

Josephus, Flavius (a, d. 37-95). the 
most celebrated Jewish historian. His 
most important works are : " History 
of the Jewish Wars," " The Antiqui- 
ties of the Jews," " Against Apion," 
and " A Discourse on the Martyrdom 
of the Maccabees."- — -Advent, First, 6; 
Babylon, 50-58 : Calendar, 96 ; Canon, 
98 ; Daniel, 131. 133 : Jerusalem, 258. 
259, 261, 262. 263, 264 ; Jewish League. 
276 ; Medo-Persia. 308 : Ptolemv"s 
Canon, 403 ; Sabbath, 459 ; Severity 
Weeks, 522, 523, 524. 

Journal des Debats. — Increase of 
Knowledge, 226. 

Journal of the House of Delegates of 
Virginia. — Religious Liberty, 415. 

Joye, George.—-- Sabbath, Change of. 
474. 

Jurieu, Pierre (1637-1713), a French 
Protestant divine ; author of a num- 
ber of scholarly works. — Increase of 
Knowledge, 221, 224 ; Seven Churches, 
487 ; Seven Trumpets, 510. 514, 515 : 
Two Witnesses, 571, 574, 576. 

Jus Decretalium. — Jesuits, 271. 

Justin, Junianus Justinus. — Greece. 
187. 

Justinian. — Heretics. 209. 

Justin Martyr (about 103-165), one of 
the earliest apologists of Christianity. 
Originally a pagan, he later embraced 
Christianity, for the defense of which, 
and his opposition to paganism, he is 
said to have been martyred in Rome 
under Marcus Aurelius. — Mass, 298, 
300. 

Keenan, Rev. Stephen, a Catholic 
priest ; author of a catechism much 
used in Roman Catholic schools. — In- 
fallibility, 242 ; Sabbath. Change of. 
475. 

Keil,, Johann Friedrich Karl (1807- 
88), a German Protestant exegete. 
After spending a number of years as 
professor of Old and New Testament 
exegesis and Oriental languages at 
Dorpat, he withdrew and devoted him- 
self to literary work. — Azazel, 44; 
French Revolution, 177. 

Keith, Rev. Alexander (1791-1880), a 
Scottish clergyman, author of several 
works on prophecy. In 1843 he gave 
up his connection with the Established 
fhurch. and helped to found the Free 



Church of Scotland. — Advent. Second. 
15 ; French Revolution. 178 ; Papal Su- 
premacy, 364, 365 ; Seven Trumpets, 
514 ; Two Witnesses, 576. 

Kelber, Leonard Heinrich. — Advent, 
Second, 16. 

Kelley, Dr. Howard A. — Bible, 81. 

Kenrick, Peter Richard (1806-96). 
was ordained a priest in 1832. In 
1833 he went to Philadelphia, where 
he was made rector of the Catholic 
Theological Seminary, and filled other 
important offices in the diocese until 
he was made coadjutor bishop of St. 
Louis in 1841. He was made arch- 
bishop in 1847. — Infallibility, 241. 

Kentucky Citizens' Protest Regard- 
ing Sunday Mails. — Sunday Laws. 
543. 

Kenyon, Frederic G. (b. 1863), has 
been connected with the British Mu- 
seum since 1889. He is author of a 
number of valuable books. His "Hand- 
book to the Textual Criticism of the 
New Testament " was published in 
1901. — Bible, 87. 90. 

Key to Open the Main Lock of Proph- 
ecy (Guinness). — Advent, Second, 10, 
13. 

Killen, William Dool (1806-1902), an 
Irish Presbyterian ; professor of eccle- 
siastical history in Belfast ; author of 
" Plea of Presbytery." " Ancient 
Church," " Old Catholic Church." " Ec- 
clesiastical History of Ireland," etc. — 
Apostasy, 35, 36 : Decretal Letters, 
143; Fathers, 169; Sabbath, 465. 

King, Charles (b. 1844), an American 
soldier, officer (brigadier-general), and 
author. — Eastern Question, 148. 

King, Henry Melville, clergyman ; in- 
structor of Hebrew in Newton Theolog- 
ical Institution from 1862 to 1863 ; 
pastor of churches in Boston, Albany, 
and Providence : author of " Early 
Baptists Defended," " Why We Believe 
the Bible," " Religions Liberty," also 
numerous pamphlets and contributions 
to the Baptist Quarterly Review. — 
Religious Liberty, 413. 

King, L. W. (b. 1869), an English arche- 
ologist. He wrote largely on Babylo- 
nian and Assyrian subjects ; author of 
" Studies in Eastern History," etc. — 
Babylon, 54. 

KixcsburY; Harmon. — Sabbath, 464. 
465. 

Kismet, or the Doom of Turkey i(Mac- 
Farlane). — Eastern Question, 157. 

Kitto, John ( 18' '4-54 ) . an English com- 
piler ; author of the " Pictorial Bible." 
" Pictorial History of Palestine an.d 
the Holy Land," " Daily Bible Illus 
trations," etc. — Nature of Man, 316: 
Sabbath, 460 ; Sunday. 533. 

Kneeland, Samuel (1821-88), author of 
" The Philippine Islands," " Volca- 
noes and Earthquakes," " The Won- 
ders of the Yosemite Valley," " Annual 
of Scientific Discovery." — Earth- 
quakes, 145. 

Knowing the Scriptures (Pierson). — 
Bible, 72, 80, 82, 85, 87. 



AUTHORITIES CITED. 



615 



Knox, John (1505-72). a celebrated 
Scottish Reformer, statesman, and 
writer. — Advent, Second. 9, 12: Ref- 
ormation, 411. 

Koldeway, Robebt. — Babylon. 4S. 6o. 

Kbautheimeb. — Infallibility. 242. 

Krummacher. Fbiedrich Wilhelm 
(1796-1868). was a theological student 
" at Halle and Jena. A sermon preached 
by him on Galatians 1:9. in 1840, at 
the church of St. Ansgar in Bremen, 
under the title, " Paul Not a Man to 
Suit the Taste of Our Age." occasioned 
the Bremen Controversy, which ex- 
tended for several years and called 
forth numerous treatises. — Advent. 
Second, 14. 

Kyle. John Merrill (b. 1856). a Pres- 
byterian clergyman, and missionary 
to Brazil, S. A., 1882-87 ; missionary 
to the Portuguese in Lowell. Mass.. 
since 1909. — Protestantism. 397. 



Lab-be and Cossart, French Jesuits, and 
authors of a " History of the Coun- 
cils." Philippe Labbe (1607-67) was 
a voluminous writer ; he is chiefly 
known at the present time by his valu- 
able work on Latin pronunciations, en- 
titled " Eruditce Pronuntiationis Ca- 
tholici Indices/' and the " History of 
the Councils," planned by him and 
completed after his death by Cossart. 

— Church, 111 ; Heretics. 205 : Jes- 
uits. 266 ; Pope. 377. 379 : Tradition. 
561. 

Laborer and Capitalist (Willev). — 
Signs of the Times. 527. 

Lactantius, Lucius Coslius Firmianus 
(d. 25). an eloquent Latin Father who 
flourished in the third and fourth cen- 
turies, and is supposed to have been 
a native of Africa. He is reputed to 
have been the most -eloquent and pol- 
ished of the Christians of that period. 

— Antichrist. 32 ; Apostasv. 37 : Edict 
of Milan, 160. 

L\cunza (Ben Ezra), (1731-1801). born 
at Santiago, Chili. He was educated in 
the college of the Jesuits, and became a 
member of that order. When the Jes- 
uits were expelled from Chili, Lacunza 
found refuge in Italy, where he died, 
leaving behind him the manuscript of 
his only work, a commentary '•' La Te- 
nida del Mesias en Gloria y Majesty.'' 
In 1816 a complete edition of this work, 
in four octavo volumes, was published 
in London by the diplomatic agent of 
the republic of Buenos Aires. It was 
subsequently published " under the au- 
thority of the Spanisb church." as 
Rev. Mr. Irving, the English trans- 
lator remarks, " at a time when the 
Spanish press was known to be free." 

— Advent, Second. 15. 
Lainez. — Papacy. 343. 

Lamartine. Alphonse de (1790-1869). 
a French poet and prose writer. He 
published volumes on the most varied 
subjects, — history, criticism, personal 
confidences, and literary conversations. 
The most famous of his prose works 
was the " History of the Girondists " 



1847). — Papal Supremacy, 363; Two 
Witnesses, 572. 

Lamentation for the Change of Re- 
ligion (Ridley). — Advent. Second. 12. 

Lane. — Babylon. 58. 

Lane-Poole. Stanley (b. London, 1854), 
an English historian and archeologist. 
professor of Arabic at Trinity College, 
Dublin, 1889-1904, and subsequently 
employed in government service. He 
has published many volumes covering 
a wide range of subjects, most of them 
relating, however, in some way to East- 
ern research. — Eastern Question, 154. 

Lanfrey, Pierre. Eastern Question, 149. 

Lang. Andrew (b. 1844), a Scottish mis- 
cellaneous writer, and author of nu- 
merous works. He also translated the 
Odyssey and the Iliad. — Sabbath. 467. 

Langdon. — Babylon. 56. 

Lange, Dr. Johann Peter (1802-84). a 
prominent German divine and author. 
Among his most important works are 
•' The Life of Jesus," " Christian Dog 
matic," "The History of the Church," 
and the great " Commentary " bear- 
ing his name. — Nature of Man, 316 ; 
Sabbath, 458, 460. 

Langley, Prof. Samuel Pierpont (1834- 
1906), an American scientist; pro- 
fessor of astronomy in the Western 
University of Pennsylvania in 1867. 
•In 1887 he was appointed secretary 
of the Smithsonian Institution at 
Washington. D. C, where he engaged 
in making experiments pertaining to 
mechanical flight. — Falling Stars. 167. 

Lardner, Dionysus (1793-1859), an 
English clergyman and scientific writ- 
er. He is noted chiefly as a popular- 
izer of science. — Daniel, 133; In- 
crease of Knowledge. 26 : Seventy 
Weeks, 521. 522. 

Lares and Penates (Barker). — Baby- 
lon, 67. 

Larking, Consul. — Eastern Question. 
159. 

Last Days. Light foe the (Guinness). 
— Babylon. 53 ; Ptolemy's "Almagest " 
401 ; Ptolemy's Canon, 402. 

Lasteyrie, Count C. P. de. — Indul- 
gences, 239. 

Later Gleanings (Gladstone). — Sab- 
bath. Change of, 470. 

Latimer, Hugh (1485-1555). a cele- 
brated English prelate and Reformer. 
He was excommunicated from the Ro- 
man Catholic Church April 20. 1555, 
and was burned with Ridley October 
16 of the same year. — Advent, Second 
12 : Antichrist, 34. 

Law, Perpetuity of (Spurgeon). — Law 
of God, 281. 

Lawrence, Dr. Edward. — Increase of 
Knowledge, 225. 

Lawrence, Eugene (1823-94), an Amer- 
ican; author of "Historical Studies" 
and several other works. — Gregory 
VII, 196 ; Inquisition, 253 ; Jesuits. 
268. 272 ; Papacy, 336, 340. 

Layaed, Sie Austin Heney (1817-94). 
an English archeologist and diplomat- 



616 



AUTHORITIES CITED. 



ist, noted for his archeological discov- 
eries in Asiatic Turkey. His several 
works are highly esteemed. — Babylon, 
59. 

Lea, Henry Charles (1825-1909), an 
American publisher and author. 
Among his principal works are " A 
Historical Sketch of Sacerdotal Celi- 
bacy in the Christian Church," and 
" History of the Inquisition of the 
Middle Ages." — Magna Charta, 292 ; 
Papacy, 327 ; Pope, 379, 383. 

Leathes, Rev. Stanley (1830-1900), in 
1863 professor of Hebrew in King's 
College, London ; member of the com- 
pany of Old Testament revisers in 
1870, and examiner in Scripture to the 
University of London after 1892. — 
Seventy Weeks, 519. 

Lecky, William Edward Hartpole 
(1838-1903), a British philosopher, 
best known, perhaps, by his " History 
of the Rise and Influence of the Spirit 
of Rationalism in Europe." — Inquisi- 
tion, 252 ; Persecution, 373 ; Seven 
Churches, 489. 

Lectures (Marsh). — Tradition, 562. 

Leech, Rev. Samuel V. (b. 1837), a 
Methodist clergyman and author. He 
held important pastorates at Martins- 
burg, W. Va. ; Annapolis and Balti- 
more, Md. ; and Albany, N. Y. — Sun- 
day Laws, 540. 

Legal Sunday (Ringgold). — Sunday 
Laws, 541. 

Leo I, called the Great ; Pope from 440 
to 461. — Papacy, Builders of, 344- 
347. 

Leo IX (1002-54), chosen Pope at the 
Diet of Worms in 1048. — Greek 
Church, 195. 

Leo XII (b. 1760), Pope from 1828 to • 
1829.— Babylon, 65 ; Bible, 76. 

Leo XIII (1810-1903), Pope from 1878 
to 1903. Gioacchino Pecci was cre- 
ated cardinal by Pius IX in 1853, and 
remained in charge of his diocese until 
1878, when, on the death of Pius IX, 
he was elected Pope and took the name 
of Leo XIII.— Bible, 74 ; Pope, 377. 

Leonard, Rev. Delevan Levant (b. July 
20, 1834), Congregationalist ; associ- 
ate editor of the Missionary Review of 
the World since 1893. — Increase of 
Knowledge, 232. 

LepicieRj Alexius M. — Heretics, 207, 
208; Pope, 382. 

Lessing. — Tradition, 560. 

Le Strange. — Eastern Question, 157. 

Lewis, Abram Herbert (1838-1909), a 
Seventh Day Baptist clergyman, col- 
lege professor, and author ; for many 
years editor of the Sabbath Recorder, 
the organ of the Seventh Day Baptist 
denomination. — Sabbath, 466 ; Sun- 
day Laws, 539, 540. 

Lexicon, Analytical Greek (Bagster). 
— Nature of Man, 317. 

Lexicon, Critical (Bullinger) . — Na- 
ture of Man, 317, 318. 

Lexicon, Greek (Parkhurst). — Nature 
of Man, 318. 



Lexicon, Greek-English (Liddell and 
Scott), one of the standard Greek lexi- 
cons, and perhaps the most widely 
known and most popular of them all. 

— Baptism, 69 ; Nature of Man, 321 ; 
Sunday, 534. 

Lexicon, Greek-English (Dunbar). — 
Baptism, 69. 

Lexicon of Greek and Byzantine Pe- 
riods (Sophocles). — Baptism, 69. 

Lexicon, Hebrew and Greek (Gesenius). 

— Sabbath, 459. 

Lexicon of the New Testament, 
Greek-English (Grimm's Wilke). — 
Baptism, 69. 

Lexicon of the New Testament, Greek 
(Robinson). — Nature of Man, 318. 

Library of Christian Doctrine. — Sab- 
bath, Change of, 476. 

Library, Loeb's Classical. — Seven 
Churches, 490. 

Library of Original Sources. — Edict 
of Milan, 161. 

Library of Translations (Gosselin). 

— Heresy, 203 ; Heretics, 209. 
Library of Universal History (Smith), 

complete in ten volumes, published by 
Alden Brothers, New York, in 1906. — 
Eastern Question, 148 ; French Revo- 
lution, 175. 

Library, Second Advent. — Seven 
Churches, 493 ; Two Witnesses, 572. 

Liddon, H. P. (1829-90), an English 
High Church clergyman, celebrated as 
a preacher. He was author of a num- 
ber of published sermons and other 
religious works. — Isidorian Decretals, 
256. 

Lightfoot, Bishop Joseph Barber 
(1828-1889), an English ecclesiastic 
and scholar. He was the author of 
several commentaries ; and five volumes 
of sermons, essays, and notes have 
been published since his deaths — Bap- 
tism, 67 ; Seventy Weeks, 525. 

Light for the Last Days (Guinness). 

— Babylon, 53 ; Ptolemy's "Almagest," 
401 ; Ptolemy's Canon, 402. 

Light on Prophecy. — Advent, Second, 
26. 

Light on the Old Testament from 
Babel (Clay). — Babylon, 57. 

LlGUORI (LlGORIO), ALFONSUS MARIA Dl 

(1696-1787), a Neapolitan of good fam- 
ily, one of the greatest Roman Catholic 
writers of the eighteenth century, and 
founder of the Congregation of the Re- 
demptorists. His works, the most im- 
portant of which is his " Theologia 
M oralis," was published in forty-two 
volumes. — Canon Law, 105 ; Infalli- 
bility, 247 ; Jesuits, 270 ; Papacy, 343 ; 
Priesthood, 391 ; Syllabus of Errors, 
547. 

Lincoln, Abraham (1809-65), an Amer- 
ican statesman and national hero, six- 
teenth President of the United States. 

— Bible, 81 ; Health and Temperance, 
198. 

Lincoln, Abraham, Latest Light on 
(Chapman). — Health and Temper- 
ance, 198. 



AUTHORITIES CITED. 



617 



Lindsay, Thomas M. (1843-1914), au- 
thor of " Luther and the German 
Reformation" (1900). "The Church 
and the Ministry in the Earlv Centu- 
ries " (1902). "A History of the Ref- 
ormation" (1906). "System of Logic 
and History of Logical Doctrines," 
translated from the German, with 
notes, etc. — Church. 110; Holv Roman 
Empire. 213 : Inquisition, 252 : Inter- 
dict. 254 ; Justification. 277 ; Priest- 
hood, 393. 

Lisbon Earthquake (Biddolf). — Earth- 
quakes, 145. 

Literary Diciest, a secular weekly maga- 
zine, published by the Funk and Wag- 
nalls Comnany, New York. — Arma- 
geddon. 39 : Increase of Knowledge, 
229 ; War, 581. 

Little, William. — Dark Day, 142. 

LlTTLEDALE. RICHARD FREDERICK (1833- 

90), a Church of England clergyman, 
and an author of much ability. As an 
onoonent of the Church of Pome he 
attracted much attention. His nu- 
merous works, published from time to 
time during the period from 1862 to 
1877. exerted a wide influence. — 
Bishop. 94 : Idolatry. 218 ; Images, 
220 ; Indulgences, 236 ; Infallibility, 
2^9 ; PaDal Sunremacy. 357 : Saints. 
481, 482 ; Schism, 484 ; Ultramontan- 
ism, 578. 

LlTTLEFIELD, WALTER. War. 584. 

Little Hands and God's Book (Can- 
ton). — Increase of Knowledge, 233. 

Little White Slaver. — Health and 
Temperance. 201. 

Liverpool. Albion. — Increase of Knowl- 
edge. 226. 

Livingstone. David (1813-73). a cele- 
brated African explorer and mission- 
ary- — Missions. 312. 

Livingstone, David. Personal Life of 
(Blaikie). — Missions, 312. 

Livy, Titus Livtus (b. at Patavium 59 
b. c.. d. there 17 A. d.), was the great- 
est of Roman historians, and the most 
important prose writer of the Augus- 
tan age. He wrote a comprehensive 
historv of Rome from the founding of 
the citv to the death of Drusus, pub- 
lished in 142 books, of which only 35 
are extant. — Greece. 194: Rome, 429, 
430 ; Seven Trumpets, 507. 

Llorente, Don Juan Antonio (1756- 
1823). a learned Spanish historian. 
In 1799 he was anoointed secretary 
general of the Inquisition, of which he 
became a determined adversary, and 
promoted its suppression in 1809. His 
" Critical Historv of the Spanish In- 
quisition " was his great work. — In- 
quisition. 253. 

London Geographical Journal. — Missions, 
312. 

London Morning Chronicle. — Eastern 

Question. 153. 
London Quarterly Review. — Increase of 

Knowledge. 228. 
London Times. — Bible. 79: Falling 

Stars, 167. 



Lord, John (1810-44), an American 
lecturer and pastor. His princinal 
works are " History of the United 
States." J' Modern Historv," and 
" Points of History." — Papacy, 330. 

Lord's Day (Waffle). — Sabbath, 461, 
463. 

Lord's Day. Dissertation on (Prynne). 
— Sabbath, 466. 

Lord's Day, Divine Authority and Per- 
petual Obligation of (Wilson). — 
Sabbath, 459. 

Lorimer. J. G. — ■ Two Witnesses, 573, 
574, 575. 

Loughborough, John N. — Advent, Sec- 
ond, 17, 18, 21. 23 ; Twenty-three Hun- 
dred Days, 570. 

Loyola, St. Ignatius. — Jesuits, 264, 
265. 

Luca, P. Marianus de. — Heretics, 208. 

Lucan, Marcus Ann^us Lucanus (39- 
65 A. D. ) , the chief Roman poet of the 
silver age. His only surviving work is 
the poem " Pharsalia."- — Greece, 186; 
Rome, 427. 

Lumen. — Daniel, 129. 

Luther, Martin (1483-1546), ' a noted 
German Reformer, preacher, writer, 
and educator. In 1508 Luther was 
called to the chair of philosophy at 
the University of Wittenberg. His 
translation of the whole Bible into 
German was completed in 1532 and 
published in 1534. — Advent. Second, 
12 : Babylon, 63 : Baptism. 68 : Bible, 
84 : Censorship of Books, 109 ; Church, 
112: Diet of Worms. 144 ; Indulgences, 
237 : Justification, 276. 278 ; Mass, 
296, 297 : Protestants, 396 : Protes- 
tantism. 399. 400 ; Reformation. 406, 
407, 408, 411 ; Rome. 440 ; Sabbath, 
460. 

Luther's Primary Works (Wace and 
Buchheim). — Babylon, 63; Indulgen- 
ces. 237 ; Mass, 297. 



Maack, Dr. F. — Spiritualism, 529. 

Macaulay, Thomas Babington (1800- 
59), a celebrated English historian, 
essayist, poet, and statesman. His 
chief work is a " History of England," 
published in five volumes. — Papacy, 
327, 329 ; Protestantism, 399, 400. 

Maccabees.— Daniel. 129, 130, 132; 
Jewish League, 276. 

MacFarlane, Charles Steadman (b. 
1866), an American Congregational 
clergyman : also editor and author. — 
Eastern Question, 157. 

Machiavelli. — Ten Kingdoms, 553. 

MacKnight, Thomas (1829-99), a Brit- 
ish editor and statesman, author of 
"Thirty lears of Foreign Policy," etc. 
— Baptism. 67 : Eastern Question, 155. 

McAfee, Dr. Cleland Boyd, D. D. 
(1866), an American clergyman, and 
author of a number of popular reli- 
gious works. — Bible, 82. 

McAllister. Rev. David (1833-1907). a 
Reformed Presbyterian clergyman, 
born in New York. Dr. McAllister was 



618 



AUTHORITIES CITED, 



a leading National Reformer ; editor of 
the Christian Statesman from Septem- 
ber, 1867, to December, 1891, and 
ngain from November, 1894, to June, 
1902, nearly a third of a century in 
all.- — ■ Sunday Laws, 544. 

M'Carthy, Justin (1830-1912), a noted 
Trish journalist, politician, historian, 
and novelist. His reputation as a his- 
torian rests largely upon his " Short 
History of Our Own Times." — In- 
crease of Knowledge, 230. 

McCljntock: and Strong, editors of the 
Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological, 
and Ecclesiastical Literature,", pub- 
lished 1867-81. Dr. McClintock was 
an American clergyman of the Meth- 
odist Episcopal Church, and Rev. 
James Strong was of the same com- 
munion. — Calendar, 96 ; Sabbath, 465 ; 
Sunday, 533. 

M'Donald, W. — Spiritualism, 531. 

McKim, Rev. Randolph Harrison (b. 
1842), an American Protestant Epis- 
copal clergyman and author, of Wash- 
ington, D. C. — Infallibility, 243, 244 ; 
Magna Charta, 291 ; Papacy, 332. 

McNicol, John. — Advent, Second, 8, 9. 

McNicholas, John T. — ■ Marriage, 294. 

Maddock, Rev. A. — Seven Churches, 
491, 493, 494. 

Madison, James (1751-1836), an Ameri- 
can statesman, " father " of our na- 
tional Constitution, and fourth Presi- 
dent of the United States. He was a 
writer of marked ability, and left many 
manuscripts, some of which have been 
published by direction of Congress. — 
Religious Liberty, 416. 

Mahaffy, John P. (b. 1839), occupied 
many positions of responsibility in 
connection with educational and civil 
affairs in the United States, and was 
author of a number of valuable works. 
— Greece, 190. 

Mahomet II, Vow of. — Seven Trumpets, 
518. 

Mallet. Charles Edward (b. 1862), a 
British statesman and author. — 
French Revolution, 176 ; "^apal Su- 
premacy, 363. 

Manchester Guardian. — Falling Stars, 
167. 

Mann, Rev. H. K. — Papal Supremacy, 
361. 

Manning, Henry Edward (1808-92), 
an English clergyman, leader of the 
High Church party. He became a 
priest of the Roman Catholic Church 
in 1851, and a cardinal in 1857. — 
Councils, 122, 123; Infallibility, 240, 
245 ; Mass, 300 ; Papacy, 334, 343 : 
Pope, 382*; Rome. 427; Temporal 
Power of the Pope, 550. 

Mansfield, Lord. — Religious Liberty, 
418. 

Manual of Instructions in Christian 
Doctrine. — Indulgences, 238. 

Manual of Christian Doctrine. — 
Mass, 295, 296 ; Transubstantiation, 
566. 



Manuductio ad Ministerium (Mather). 

Advent, Second, 12. 
Marcellinus, Ammianus, bishop of 

Rome from 296 to about 304. — Rome, 

438. 

Marcellus, Christopher. — Pope, 377. 

Margaret, Queen, Life of (Turgot). — 
Sabbath, 467. 

March, Rev. Daniel, author of " Night 
Scenes in the Bible," published in 
1869, " Our Father's House," copy- 
righted the same year, "Walks and 
Homes of Jesus," etc. Dr. March pos- 
sessed wonderful descriptive power. — 
Babylon, 56. 

Marriage Legislation, The New (Mc- 
Nicholas) . — Marriage, 294. 

Marriott, John Arthur Ransome, fel- 
low, lecturer, and tutor in modern 
history and economics at Worcester 
College, Oxford, since 1895. — Eastern 
Question, 152 ; Missions, 312. 

Marsh, Herbert (1757-1839), a learned 
English theologian. He published sev 
eral religious and controversial treat- 
ises, and translated into English Mi- 
chaelis's " Introduction to the New 
Testament." — Tradition, 562. 

Marsh, Joseph. — Advent, Second, 21. 

Marshall, Dr. N. II. — Armageddon, 39. 

Marsilius of Padua (about 1270-1342). 
physician and theologian, one of the 
more important of the learned oubli- 
cists who supported Louis the Bava- 
rian in his struggle with John XXII 
Pope from 1316 to 1334. — Pope, 381. 

Martin Frederick Townsend. — Signs 
of the Times, 528. 

Maspero, Sir Gaston Camille Charles 
(1846-1916), a noted French Egypt- 
ologist, and author of many works 
growing out of his years of research in 
Egypt and Assyria. His chief work is 
" The Struggle of the Nations."— 
Eastern Question, 148. 

Mason, Archibald, minister of the gos- 
pel at Wishawton, Scotland, in the 
early part of the nineteenth century. — 
Twenty-three Hundred Days. 569, 570. 

Mason, Thomas. — Two Witnesses, 570, 
574. 

Massachusetts Historical Society, 
Collections of. — Dark Day, 139. 

Massachusetts : Its Historians and 
Its History.— Religious Liberty, 418. 

Massachusetts Spy. — Dark Day, 139. 

Massillon, Jean Baptiste (1663-1742), 
French prelate and famous preacher. 
After his death an edition of his works 
was brought out in fifteen volumes, at 
Paris, 1745. — Advent, Second, 15. 

Masson, David (1822-1907), a Scottish 
historian and man of letters. He 
wrote several works on Scottish his- 
tory, and edited thirteen volumes of 
the " Register of the Privy Council of 
Scotland." — Religions Liberty, 413. 

Master of the Magicians (Lumen). — 
Daniel, 129. 

Mather, Dr. Cotton (1663-1728), an 
American clergyman and author. He 



A I THORITIES C ITED. 



619 



took his B. A., degree when less than 
fifteen years old : was ordained as 
joint pastor with his father in May. 
1685, and held that position until his 
death. He wrote a book on witch- 
craft, and is known to have been in 
full sympathy with the Salem witch- 
craft crusade of 1692. in which a score 
were put to death, most of them by 
hanging. As an author he was learned 
and voluminous, three hundred eighty- 
• two of his printed works having been 
catalogued. — Advent. Second, 12. 

Mather, Dr. J. — Two Witnesses, 571. 

Matthew, Comments ox (Morrison). — 
Jerusalem, 262. 

Matthew's Diary of ax Invalid. — Pa- 
ganism, 325. 

Matthew 24. Exposition of (Phmey). 
— Advent, Second. 17. 

Maxim Hudson (b. 1S53). an American 
inventor. He has introduced many 
improvements in the manufacture of 
explosives. — Health and Temperance. 
200, 201. 

Maxwell, William, an English war cor- 
respondent and parliamentary jour- 
nalist, a captain attached to the Im- 
perial General Staff. — Eastern Ques- 
tion, 156. 

Mears, Rev. Johx W. (Presbyterian), 
author of " Heroes of Bohemia," " Beg- 
gars of Holland."' " Story of Madagas- 
car," etc. He is probably best known 
by his book, " From Exile to Over- 
throw. " published in 1913 by the 
Presbyterian Board of Publication. 
Philadelphia. — - Jerusalem, 262. 

Mede. Joseph (1586-1638), was eminent 
for learning and piety. He is best 
known by his "Claris Apocalyptica," 
written in Latin and printed at Cam- 
bridge in 1627. It was translated by 
R. Moore, and printed in 1613 under 
the English title, " The Key of the 
Revelation." — Antichrist. 33: Seven 
Trumpets, 507, 510, 512, 514. 

Medical Time*. — -Health and Temper- 
ance, 198. 

Medieval Church. Rise of (Flick). — 
Advent. First, 5 : Gregory VII. 197 ; 
Holv Roman Empire. 213 : Magna 
Charta, 292 ; Papacy, 333. 337. 353.' 

Medieval History, Source Book for 
(Thatcher and McNeal). — Persecu- 
tion, 373. 

Meigs, Henry. — Increase of Knowledge. 
228. 

Meissxer. — Babylon, 58. 

Melaxchthox, Philip (1497-1560), one 
of the great German Reformers. He 
revised the Augsburg Confession. His 
most popular publication was " Loci 
Communes Rerum Theologieorum." — 
Reformation. 411 ; Sabbath. Change of. 
474. 

Memorial of the Presbytery of Han- 
over. — Religious Liberty, 415. 

Memorial to the Gexeral Assembly 
of Virginia. — Religious Liberty, 416. 

Merivale. Deax. — Paganism, 324, 325. 



Mermeillod, Bishop of Hebrox. — Pope. 
379. 

Message of Basle Believers — Increase 
of Knowledge, 232. 

Messiah, Life axd Times of (Eder- 
sheim). — -Advent. First. 5; Nature of 
Man. 319 ; Seventy Weeks. 523. 

Methodist Church. Articles of Re- 
ligiox. — -Bible, 77. 

Methodist Episcopal Church Doc- 
trixes axd DiscirLixE. — Law of 
God, 284. 

Methodist Review. — Sunday, 534. 

Metropolitan Magazine. — Spiritualism, 
530. 531, 532. 

Michael Axgelo. — Advent, Second, 14. 

Midnight Cry. — Advent, Second, 19, 20. 
21, 23 : Twentv-three Hundred Days. 
569, 570. 

Migxe. — Persecution, 373. 

Mijatovtch, Chedomille (b. Serbia 
1842 t . senator of the kingdom of Ser- 
bia since 1875. He is author of sev- 
eral publications on political economy, 
finance, history of commerce, and his- 
tory of Serbia in the fifteenth century. 
— Seven Trumpets, 516. 

Militz (Milicz) (d. 1374), Bohemian 
divine. He was the most influential 
among those preachers and writers in 
Moravia and Bohemia who, during the 

. 14th century, in a certain sense paved 
the way for the reforming activity of 
Huss. He was the author of "Libel- 
ius de Antichristo," and of tracts.- — ■ 
Antichrist, 30. 

Mill, H. R. — Increase of Knowledge. 

Mill, John Stuart (1806-73), an Eng- 
lish philosophical writer, logician, 
and economist, and an author of ex- 
ceptional ability. — Bible, 73. 

Miller, Edward. — Advent, Second, 16. 

Miller, George Frazier. — Sabbath, 464. 

Miller, William (1782-1849), received 
a captain's commission and entered 
the army in 1810. On his return from 
the army he engaged in farming. 
Though he had held deistical views, 
through the study of the Bible he was 
converted, and became the leader in 
the original Advent Movement of 1844 
in the United States. He lectured in 
many cities in the East, and in 1836 
his lectures were printed in some of 
the public journals of the day ; in 
1837-40 they appeared in pamphlet 
form. — Advent, Second, 16.17: Twen- 
ty-three Hundred Days, 569. 

Miller, William, Brief History of. — ■ 
Advent, Second, 21. 

Millet. Pierre (1631-1711), a French 
missionary. He came to the United 
States in 1667, and was soon after- 
ward sent to establish a mission in 
Onondaga, N. Y., laboring there and 
in Oneida till 1684. 

Milligax, William (1821-93), of the 
Church of Scotland ; professor of di- 
vinity and Biblical criticism in the 
University of Aberdeen in 1860 ; au- 
thor of numerous works, including 



620 



AUTHORITIES CITED. 



commentaries on the Gospel of St. 
John and the Apocalypse. — Revela- 
tion, 421. 

Milman, Henry Hart (1791-1868 , an 
English historian, poet, and divine. 
In 1840 he brought out his " History 
of Christianity from the Birth of 
Christ to the Extinction of Paganism 
in the Roman Empire," and his " His- 
tory of Latin Christianity." — Pagan- 
ism, 324 ; Sabbath, Change of, 472, 
473. 

Milne, John (b. 1850), an English min- 
ing engineer and seismologist. For 
twenty years he was geologist and 
mining engineer for the Japanese gov- 
ernment ; author of " Earthquakes " 
and " Seismology." — Earthquakes, 146. 

Milner, John (1752-1826), an English 
Roman Catholic bishop and archeolo- 
gist. He published a " History of Win- 
chester " and " Ecclesiastical Archi- 
tecture in England During the Middle 
Ages." — Rule of Faith, 457 ; Tradi- 
tion, 564. 

Milner. Rev. Joseph (1744-97), whose 
principal work is " A History of the 
Church of Christ." — Bible, 84. 

Milner, Rev. Thomas. — Falling Stars, 
163. 

Milton, John (1608-74), a celebrated 
English poet. His " Paradise Lost " 
was published in 1667. " Paradise Re- 
gained " appeared in 1671. — Advent, 
Second, 9 ; Reformation ; 410 ; Sunday, 
536; Tradition, 561. 

Milton, John, Life of (Masson). — 
Religious Liberty, 413. 

Miracles and Modern Spiritualism 
(Wallace).— Spiritualism, 529, 531. 

Missionary Review of the World. — Mis- 
sions, 313. 

Missions, A Hundred Years of (Leon- 
ard). — Increase of Knowledge, 232. 

Missions and Governments. — Religious 
Liberty, 415. 

Missions, Christian, Short History 
of (Smith). — Increase of Knowledge, 
233. 

Missions, Foreign, Introduction to 
(Lawrence). — Increase of Knowledge, 
225. 

MlTHRIDATES, LETTER OF (b. about 132 

b. c, d. 63 B. c), king of Pontus 120- 
163. — Rome, 430. 
Modernism and the Reformation 
(Rust). — Censorship of Books, 110; 
Modernism, 314 ; Protestantism, 398 ; 
Rule of Faith, 457 ; Scriptures, 484 ; 
Servetus, 486 ; Transubstantiation, 
568. 

Modern Mission Century (Pierson). — 
Increase of Knowledge, 224, 225 ; Mis- 
sions, 312. 

Modern Regime (Taine). — Eastern 
Question, 148. 

Modern Romanism Examined (Dear- 
den). — Immaculate Conception, 221. 

Modern Spiritualism, a Threefold 
Test of (Gordon). — Spiritualism, 
532. 



Moekler, Johann Adam (1796-1838), a 
German Roman Catholic theologian. 
His chief work is " Symbolism " 
(1832). — Canon, 99; Church, 113; 
Creed, Roman, 128; Infallibility, 246; 
Revelation, 423 ; Sacraments, 479 ; 
Tradition, 558, 563 ; Transubstantia- 
tion, 568. 

Moeller, Ernst Wilhelm (1827-92), a 
German Lutheran, theologian, church 
historian, and university professor.— 
Greek Church, 196 ; Isidorian Decre- 
tals, 256. 

Mohammed (570-632), the founder of 
Mohammedanism. — Bible, 93. 

Mommsen, Tbeodor (1817-1903), a cele- 
brated German historian. Besides nu- 
merous articles and monographs on 
archeological subjects and Roman law, 
he was the author of Roman histories 
and other works. — Rome, 432. 

Monier-Williams, Sir Monier (1819- 
99), a noted British Orientalist, pro- 
fessor of Sanskrit in Oxford, and au- 
thor of a number of books. — Bible, 93. 

Moniteur. — Two Witnesses, 576. 

Monthly Bulletin, New York Department 
of Health. — Health and Temperance, 
198. 

Month, The. — Bible, 75. 

Monuments and the Old Testament 

(Price). — Babylon, 53; Bible, 73; 

Medo-Persia, 308, 309. 
Moody at Home. — Advent, Second, 15. 

Moody, Dwight Lyman (1837-99), a 
well-known American lay preacher. — 
Advent, Second. 8, 11, 15; Law of 
God, 281, 282, 283, 284. 

Moore, Dr. H. — Two Witnesses, 577. 

Moore, Zephaniah Swift (1770-1823). 
an American divine and scholar. He 
became president of Williams College 
in 1815, and of Amherst College in 
1821. — Sabbath, 466. 

Morality of the Idle Rich (Martin). 

— Signs of the Times, 528. 

Moral Science (Fair child). — Religious 
Liberty, 418. 

Moral Science, Elements of (Way- 
land). — Sabbath, 460, 463. 

Moral Theology, Manual of (Slater). 

— Canon Law, 104 ; Pope, 387. 
Morals (Plutarch). — Greece, 187; 

Rome, 429. 
Morgan, Rev. G. Campbell (b. 1863), 
an English Congregationalist, ordained 
to the ministry in 1889. Among his 
numerous publications are " The Ten 
Commandments," "God's Perfect 
Will," " The Study and Teaching of 
the English Bible," and "The Spirit 
of God."— Law of God, 281, 282 ; Sab- 
bath, 465. 

Morning Watch, or Quarterly Journal on 
Prophecy. — Increase of Knowledge, 
222 ; Ptolemy's Canon, 402. 

Morris, Herbert William (b. 1818), au- 
thor, born in Wales. He came to the 
United States in 1842. and was li- 
censed to preach in 1846 by the pres- 
bytery of Utica, N. Y. He published 



AUTHORITIES CITED. 



621 



"Science and the Bible" (1870), 
" Present Conflict of Science with Re- 
ligion " (1875). "Testimony of the 
Ages to the Truth of Scripture " 
(1880), "The Celestial Symbol, or the 
Natural Wonders and Spiritual Teach- 
ings of the Sun" (1883), and "Natu- 
ral Laws and Gospel Teachings " 
(1887). The University of Rochester 
gave him the degree of D. D. in 1876. 
— Sabbath, 461. 

Morrison, James. — Jerusalem, 262. 

Morse, S. F. B. (1791-1872), an Amer- 
ican artist and inventor, known to 
fame as the father of the electric tele- 
graph. — Increase of Knowledge, 230. 

Mortibus Persecutorum, De (Lactan- 
tius). — Edict of Milan, 160. 

Morton, Francis T. — Jesuits, 266. 

MOSFEIM, JOHANN LORENZ VON (1694- 

1755), a distinguished German Protes- 
tant ecclesiastical historian, theolo- 
gian, and pulpit orator. He is best 
known by his " Institutes of Eccle- 
siastical History." — Apostasy, 36 ; Fa- 
thers, 169 : Isidorian Decretals, 257 ; 
Papacy, 336 ; Papal Supremacy, 356. 

Motley, John Lothrop (1814-77), an 
American historian and diplomatist. 
His chief works are " Rise of the 
Dutch Republic," " History of the 
United Netherlands," and " Life and 
Death of John of Barneveld." — Per- 
secution, 372. 

Muir, Rev. William, author of " The 
Call of the New Era." " Our Grand 
Old Bible," "The Books We All 
Write," and others, together with " The 
Arrested Reformation," published in 
London in 1912. — Jesuits, 275 ; Prot- 
estantism, 400 ; Reformation, 409, 411, 
412 ; Scriptures, 485 ; Seven Trumpets, 
508, 512. 

Mukaddasi, the appellation of Shams ad 
Din Abu Abdallah Mohammed ibn Ah- 
mad (967-985), Arabian traveler and 
author of a " Description of the Lands 
of Islam." — Eastern Question, 157. 

Muller, Rev. M. — Church of Rome, 114 ; 
Heretics, 204 ; Indulgences, 235. 

Mumford, Stephen. — Sabbath, 469. 

Murray, Rev. Andrew, a Scotish evan- 
gelist and author. — Priesthood, 393. 

My Bondage and My Freedom (Doug- 
lass). — Falling Stars, 164. 

Myers, Philip Van Ness, a well-known 
author of numerous historical works. 
He is probably most widely known by 
his "Ancient History" (1882), "Me- 
dieval and Modern History" (1889), 
and "General History" (1889). — 
Greece, 187, 188. 189, 191 ; Holy Ro- 

" man Empire, 213; Interdict, 254; 
Magna Charta. 292 ; Medo-Persia, 305 ; 
Monasticism. 314 ; Papacy. 336 ; Rome, 
431, 432, 433, 436 ; Ten Tribes, 556. 

Nabonidus, Annals of. — Medo-Persia, 
306. 

Nampon, Rev. A. — Antichrist, 29 ; Jus- 
tification, 278 ; Priesthood, 390, 392 ; 
Tradition, 560, 562. 



Nansen, Fridtjof (b. 1861), Norwegian 
scientist, explorer, statesman, and au- 
thor ; professor of oceanography in 
Christiania University. — Health and 
Temperance. 199, 200. 

Napoleon. — Eastern Question, 148 ; 
French Revolution, 177 ; Inquisition, 
253 ; Papal Supremacy, 365-368. 

Napoleon Bonaparte, Life of (Abbott). 
Eastern Question, 148, 149. 

Napoleon the First, History of (Lan- 
frey). — Eastern Question, 149. 

Napoleon, Life of (Scott). — French 
Revolution, 178 ; Papal Supremacy, 
364 ; Two Witnesses, 576. 

National Reform Convention. — Sun- 
day Laws, 544. 

National Review. — Spiritualism, 532. 

Xazianzen, Gregory. — Rome, 436, 437. 

Neale, F. A. — Seven Trumpets, 513. 

Neander, Dr. Johann Augustus Wil- 
helm (1789-1850), a German church 
historian, professor of theology at 
Heidelberg, and of church history at 
Berlin. His chief work is his " Gen- 
eral History of the Christian Religion 
and Church," a production of such 
value and merit as to earn for its au- 
thor the title of " prince of church 
historians." — Antichrist. 29, 30; Bap- 
tism, 68, 70 : Fathers, 170 ; Sabbath. 
• Change of. 470 ; Seven Churches, 488 : 
Sunday, 533 ; Sunday Laws, 538, 540. 

Neil, Rev. James. — Bible, 87. 

Nero. — Jerusalem, 259 ; Persecution. 
372. 

Neubabylonische Konigsenschriften. 
— Babylon, 56. 

Nevin, John W. (1803-86), an American 
author ano clergyman of the German 
Reformed Church, president of Mar- 
shall College, 1841-53, and of Franklin 
and Marshall College, 1866-76. — Cal- 
endar, 95, 96 ; Law, Ceremonial, 280. 

Newcomb, Simon (1835-1909), a noted 
American astronomer, born in Nova 
Scotia ; a writer on political economy. 
He is probably most widely known by 
his popular " Astronomy for Every- 
body," published in 1877. — Falling 
Stars, 162. 

Neic Hampshire Patriot and State Ga- 
zette. — Falling Stars, 164. 

New Hampshire, Sketches of the His- 
tory of (Whiton). — Dark Day, 139. 

Newman, John Henry (1801-91). Grad- 
uated from Trinity College, Oxford, 
at the age of nineteen, Mr. Newman 
became in due time a clergyman of the 
Established Church of England. For 
a time he held a middle ground be- 
tween the Roman Catholic Church and 
Protestantism, but in 1848 he resigned 
his living in the Anglican Church, and 
two years later entered the Roman 
Catholic priesthood. He was made a 
cardinal in 1879. — Antichrist, 29 ; 
Apostasy, 37 ; Church of Rome, 113 : 
Infallibility, 241 ; Sabbath. Change of, 
472 ; Syllabus of Errors, 546. 

New Testament (Rotherham's Transla- 
tion). — Nature of Man, 319. 



622 



AUTHORITIES CITED. 



New Testament, Commentary on (Eras- 
mus) .— Censorship of Books, 109. 

New Testament, Commentary on (Ols- 
hausen). — Sunday, 533. 

New Testament, Explanatory Notes 
on (Wesley). — Advent, Second, 24; 
Baptism, 69 ; Increase of Knowledge, 
222. 

New Testament, History of Canon of 

(Westcott). — Canon, 103. 
New Testament, with Introduction, 

Notes, and References.— Tradition, 

557. 

New Testament, Revised, and History 
of Revision (Hall). — Bible, 86. 

Newton, Professor, of New Haven, 
Conn. — Falling Stars, 165. 

Newton, Sir Isaac (1642-1727), a fa- 
mous English mathematician and nat- 
ural philosopher. — Advent, Second, 
24 ; Artaxerxes. 39, 40, 41 ; Bible, 82 ; 
Daniel, 134 ; Increase of Knowledge. 
222, 223 ; Little Horn, 285 ; Papal 
Supremacy, 362 ; Seven Trumpets, 
499, 510 ; Ten Kingdoms, 551 ; Two 
Witnesses, 572. 

Newton, Thomas, D. D. (1704-82), an 
English clergyman, bishop of Bristol, 
dean of St. Paul's, and author of sev- 
eral works. — Antichrist, 33 ; Jerusa- 
lem, 258, 260, 263 ; Little Horn. 285 ; 
Papal Supremacy. 363 ; Seven Trump- 
ets, 500, 511 ; Temporal Power of the 
Pope, 548. 

New York Christian Observer. — Sabbath, 
462. 

New York City, Monthly Bulletin of 
Department of Health. — Health and 
Temperance, 198. 

New York Courier and Enquirer. — In- 
crease of Knowledge, 227. 

New York Evening Post. — War, 581. 

New York Examiner. — Sabbath, 474. 

New York Herald. — Increase of Knowl- 
edge, 229. 

New York Journal — Health and Tem- 
perance, 201 . 

New York Journal of Commerce. — Fall- 
ing Stars, 164. 

New York Star. — Falling Stars, 165. 

New York Times. — Increase of Knowl- 
edge, 231 ; Spiritualism, 530. 

Neiv York Tribune. — War, 581. 

NlCENE AND POST-NICENE FATHERS. 

Antichrist, 32, 33 ; Bible. 78 ; Sabbath, 
467 ; Seven Trumpets, 502. 

Nicene Creed, the creed framed and 
adopted by the first Council of Nicaea, 
a. d. 325. It was reaffirmed and some- 
what amplified by the Council of Con- 
stantinople, a. d. 381, but was not ma- 
terially changed, and is still received 
not only by the Greek and Roman 
Churches, but by the great majority 
of Protestant churches as a correct 
statement of Christian faith. — Ad- 
vent, Second, 10 ; Councils, 119 ; 
Creed, Roman, 126 ; Greek Church, 195. 

Nicholas I. — Isidorian Decretals, 255, 
256, 257 ; Papacy, 349. 

Nicolint, G. B. — Jesuits. 274. 



Nierdhr. — Bible, 73. 

Night Scenes in the Bible (March). 
— Babylon, 56. 

Nineteenth Century and After. — Ar- 
mageddon, 39 ; Eastern Question, 152, 
156, 157 ; Increase of Knowledge, 229 : 
Missions, 312. 

Nineteenth Century Miracles (Brit- 
ten). — Spiritualism, 530, 531. 

Nineveh and Babylon. Discoveries 
among the Rutns of (Layard). — 
Babylon, 59. 

Norlin. — Sabbath, 468. 

North American Review, a high-class 
monthly magazine, edited by Col. 
George Harvey, and published in New 
York. — Armageadon, 39. 

Nourse, J. — Earthquakes, 145. 

Novelties of Romanism (Collete). — 
Bible, 85 ; Indulgences, 234. 

Novum Organum (Bacon). — Increase of 
Knowledge, 223. 



O'Connell, Rev. C. J. — Mass, 297. 

(ECOLAMPADIUS, JOHANN (1482-1531). 

a distinguished Reformer of Basle, 
Switzerland. It was due largely to 
him that the Waldenses finally broke 
with the Catholic Church. — Sabbath. 
Change of, 474. 

CEcumenius, " the supposed author of a 
commentary in the form of a catena 
on the Acts, the epistles of St. Paul 
(including Hebrews), and the Catho- 
lic [general] epistles, together with a 
brief exposition of the Apocalypse." 
— Babylon, 62. 

Official United States Bulletin. — War. 
580. 

Old and New Testaments, Historical 
Connection of (Prideaux). — Seventy 
Weeks, 520, 521. 

Old Countryman, The. — Falling Stars, 
165. 

Old Testament Prophecy (Leathes). — 

Seventy Weeks, 519. 
Old Testament in the Light of the 

Ancient East (Jeremias). — Babylon, 

59. 

Old Testament in the Light of the 

Historical Records (Pinches). — 

Babylon, 54. 
Old Testament, Light on, from Babel 

(Clay). — Babylon, 57; Medo-Persia, 

309. 

Olmsted, Denison (1791-1859), Amer- 
ican physicist, astronomer, meteorol- 
ogist, and geologist. He published 
textbooks on astronomy and natural 
philosophy. — Falling Stars, 162. 

Olshausen, Hermann (1796-1839), a 
German Protestant theologian, and au- 
thor of religious treatises. He pub- 
lished a " Biblical Commentary on All 
the New Testament," which has been 
highly commended. — Baptism, 67 ; 
Sunday, 533. 

Oman, Charles William Chadwick (b. 
1860), an English writer, author of 
several histories. — Seven Trumpets, 
516, 517. 



AUTHORITIES CITED. 



623 



Opeea Lutheri. — Baptism, 68. 

Opera Omnia Theologica (Grotius). — 
Sunday, 537. 

Okigen (b. probably 185 or 186 ; d. about 
254), a distinguished Christian theo- 
logian and teacher. The fertility of 
Origen's pen is attested by the exag- 
gerated tradition that he wrote six 
thousand works. — Azazel, 44 ; Fa- 
thers, 168, 169 ; Forgeries, 173 ; Jeru- 
salem, 258. 

Orr, James L. (1822-75), an American 
lawyer and politician. — Daniel, 129 ; 
Easter, 147. 

Ottoman Empire (Upham) . — Seven 
Trumpets, 508. 

Ottoman Power in Europe (Freeman). 

— Eastern Question, 150 ; Seven 
Trumpets, 512. 

Oulis, pseudonym of Dr. William Court- 
ney (1850-1907). an English journal- 
ist, editor, and author. He was for a 
time editor of the London Fortnightly 
Review. — Armageddon, 39. 

Our Brief Against Rome (Isaacson). — 
Jesuits, 274 ; Pope, 384. 

Our First Century (Devens). — Dark 
Day, 138, 140. 

Our Own Times, Short History of 
(McCarthy). — Increase of Knowledge, 
230. 

Outlook, The. — Robes, Ascension, 424. 

Palestine under the Moslems (Le 
Strange). — Eastern Question, 157. 

Palmerston, viscount Henry John 
Temple (1784-1865), a British states- 
man. — Eastern Question, 150, 159, 160. 

Palmerston, Viscount, Life and Times 
of (Richie). — Eastern Question, 153. 

Papacy, The (Wylie). — Canon Law, 
104 ; Heretics, 207 ; Papacy, 327, 335 ; 
Popery, 388. 

Papacy and the Civil Power (Thomp- 
son). — Temporal Power of the Pope, 
549. 

Papacy, Epochs of (Pennington). — Pa- 
pal Supremacy, 366, 368, 369. 

Papacy, History of (Creighton). — Isi- 
dorian Decretals, 257 ; Papacy, 333. 
337, 351, 353 ; Temporal Power of the 
Pope, 549. 

Papacy Is the Antichrist (Wylie). — 
Antichrist, 27. 

Papacy, Modern (Rickaby). — Papal Su- 
premacy, 367. 

Papal Claims, Notes on (Brinckman). 

— Heresy, 203. 

Papal Dr*ma (Gill). — Council of Trent, 
118; Reformation, 410. 

Papal Monarchy (Barry). — Papal Su- 
premacy, 369. 

Papal Power, Plain Lectures on the 
Growth of ( Robertson ) . — Hilde- 
brand, Dictates of, 210 ; Papacy, 331, 
344, 345, 348, 349, 350, 352. 

Papal Power, Rise of (Hussey). — Pa- 
pacy, 330, 331, 333, 335. 

Papal System (Cathcart). — Justifica- 
tion, 279. 



Parkhurst. — Nature of Man, 318. 

Parliamentary History (Hansard). — 
Private Judgment, 394. 

Parliamentary Papers, written and 
printed matter from various" sources 
laid before the British Parliament for 
the information of that body. " The 
greater part is obtained either on di- 
rect order of the house itself, or by 
an address to the crown for documents 
relating to matters in which the pre- 
rogatives of the crown are con- 
cerned." — Eastern Question, 153, 154, 
159. 

Parsons, Rev. J. L., an American Dis- 
ciple clergyman, pastor of the First 
Christian Church in St. Louis, Mo., 
1893. — Sunday Laws, 545. 

Parton, James (1822-91). an American 
biographer and miscellaneous author, 
born in England. — Earthquakes, 145 ; 
Private Judgment, 394 ; Religious Lib- 
erty, 417. 

Paterculus, C. Velleius (about 20 b. c. 
to 31 a. d.). a Roman historian. His 
" Histories Romance " is a compendium 
of universal, but more particularly of 
Roman, history, beginning with the 
fall of Troy and ending with the events 
of 30 a. d. — Seventy Weeks, 521. 

Paton, A. A. (d. 1874), an English trav- 
eler ; author of " Researches on the 
Danube and the Adriatic," and other 
works. — Eastern Question, 148. 

Patten, Matthew, Diary of'. — Dark 
Day, 138. 

Paul, Life and Epistles of (Cony- 
beare and Howson). — Baptism, 68; 
Sunday. 533. 

Pears, Sir Edwin (b. 1835). editor, and 
author of a number of books, including 
" The Destruction of the Greek Em- 
pire," and " Forty Years in Constan- 
tinople." — Seven Trumpets, 513, 516, 
517. 

Peary, Rear-Admiral Robert Edwin 
(b. 1856), an American naval officer 
and Arctic explorer. — Health and 
Temperance, 199. 

Pecocke (Peacock), Reginald (1395- 
1460), bishop of Chichester. He wrote 
" The Book or Rule of Christian Re- 
ligion " and " Book of Faith." — Tra- 
dition, 559. 

Pblagius, Alvarus.— Papal Suoremacv. 
362 ; Pope, 381 ; Temporal Power of 
the Pope, 549. 

Pelayo, Alvaro or Alvarez, a Spanish 
bishop who lived during the latter 
part of the first half of the fourteenth 
century. — Infallibility, 242, 243 ; 
Pope, 379. 

Peloponnesian War, History of (Thu- 

cydides ) . — Artaxerxes, 40. 
Pember, G. H. — Spiritualism, 532. 
Pennington, Rev. Arthur Robert. — 

Papal Supremacy, 366, 368, 369. 
Peresius. — Tradition, 564. 
Perpetuity of the Law (Spurgeon). — 

Law of God, 281. 
Perrone. — Tradition, 562, 564. 



624 



AUTHORITIES CITED. 



Persecution, Bloudy Tenent of (Wil- 
liams). — Religious Liberty, 413. 

Persians, The (^Eschylus) . — M e d o - 
Persia, 306, 310, 311. 

Petavius. — Tradition, 564. 

Peter, king of Aragon. — Persecution, 
372. 

Petri Privilegium (Manning). — Infal- 
libility, 240. 

Petrine Claims (Littledale). — Papal 
Supremacy, 357. 

Pettingell, Prof. J. H. — Apostasy, 37. 

Pflugk-Harttung, Julius von. — Papal 
Supremacy, 361 ; Rome, 443. 

Pharsalia (Lucan). — Greece, 186; 
Rome, 427. 

Phelan, Rev. David S. (1841-1915), 
pastor of Our Lady of Mount Carmel 
Church in St. Louis from 1868. He 
founded the Western Watchman (Ro- 
man Catholic) in 1865, and occupied 
its editorial chair to the last of his 
life. — Mass, 298. 

Philaret, Vasily Mikhailovich Droz- 
dov (1782-1867), metropolitan of Mos- 
cow, and author. He drew up a mani- 
festo which on March 19, 1861, gave 
liberty to 23,000,000 serfs. He was 
the first to introduce the analysis of 
the Holy Scriptures into the Russian 
sacred literature. He published succes- 
sively " Commentaries on Genesis," 
"A Study of Biblical History," and 
"Catechism of Reasons." — Bible, 76. 

Phillips, Walter Allison (b. 1864), 
an English educator and author, who 
besides writing a number of books, 
mostly historical, contributed a num- 
ber of articles to the 11th edition of 
the Encyclopedia Britannica. — Eastern 
Question, 150, 151, 154. 

Philo Jud^eus (b. about 20 b. c), a 
Hellenistic philosopher and theologian 
of Alexandria. — Sabbath, 460. 

Philosophy of History (Schlegel). — 
Seven Trumpets, 509. 

Philostorgius. — Seven Trumpets, 500. 

Philostratus, a Greek sophist and rhet- 
orician who lived in the first part of 
the third century a. d. — Jerusalem, 
260 ; Seven Churches, 490. 

Philpot, John, a pious English Protes- 
tant layman, " brought up," says 
Foxe's " Book of Martyrs," " in the 
New College in Oxford, where he stud- 
ied the civil law the space of six or 
seven years, besides the study of other 
liberal arts, especially in the tongues, 
wherein very forwardly he profited, 
namely, in the knowledge of the He 1 
brew tongue, etc." He was condemned 
and burned for heresy under " Bloody 
Mary," at Smithfield, Dec. 18, 1555. 
— Antichrist, 34, 35. 

Picart. — Paganism, 324. 

Pierson, Arthur T. (1837-1911), an 
American Congregational clergyman. 
During 1902-03 he was pastor of 
Christ's Church, London. He was edi- 
tor of the Missionary Review of the 
World from its foundation, in 1888 
until his death. His writings, all of a 



religious character, and largely con- 
cerning missions and mission work, 
are numerous. — Bible, 72, 80, 82, 85. 
87 ; Increase of Knowledge, 224, 225 ; 
Missions, 312. 

Pinches, Theophiles Goldridge (b. 
1856), a well-known English Orien- 
talist, university professor, and au- 
thor.— Babylon, 54, 57, 58. 

Pinkerton, Robert (b. 1855), born in 
Glasgow, and educated there and at 
Oxford. Much of his life has been 
devoted to educational work in Wales. 
He is the author of several valuable 
works.— Bible, 76. 

Pinney, E. R. — Advent, Second, 17. 
Pioneer, The. — Health and Temperance, 
197. 

Pius VI (1717-99), was made cardinal 
in 1773, and in 1775 was elected Pope 
in succession to Clement XIV. — Bible, 
74 ; French Revolution, 179 ; Papal 
Supremacy, 365-367. 

Pius VII (1742-1823), elected Pope in 
1800. — Bible, 74 ; Papal Supremacy. 
368. 

Pius IX (1792-1878), elected Pope in 
1846. — Bible, 76 ; Immaculate Concep- 
tion, 220 ; Papal Supremacy, 368, 369 ; 
Syllabus of Errors, 546 ; Temporal 
Power of the Pope, 549. 

Pius X. — Censorship of Books, 109. 

Planctu Ecclesod, De (Pelagius). — 
Pope, 381. 

Platina, Bartolomeo (1421-81), Italian 
humanist, theologian, and historian of 
the popes. — Temporal Power of the 
Pope, 548. 

Plato, originally Aristocles (429 or 427 
b. c. to 347), a famous Greek philoso- 
pher, disciple of Socrates and teacher 
of Aristotle. — Purgatory, 405. 

Pliny (Caius Plinius Secundus), (23-79 
a. d. ) , a celebrated Roman naturalist. 

— Seven Trumpets, 510. 
Plutarch (b. about 46 a. d.), a Greek 

historian, celebrated as the author of 
forty-six " Parallel Lives " of Greeks 
and Romans. — Greece, 187 ; Rome, 
429, 431. 

Polar Travel, Secrets of (Peary). — 
Health and Temperance, 199. 

Pollock, Algernon J. — Spiritualism, 
529. 

Pollok, Robert (1798-1827), a British 
clergyman and poet. His reputation is 
chiefly founded on a didactic poem, 
" The Course of Time," which contains 
many beautiful and powerful passages. 

— Bible, 71. 

Polybius (204 to about 125 b. a), a 
celebrated Greek historian. He was 
the author of a history of Rome in 
forty books, five of which have been 
preserved. — Greece, 194 ; Rome, 427, 
429. 

Polycarp. — Easter, 147. 

Ponsonby, Viscount. — Eastern Ques- 
tion, 153, 154. 

Pope and the Council (Dollinger). — 
Forgeries, 171, 172; Infallibility, 242; 



AUTHORITIES CITED. 



625 



Isidorian Decretals, 255 ; Magna Char- 
ta, 292. 

Topes, History of (Bower). — Papacy. 

333, 347; Papal Supremacy, 361, 362. 
PorES of the Early Middle Ages, 

Lives of (Mann).- — Papal Supremacy. 

361. 

Popes of the Middle Ages,, Fables Re- 
specting (Dollinger) . — Infallibility. 
243. 

Porphyry. — Daniel, 129, 133, 134. 
Portland Evening Advertiser. — Falling 

Stars. 165, 166. 
Powell, E. Alexander. — Armageddon, 

39. 

Praise of Folly (Erasmus). — Seven 
Seals, 497. 

Prayer, Discourse Concerning Faith 
and Fervency in (Mather). — Two 
Witnesses, 571. 

Preacher's Manual (Clarke). — Bible. 
80, 84. 

Preaching. Lectures on (Simpson). — 

Law of God, 282. 
Preble, T. M. — Advent, Second, 23, 24. 

PRENDERGAST, JEREMIAH. Pope, 378. 

Presbyterian Church. Constitution 
of. — Law. Ceremonial, 280. 

Present Truth (London). — Nature of 
Man, 321. 

Price, Ira Maurice (b. 1856), an Amer- 
ican Baptist" clergyman, educator, and 
author. He contributed valuable arti- 
cles to Hastings' " Dictionary of the 
Bible " and " Dictionary of Religions." 
the " Jewish Encyclopedia," " Stand- 
ard Bible Dictionary." " Encyclopedia 
Americana." etc. — Babylon. 53 ; Bible. 

73 ; Medo-Persia, 308, 309. 
Prideaux, Humphrey (1684-1724), a 

learned English divine and historian. 
His principal works are a " Life of Ma- 
homet," and a " History of the Con- 
nection of the Old and New Testa- 
ments." familiarly known as Prideaux' 
" Connexions." — Seventy Weeks, 520, 
521. 

Priest. Dignities and Duties of (Li- 

gucri). — Priesthood. 391. 
Priestly, Dr. Joseph (1733-1804). an 

eminent English philosopher, chemist. 

and theologian. He published in 1772- 

74 " Institutes of Natural and Re- 
vealed Religion." Others of his works 
are " History of the Corruptions of 
Christianity." and " Reply to Burke's 
Reflections on the French Revolution." 
— French Revolution, 174. 

Primasius. — Babylon, 62. 
Primitive Church and the Primacy of 
Rome (Bartoli). — Forgeries, 172, 173. 

Primitive Saints and the See of Rome 
(Puller). — Pones, 388. 

Procopius (490-565) a Byzantine histo- 
rian. He wrote histories of the Per- 
sian, Vandal, and Gothic wars in the 
time of Justinian. — Papal Supremacy. 
356. 

Pbompta Bibliotheca (Ferraris). — 
Pope, 377, 383. 



Prophetical Extracts. — Two Witness- 
es, 577. 

Prophetical Office of tee Church. 

Lectures on (Newman). — Church of 

Rome, 113. 
Prophecies, Dissertations on (Faber). 

— Advent, Second, 15 ; Two Witnesses. 

575. 

Prophecies of Daniel and the Apoca- 
lypse, Dissertations on (Bishop 
Newton). — Antichrist, 33; Jerusalem, 
258. 260, 263 ; Little Horn, 285 ; Pa- 
pal Supremacy, 363 ; Seven Trumpets, 
500, 511 ; Temporal Power of the 
Pope, 548. 

Prophecies of Daniel, Esdras, and St. 
John, Combined Views of (Frere). — 
Advent, Second, 16 ; French Revolu- 
tion, 177 ; Increase of Knowledge, 222. 

Prophecies of Daniel and the Apoca- 
lypse, Observations upon the (Sir 
Isaac Newton). — Advent, Second, 24; 
Artaxerxes, 40 ; Daniel, 134 ; Increase 
of Knowledge, 222, 223 ; Papal Su- 
premacy, 362 ; Seven Trumpets, 510 ; 
Ten Kingdoms, 551. 

Prophecies of the Revelation of St. 
John, Historical Exposition of 
(Habershon). — Second Advent, 16: 
Seven Churches, 488, 492 ; Seven 
Trumpets, 499, 500, 512, 518. 

Prophecies Referring to the Present 

- Time, Brief Commentaries on (Gal- 
loway). — French Revolution, 175; 
Two Witnesses, 570. 

Prophecies, Scripture. Accomplish- 
ment of (Jurieu). — Increase of 
Knowledge, 221, 224 ; Seven Churches, 
487; Seven Trumpets, 510, 514, 515; 
Two Witnesses, 571, 574, 576. 

Prophecies, Scripture. Literal Ac- 
complishment of (Whiston). — East- 
ern Question, 155. 

Prophecy, First Elements of Sacred 
(Birks). — Prophecies, 394, 395; 
Twenty-three Hundred Days, 569 ; 
Year-Day Principle, 586, 587, 588. 

Prophecy, Fulfilled (Goode). — Arta- 
xerxes. 41 ; Babvlon, 62 ; Idolatry. 
218 ; Prophecy, 395, 396. 

Prophecy, Hints on Interpretation of 
(Stuart). — Year-Day Principle, 588. 

Prophecy, History Unveiling (Guin- 
ness) . — Antichrist, 31. 

Prophecy, Key to Open Main Lock of 
(Guinness). — Advent, Second, 10, 13. 

Prophecy. Sacred Calendar of (Faber). 
— French Revolution, 174, 176, 177 ; 
Ptolemy's Canon, 404 ; Seveu Trump- 
ets, 510. 

Prophecy, Sure Word of (Brown). — 

Ten Kingdoms, 553. 
Prophecies. — See also Apocalypse ; 

Daniel ; Revelation. 
Protest of the Princes. — Bible, 78; 

Reformation. 409. 
Protestant Church of France, His- 
torical Sketch of (Lorimer). — Two 

Witnesses, 573, 574, 575. 
Protestant Churches, Evangelical, 

Creeds of (Schaff). — Bible, 76, 77, 

78. 79, 84. 



626 



AUTHORITIES CITED. 



Protestant Magazine. — Protestantism, 
397. 

Protestantism, Genius of (Edgar). — 

Protestantism, 398. 
Protestantism, History of (Wylie). — 

Protestantism, 397 ; Reformation, 409 ; 

Seven Churches, 492. 
Protestantism of Today. Plain Talk 

About (Segur). — Sabbath, Change of, 

477. 

Protestantism, Romance of (Alcock). 

— Protestantism, 398. 
Protestants, Religion of, a Safe Way 

to Salvation (Chillingworth). — Bi- 
ble, 79. 

Prynne, William (1600-69), an English 
political and theological writer, a mem- 
ber of the Long Parliament, 1659-60. 
His works number upwards of two 
hundred. — Sabbath, 466. 

Psalms, Commentary on (Eusebius). — 
Sabbath, Change of, 471. 

Psalms of Solomon. — Seventy Weeks, 
525. 

Ptolemy's Canon. — Artaxerxes, 42 ; 
Daniel, 132. 

Puller, Frederich William (b. 1843). 
a Roman Catholic priest, superior of 
the Westminster House of the Society 
of St. John since 1909 ; author of sev- 
eral books — Popes, 388. 

Pullus, Cardinal. — Baptism, 68. 

Pusey, Rev. E. B. (1800-82), a noted 
English theologian, writer, and lec- 
turer. — Daniel, 130, 131 ; Seventy 
Weeks, 520, 524, 526. 

Putnam, George Haven (b. 1844), son 
of George Palmer Putnam, an Ameri 
can publisher. He wrote " Authors 
and Their Public in Ancient Times." 
" Books and Their Makers in the Mid 
die Ages." — Bible, 91. 

Quiet Talks About Our Lord's Return 
(Gordon). — Advent, Second, 6; Na- 
ture of Man, 320. 

Quirinus, pseudonym of Lord Acton, q. v. 

Radbertus, Paschasius. — Transubstan- 
tiation, 568. 

Railroads and the Use of Alcohol. — 
Health and Temperance, 198. 

Railways of England (Acworth). — In- 
crease of Knowledge, 229. 

Rampert. — Spiritualism, 530. 

Ranke, Leopold (1795-1886), one of the 
most eminent German historians of 
recent times. — Diets, 143. 

Rationalism, History of (Lecky). — In- 
quisition, 252 ; Persecution, 373. 

Ratton, J. J. L. — Seven Churches, 489, 
491, 492, 493. 

Rawlinson, George (1815-1902), an 
English Assyriologist and diplomat ; 
author of a number of valuable works. 

— Babylon, 49, 50, 52, 60 ; Daniel, 
131 ; Greece, 190, 191, 192, 193 ; Medo- 
Persia, 307, 310, 311. 

Record of Christian Work. — Signs of the 
Times, 527. 



Redeemer and Redeemed (Beecher). — 

Azazel, 44. 
Reformation, History of (D'Aubigne). 

— Bible, 79 ; Reformation, 406, 407. 
408, 409, 411 ; Religious Liberty, 413. 
418. 

Reformation, History of (Lindsay). — 
Church, 110 ; Holy Roman Empire. 
213 ; Inquisition, 252 ; Interdict, 254 ; 
Justification, 277 ; Priesthood, 393. 

Reformation in England (Milton). — 
Reformation, 410. 

Reformation in Germany and Switzer- 
land, History of (Hagenbach). — 
Diets, 143 ; Indulgences, 239 ; Papacy, 
340 ; Protestantism, 400 ; Rome, 440 ; 
Sacraments, 480 ; Servetus, 486. 

Reformation, Principles of (Wace). — 
Church, 111. 

Reggio, Archbishop of. — Tradition, 
560, 561. 

Reichel, Rev. Oswald J. (b. 1840). a 
Church of England clergyman, and au- 
thor of several important works.— 
Apostolic Christianity, 38 ; Holy Ro- 
man Empire, 214 ; Isidorian Decretals. 
257; Papacy, 338, 311, 355; Schism, 
484. 

Reign of Christ on Earth (Taylor). — 
Advent, Second, 12, 13 ; Increase of 
Knowledge, 223. 

Re lavement Social. — Signs of the 
Times, 527. 

Religion of Protestants a Safe Way 
to Salvation (Chillingworth). — Bi- 
ble, 79. 

Religious Controversy, End of. — Tra- 
dition, 564. 

Religious Freedom, Act fob Establish- 
ing in Virginia. — Religious Liberty, 
416. 

Religious Instruction, A Course of 
(Schouppe). — Persecution, 371. 

Religious Liberty (King). — Religious 
Liberty, 413. 

Religious Liberty in America (Snow). 

— Religious Liberty, 413 ; Sunday 
Laws, 545. 

Reportorium (Reuter). — Sabbath, 467. 

Rest Days (Webster). — Sabbath, Change 
of, 472 ; Sunday, 537. 

Revelation, Essay on (Whiston). — 
Eastern Question, 156 ; Seven Trump- 
ets, 500, 505 ; Two Witnesses, 572. 

Revelation, Exposition of (Haber- 
shon). — Advent, Second, 16; Seven 
Churches, 488, 492 ; Seven Trumpets, 
499, 500, 512, 518. 

Revelation, Exposition of (Holland). 

— Seven Trumpets, 514. 

Revelation, Notes on (Barnes). — 
Seven Trumpets, 499, 508, 513, 515. 

Revelation of the Revelation (Ma- 
son). — Two Witnesses, 570, 574. 

Revelation. — See also Apocalypse ; 
Daniel ; Prophecy ; Prophecies. 

Review and Herald. — See Advent Review. 

Review of Reviews (American), a high- 
class magazine published at 30 Irving 



AUTHORITIES CITED. 



627 



Place, New York City. — Eastern Ques- 
tion, 147. 

Revolution, Age of (Hutton). — Papal 

Supremacy, 364. 
Revolutionibtts Orbium Coslestium. 

De (Copernicus). — Galileo, 181. 
Ribera. — Antichrist, 30. 
Richardson, Robert. — Sunday Laws, 

545. 

Richie, James Ewing. — Eastern Ques- 
tion, 153. 

Rickaby, Ret. Joseph, S. J. (b. 1845), 
author of " A Manual of Moral Phi- 
losophy," " Ye Are Christ's," " God 
and His Creatures," " Notes on St. 
Paul," " Political and Moral Essays." 
etc. — Heretics, 208 ; Papal Suprem- 
acy, 367 ; Persecution, 371. 

Rider. Fremont (b. 1885). associate ed- 
itor of the Delineator, 1907 ; manag- 
ing editor of the New Idea, a woman's 
magazine. 1908 ; editor of the Monthly 
Book Review, 1909; author of "Songs 
of Syracuse." "Are the Dead Alive?" 
and other works. — Spiritualism, 530. 

Ridley, Nicholas (1500-55), an English 
bishop and Protestant martyr, burned 
with Bishop Latimer at Oxford. — Ad- 
vent, Second, 12 ; Antichrist, 34. 

Ridpath, John Clark (1840-1900), an 
American author. He edited the 
Arena, and published several works on 
United States History, biographies of 
Garfield and Blaine, " Cyclopedia of 
Universal History," " The Great Races 
of Mankind," etc. — French Revolu- 
tion, 180 ; Jerusalem, 258. 264 ; Rome. 
426, 442, 444, 445-449, 451, 454, 455. 

Ringgold, James T. (deceased), was an 
attorney of marked ability, a member 
of the "Baltimore Bar. and author of 
several books, among them being, " Sun- 
day : Aspects of the First Day of the 
Week." published in 1891 ; and " The 
Legal Sunday," issued in 1894. He 
was a member of the Protestant Episco- 
pal Church. — Sunday Laws, 540, 541. 

Rise of the Medieval Church (Flick). 

— Advent, First, 5 ; Gregory VII, 197 ; 
Holy Roman Empire, 213 ; Magna 
Charta, 292 ; Papacy, 333, 337, 353. 

Robertson, James Craigie (1813-82), 
Church of England, a highly esteemed 
author who wrote a " History of the 
Christian Church to the Reformation." 

— Hildebrand, Dictates of, 210 ; Pa- 
pacy, 331, 344, 345, 348, 349, 350, 352 ; 
Rome, 457. 

Robinson, Edward (1794-1863), a Prot- 
estant Biblical scholar, lexicographer, 
translator, editor, and compiler of va- 
rious works, besides publishing inde- 
pendents numerous books. — Nature 
of Man, 318. 

Robinson, John (1575 or '76 to 1625), 
Separatist, who left England to reside 
in Holland. His life and works were 
published in England in three volumes. 

— Seven Churches, 492. 

Rogers, Robert William (b. 1864), 
Methodist Episcopal Orientalist, pro- 
fessor of Hebrew and Old Testament 
exegesis in Drew Theological Semi- 



nary. — Babylon, 49, 50, 56, 59 ; Medo- 
Persia, 306. 
Rollin, Charles (1661-1741), a French 
historian. Among his works are " An- 
cient History " and " Roman History." 

— Rome, 428, 430. 

Romance of Protestantism (Alcock). 

— Protestantism, 398. 
Roman Canon Law. — Pope, 377. 
Roman Catholicism, Delineation of. 

— Heretics, 205 ; Transubstantiation, 
567. 

Roman Catholic Principles in Refer- 
ence to God and the King. — Infalli- 
bility, 247. 

Roman Empire, Fall of (Sismondi). — 
Seven Trumpets, 501, 504. 

Roman Empire, History of the De- 
cline and Fall of (Gibbon). — Isido- 
rian Decretals. 256 ; Paganism, 323 ; 
Papal Supremacy, 359, 360, 362 ; 
Rome, 427. 428, 434, 439, 452 ; Sab- 
bath, 468 ; Sabbath, Change of, 473 ; 
Seven Churches, 490 : Seven Seals, 496 ; 
Seven Trumpets. 500, 501, 503, 507. 
511, 516, 517 ; Ten Kingdoms, 553. 

Roman Empire, Later, History of 
(Bury). — Papal Supremacy. 356; 
Seven Trumpets, 503, 505. 

Roman History (Appian). — Greece, 
186, 191 ; Rome, 433. 

Roman History. Companion to (Jones). 

— Sabbath, Change of, 472. 

Roman History (Dio). — Rome, 435; 
Seventy Weeks, 521. 

Romanism (Jenkins).— Idolatry, 216; 
Tradition, 559, 561 ; Transubstantia- 
tion, 567. 

Romanism and the Reformation (Guin- 
ness). — Babylon, 65; Creed of Pope 
Pius IV, 126; Little Horn, 286; Pa- 
ganism, 327 ; Papacy, 327, 328, 329, 
332 ; Persecution, 375 ; Reformation. 
411. 

Romanism in the Light of History 

(McKim). — Infallibility, 243, 244; 

Papacy, 332. 
Romanism, Novelties of (Collete). — 

Bible, 85 ; Indulgences, 234. 
Romano Pontifice, De (Bellarmine). — 

Heresy, 203; Pope, 387. 
Romans, Homilies on (Chrysostom) . — 

Bible, 78. 

Rome and Its Papal Rulers (Trevor). 

— Papal Supremacy, 367. 

Rome and the Newest Fashions in Re- 
ligion (Gladstone). — Councils, 123, 
124 ; Infallibility, 250 ; Papacy, 343. 

Rome, Antichrist, and the Papacy 
(Harper). — Idolatry, 219; Mass, 299. 

Rome, Handbook to the Controversy 
with (Hase). — Infallibility, 244, 245. 
248 ; Justification, 279 ; Tradition, 558. 

Rome, History of (Arnold). — Greece, 
186. 

Rome, History of (Duruy). — Rome, 
430. 

Rome, History of (Livy). — Rome, 429. 
430 ; Seven Trumpets, 507. 



628 



AUTHORITIES CITED. 



Rome, History of (Momrnsen) .— Rome, 
432. 

Rome, Letters from (Acton). — Infal- 
libility, 24i. 

Rome, Our Brief Against (Isaacson). 
— Jesuits, 274 ; Pope, 384. 

Rome: Pagan and Papal (Brock). — 
Idolatry, 217 ; Jesuits, 275 ; Paganism, 
324 ; Saints, 481, 482. 

Rome, Ruine of (Dent). — Two Wit- 
nesses, 571. 

Rome, Union with (Wordsworth). — 
Babylon, 61, 63, 65, 67 ; Infallibility, 
249 ; Pope, 380, 384 ; Revelation, 423. 

Rotherham.- — Nature of Man, 319. 

Rttfintjs, Tyrannus (about 354-410), a 
Latin ecclesiastical writer, born, near 
Aquileja, in Venitia, at the head of 
the Adriatic. He is esteemed most as 
an interpreter of Greek theology. — 
Canon, 102 ; Forgeries, 173. 

Russell, Lord John (1792-1878), Eng- 
lish statesman, orator, and author. — 
Seven Trumpets, 517. 

Russia (Pinkerton). — Bible, 76. 

Russian Government, on Seventh-day 
Adventists. — Advent, Second, 25. 

Rust, John Benjamin. — Censorship of 
Books, 110 ; Modernism, 314 ; Protes- 
tantism, 398, 399 ; Rule of Faith. 457 ; 
Scriptures, 484 ; Servetus, 486 ; Tran- 
substantiation, 568. 

Rutherford, Samuel (1600-61), distin- 
guished Scotch divine and Covenanter. 
He wrote " Covenant of Life," " Life 
of Grace," besides other books. — Ad- 
vent, Second, 9. 



Saadeddin. — Seven Trumpets, 514. 

Sabbath and Sunday, A Critical His- 
tory of (Lewis). — Sabbath, 466. 

Sabbath., The (Kingsbury). — Sabbath, 
464. 

Sabbath, The Abiding (Elliott). — Sab- 
bath, 464. 

Sabbath and First Day of the Week, 
History of (Andrews). — Advent, Sec- 
ond, 23 ; Sabbath, 466 ; Sunday, 535, 
537, 538. 

Sabbath and Sunday, Scientific Basis 
of (Floody). — Sabbath, 466. 

Sabbath, Christian (Stone). — Sabbath, 
462. 

Sabbath, Discourses on (Williston). — 

Sabbath, 464. 
Sabbath Essays. — Sunday, 537. 
Sabbath, Essays on (Humphrey). — 

Sabbath, 464. 
Sabbath for Man (Crafts). — Sunday, 

537. 

Sabbath, History of (Andrews and 
Conradi).— Sabbath, 460, 467, 468, 
469; Sabbath, Change of, 476, 477; 
Sunday, 533. 

Sabbath, History of (Heylyn). — Sun- 
day, 535, 538. 

Sabbath Laws and Sabbath Duties 
(Cox). — Sabbath, Change of, 471. 



Sabbath, Learned Treatise on (Brere- 

wood). — Sabbath, 466. 
Sabbath Manual (Edwards). — Law of 

God, 284; Sabbath, 460. 
Sabbath, Obligation of (Brown). — 

Sabbath, 459, 463. 
Sabbath, Obligation of (Taylor). — 

Sabbath, 461. 
Sabbath Question, Literature on 

(Cox).— Sunday, 536, 537. 
Sacrament of the Eucharist (Bellar- 

mine). — Transubstantiation, 566. 
Sacred Theory of the Earth (Bur- 
nett) .— Falling Stars, 164. 
St. Hippolytus and the Church of 

Rome (Wordsworth). — Infallibility, 

245. 

Saint's Everlasting Rest (Baxter). 

Advent, Second, 6, 9. 

Salisbury, Robert Arthur Talbot 
(1830-1903),. an eminent British 
statesman, known for many years as 
Lord Robert Cecil. — Eastern Question. 
155. 

Salisbury Administration, Third 
(Whates). — Eastern Question, 155. 

Salmon, George (b. 1819), an Irish di- 
vine and mathematician. He pub- 
lished textbooks on higher mathemat- 
ics and works on theology. — Bible, 74 ; 
Galileo, 181 ; Gallicanism, 181, 182 ; 
Infallibility, 244, 245, 246; Tradition. 
559, 562. 

Saphir, Adolph, an English theologian, 
and author of a number of valuable 
works. — Bible, 73, 80, 85. 

Saracens, History of (Ameer Ali). — 
Seven Trumpets, 512. 

Sargon. — Babylon, 57. 

Saturday Evening Post, a Philadelphia 
weekly literary journal. — Signs of the 
Times, 527. 

Savonarola. — Servetus, 486. 

Schaff, Philip (1819-93), was edu- 
cated in Berlin ; but coming to Amer- 
ica, was made professor of theology at 
Mercersburg. Pa., and Union Theologi- 
cal Seminary. He was president of the 
American Bible Revision Committee, 
and author of a number of books, his 
principal work being a " History of 
the Christian Church." — Advent, Sec- 
ond, 10 ; Bible, 76, 77, 78, 79, 84 ; 
Creed, Roman, 129 ; Greek Church, 
195 ; Papal Supremacy, 355, 361 ; Ref- 
ormation, 406; Religious Liberty, 418; 
Rome, 436, 437 ; Seventy Weeks, 521 ; 
Sunday, 537; Sunday Laws, 538, 539. 

Schenck, Ferdinand Schureman (b. 
1845), an American clergyman, theo- 
logian, and writer. He is the author 
of " The Bible the Reader's Guide," 
and other works. — Law, Ceremonial, 
280 ; Law of God, 281. 

Schlegel, Friedrich von (1772-1829), 
a German poet, writer on aesthetics, 
and literary historian. — Seven Trump- 
ets, 509. • 

Schoettgen. — Babylon, 61. 

Scholl, Henry T. — Sabbath, 462. 



AUTHORITIES CITED. 



629 



Schouppe, Rev. Father F. X. — Perse- 
cution, 371. 

Schrader, Clement (1820-75), a Jesuit 
theologian, member of the theological 
commission appointed to prepare the 
preliminaries for the Vatican Council, 
of 1870. — Syllabus of Errors, 546. 

Science and the Bible (Morris). — 

Sabbath, 461. 
Scientific Faith (Johnston). — Bible, 

74. 

Scotland, Celtic (Skene). — Sabbath, 
467. 

Scotland, History of (Lang). — Sab- 
bath, 467. 

Scotland, Letters to the Protestants 
of (Sinclair). — Popery, 388. 

Scott, Sir Walter (1771-1832), a fa- 
mous Scottish novelist and poet. — 
French Revolution, 178 ; Papal Su- 
premacy, 364 ; Two Witnesses, 576. 

Scotus, Johannes Duns (died at Co- 
logne, 1308), one of the leading schol- 
astic philosophers of the Middle Ages, 
and author of several books. — Tran- 
substantiation, 566. 

Scovel, Sylvester Fithian (1835-1910), 
Presbyterian. He was president of 
the University of Wooster, Ohio, 
1883-99, and after 1899 professor of 
morals and sociology in the same in- 
stitution. — Sunday Laws, 545. 

Scripture, Divine Unity of (Saphir). 
— Bible, 73, 80, 85. 

Seals and Trumpets, Dissertations on 
(Cuninghame). — Advent, Second, 15, 
25 ; Bible, 74 ; Papal Supremacy, 358, 
359, 363 ; Seven Seals, 495, 496, 497, 
498 ; Seven Trumpets, 515. 

Sears, Robert (1810-92), author of 
"Bible Biography" (1842), "The 
Family Instructor" (1849), "Illus- 
trated Description of the Russian Em- 
pire " (1855), "A New and Complete 
History of the Bible" (1844), etc. — 
Dark Day, 140. 

Second Advent Library. — Seven 
Churches, 493 ; Two Witnesses, 572. 

Second Advent Movement, The Great 
(Loughborough). — Advent, Second, 17, 
18, 21, 23 ; Twenty-three Hundred 
Days, 570. 

Second Coming of Christ (Moody). — 
Advent, Second, 8, 11. 

Second Coming of Christ, Evidence 
of, from Scripture and History 
(Miller). — Advent, Second, 17. 

Second Coming of the Messiah (La- 
cunza) . — Advent, Second, 15. 

See of Rome in the Middle Ages 
( R e i c h e 1 ) . — Apostolic Christianity, 
38 ; Holy Roman Empire, 214 ; Isi- 
dorian Decretals, 257 ; Papacy, 338, 
341, 355 ; Schism, 484. 

Segur, Mgr. de (1820-81), a French pre- 
late and defender of the Roman Cath- 
olic Church. He was a prolific writer, 
and his works are highly esteemed by 
Catholics everywhere. — Sabbath, 
Change of, 477. 



Seleucus, House of (Bevan). — Greece, 
189. 

Semites, Religion of (Smith). — Spir- 
itualism, 530. 

Semitic Magic (Thompson). — Spirit- 
ualism, 530. 

Seneca, Lucius Ann^eus (c. 5 b. c. to 65 
a. d.), Roman philosopher, statesman, 
and author of reputation. — Advent, 
First, 5 ; Jerusalem, 260. 

Sermon (Gill). — Seven Churches, 493. 

Sermons on Several Occasions (Wes- 
ley). — Law of God, 285. 

Seymour, Prof. Charles. — Eastern 
Question, 152. 

Shadow of the Bottle. — Health and 
Temperance, 199. 

Shall I Drink? (Crooker). — Health and 
Temperance, 197. 

Shalmaneser III. — Babylon, 57. 

Shearer, L. L. — Bible, 80, 81, 82. 

Shepard, Rev. Thomas (1604-49), an 
English Puritan who came to America 
in 1635, and from the following year 
until his death was minister at Cam- 
bridge. He is said to have written 
382 books and pamphlets. — Religious 
Liberty, 418. 

Signs of the Times (Bicheno). — 
French Revolution, 173, 174 ; Increase 
of Knowledge, 222 ; Seven Trumpets, 
507; Two Witnesses, 571. 

Signs of the Times (Keith). — Advent, 
Second, 15 ; French Revolution, 178 ; 
Papal Supremacy, 364, 365 ; Seven 
Trumpets, 514 ; Two Witnesses, 576. 

Sigonius.— Seven Trumpets, 505. 

Silliman, Professor. — Falling Stars, 
163. 

Simanca, Bishop. — Heretics, 205 ; Pope, 
383. 

Simpson, Matthew (1810-84), an Amer- 
ican bishop of the Methodist Episcopal 
Church. — Law of God, 282. 

Sinclair, Sir George. — Popery, 388. 

Singleton. — Seven Trumpets, 517. 

Sismondi, Jean Charles Leonard de 
(1773-1842), a noted Swiss historian 
and economist. His works include 
" History of the Italian Republics " 
(1807-18), "On the Literature of the 
South of Europe" (1813-29), "His- 
tory of the French" (1821-42), etc. 
— Seven Trumpets, 501, 504. 

Sixth Great Oriental Monarchy (Raw- 
linson). — Greece, 190, 191, 192, 193. 

Skene, William Forbes (1809-92), a 
Scottish historian and antiquary. His 
chief work is " Celtic Scotland, a His- 
tory of Ancient Alban," perhaps the 
most important contribution to Scot- 
tish history written during the 19th 
century. — Sabbath, 467. 

Sketches of Church History (Wha- 
rey). — Advent, First, 5, 6. 

Slater, Rev. Thomas. — Canon Law, 
104; Pope, 387. 

Sloan, James Ren wick Wilson (1823- 
86), an American educator; professor 
of systematic theology and homiletics 



630 



AUTHORITIES CITED. 



in Allegheny Theological Seminary, 
and pastor of the First Reformed Pres- 
byterian Church in Allegheny. — Two 
Witnesses, 575. 
Sloane, William Milligan (b. 1850), 
author of " Napoleon Bonaparte, a 
History." — Two Witnesses, 575. 

Smith and Cheetham, joint editors of 
" A Dictionary of Christian Antiqui- 
ties." — Sunday, 535. 

Smith and Wace, joint editors of " A 
Dictionary of Christian Biography." — 
Papacy, 346 ; Papal Supremacy, 362. 

Smith, Sir George (1840-76), an Eng- 
lish Assyriologist and author. — Baby- 
lon, 53 ; Bible, 79 ; Increase of Knowl- 
edge, 233. 

Smith, Prof. Robertson. — Spiritualism, 
530. 

Smith, Rev. S. B. — Heretics, 204 ; 
Oaths, 322. 

Smith, Uriah (1823-1903). an American 
clergyman, editor, and author of sev- 
eral works, the most prominent of these 
being " Thoughts on Daniel and the 
Revelation," " The Marvel of Nations," 
" The Sanctuary and Its Cleansing," 
and " The Nature and Destiny of 
Man."— Nature of Man, 316, 317, 318, 
320, 321 : Seven Seals, 498 ; Ten King- 
doms, 553, 555. 

Smith, Sir William (1813-93), an Eng- 
lish classical and Biblical scholar ; 
editor of the Quarterly Review. He 
edited a " Dictionary of Greek and 
Roman Antiquities," " Dictionary of 
Greek and Roman Geography." " Dic- 
tionary of the Bible," and was joint 
editor of the " Dictionary of Christian 
Antiquities " and "A Dictionary of 
Christian Biography." He wrote or 
edited various classical textbooks, his- 
torical manuals, etc. — Calendar, 94 ; 
Daniel. 129 ; Easter, 147 ; Papacy. 346 ; 
Papal Supremacy, 362 ; Sunday, 533. 

Snow, Charles M., American minister, 
poet, and author ; since January, 1916, 
editor of the Signs of the Times, War- 
burton, Victoria, Australia. — Reli- 
gious Liberty, 413 ; Sunday Laws, 545. 

Socrates (d. after 440 a. d.), a Greek 
church historian. His Ecclesiastical 
History was edited by Migne and by 
Hussey (1853) : English translation 
by Hammer (1619). His history is a 
continuation of that of Eusebius, and 
covers the period from 306 to 439. — 
Sabbath, Change of, 471 ; Servetus, 
486. 

Sophocles, E. A. — Baptism, 69. 
Source Book for Mediaeval History 

(Thatcher). — Persecution, 373. 
Source Book. United States Treasury. 

— War, 583. 
Southard, N. — Advent, Second, 20. 

Southern Methodist. — Signs of the 

Times, 527. 
Sozomen (Hermias Sozomenus), died 

about the middle of the fifth century. 

An ecclesiastical historian ; author of 

a Church History, which was edited 



by Valesius, 1668. — Sabbath, Change 
of, 471 ; Seven Trumpets, 502. 

Special Reports : Religious Bodies. — 
Advent, Second, 17, 23. 

Spencer. — Azazel, 43. 

Spicek, William A., author of " Our 
Day in the Light of Prophecy." " The 
Hand That Intervenes," etc. — Arta- 
xerxes, Seventh Year of, 41, 43. 

Spiritualism (Benson). — Spiritualism. 
530. 

Spiritualism (Biederwolf ). — Spiritual- 
ism, 532. 

Spiritualism (McDonald). — Spiritual- 
ism, 531. 

Spiritualism, Modern, Threefold Test 
of (Gordon). — Spiritualism, 532. 

Spiritual Manifestations, Review of 
(Beecher). — Spiritualism, 532. 

Spurgeon, Charles Haddon (1834-92), 
an eminent English Baptist preacher. 
He was the founder of a pastoi's' col- 
lege, of schools, almshouses, and an 
orphanage. Among his works are 
" The Treasury of David," " Feathers 
for Arrows, or Illustrations for Preach- 
ers and Teachers," " Commenting and 
Commentaries," and many volumes of 
sermons. — Law of God, 281 ; Sunday 
Laws, 545. 

Stabilitate et Progressu Dogmatis 
(Lepicier). — Heretics, 207, 208*! Pope. 
382. 

StAhelin. — Servetus,' 485. 

Stanley, Arthur Penrhyn (1815-81), 
dean of Westminster and an author of 
much ability. One of his best-known 
and most popular works is " Christian 
Institutions," published about the 
time of the author's death. — Baptism. 
69, 70; Sunday, 538. 

State, Conscience of (Vinet). — Reli- 
gious Liberty, 419. 

Statement of Belief of Bible Confer- 
ence. — Advent, Second, 26. 

Steamship Conquest of the World 
(Talbot). — Increase of Knowledge. 
227. 

Stearns, Dr. Samuel.— Dark Day, 141. 

Steele, Wilbur Fletcher (b. 1851), 
educator and minister ; contributor to 
Hastings' Dictionary and to many re- 
ligious periodicals. — Sunday, 534. 

Stephen. — Fathers, 168. 

Stilingfleet, Edward (1635-99), a 
noted English prelate and theologian. 
He was chaplain to Charles II, and 
dean of St. Paul's ; and was made 
bishop of Worcester in 1689. Among 
his works are " Irenicum/' " Origines 
Sacrce," and works against the Non- 
conformists and Roman Catholics. — 
Mass, 298 ; Tradition, 561. 

Stillman, William. — Sabbath, 470. 

Stone, John Seely (1795-1882), an 
American Episcopal clergyman. Dr. 
Stone's works include " Christian Sac- 
raments," "The Christian Sabbath," 
" The Church Universal." — Sabbath, 
462. 



AUTHORITIES CITED. 



631 



Storks, George.— Advent, Second, 20. 

Story, Joseph (1779-1845), an eminent 
American jurist ; justice of the United 
States Supreme Court from 1811 to 
1845 ; author of " Commentaries on 
the Constitution of the United States," 
" On the Conflict of Laws," " On 
Equity Jurisprudence," " Law of Bills 
of Exchange," " Law of Promissory 
Notes," etc. — Religious Liberty, 415. 

Story of the Heayens (Ball). — Falling 
Stars, 167. 

Stowe, Calvin Ellis (1802-86), an 
American educator and theological 
writer ; professor successively in Dart- 
mouth College, Lane Theological Semi- 
nary, Bowdoin College, and Andover 
Theological Seminary. Author of " In- 
troduction to the Criticism and Inter- 
pretation of the Bible." and translator 
of Jahn's " Hebrew Commonwealth." 

— Bible, 82, 83. 

Strabo, Walafridus (b. c. 63-24), a 
celebrated Greek traveler, geographer, 
and author. — Babylon, 59 ; Rome, 427. 
428 ; Transubstantiation, 567. 

Strange Scenes. — Bible, 87. 

Strassmaier, Father. — Babylon, 57. 

Struggle of the Nations (Maspero). — 
Eastern Question, 148. 

Stuart, Moses (1780-1852). an Ameri- 
can philologist, theologian, and Con- 
gregational clergyman ; for many years 
professor of sacred literature in An- 
dover Theological Seminary. His chief 
works are " Grammar of the Hebrew 
Language without Points," " Grammar 
of the Hebrew Language with Points," 
" Critical History and Defense of the 
Old Testament Canon," commentaries 
on the Apocalypse, Daniel, Ecclesiastes. 
and Proverbs. — Sabbath, Change of, 
471 : Seven Churches, 494 ; Year-Day 
Principle, 588. 

Suetonius (Caius Suetonius Tranquil- 
lus), a Roman biographer and histo- 
rian of the first part of the second cen- 
turv after Christ. — Advent. First. 6 ; 
Rome, 433, 435 ; Seventy Weeks, 521, 
522. 

Summa Theologia (Aquinas). — Perse- 
cution, 371. 
Sunday, Legal Aspects of (Ringgold). 

— Sunday Laws, 540, 541. 

Sunday, The Legal (Ringgold). — Sun- 
day Laws, 541. 

Sunday Legislation, Critical History 
of (Lewis). — Sunday Laws, 539, 540. 

Sunday Mails, Report on. — Religious 
Liberty, 416 ; Sunday Laws, 542, 543. 

Sunday School Times. — Law of God, 284. 

Susskind. — Seventy Weeks, 524. 

Swedish Church After the Reforma- 
tion (Norlin). — Sabbath, 468. 

Swedish Church, History of (Anjou). 

— Sabbath, 469. - 

Swedish Church, History of (Norlin). 

— Sabbath, 468. 

Syatbolism (Moehler). — Canon, 99; 
Church, 113 ; Creed, Roman, 128 ; In- 
fallibility, 246 ; Revelation, 423 ; Sac- 



raments, 479 ; Tradition, 558, 563 ; 
Transubstantiation, 568. 

Syracuse Post-Standard. — Pope. 378. 

Syria and Palestine. Pre-Biblical 
(Cormack). — Armageddon, 38. 

Syria, Fifty-three Years in (Jessup). 
— Falling Stars, 167. 

Syriac New Testament, Gospel of Life 
in (Pettingell). — Apostasy, 37. 

System of the World (Galileo). — Gal- 
ileo, 180. 



Table Talk (Luther). — Advent, Sec- 
ond, 12. 

Tablet, The. — Priesthood, 392. 

Tacitus, Cornelius (a. d. 55-117). a 
celebrated Roman historian, lawyer, 
and orator. — Advent, First, 5, 6 ; Jeru- 
salem. 259 : Rome, 435, 436 ; Seven 
Churches, 491 ; Seventy Weeks, 521, 
522. 

Tadg al Tavarikh (Saadeddin). — Seven 

Trumpets, 514. 
Taine. Hippolyte Adolph (1828-93). a 

French literary historian, critic, and 

man of letters. — Eastern Question, 148. 
Talbot, F. A. — Increase of Knowledge. 

227. 

Tallentyre, S. G. — Earthquakes, 145. 

Tanchum, Rabbi. — Seventy Weeks, 525. 

Tanner, Rev. Joseph, Church of Eng- 
land. — Antichrist, 28, 30, 31, 32"; 
Seventy Weeks, 519, 520, 523, 526. 

Task, The (Cowper). — Advent, Second, 
13. 

Taylor, Daniel T., author of " The Corn- 
ing Earthquake" (1869 and 1870). 
"Historical Oration" (1877, published 
in 1880), etc. — Advent. Second, 12, 
13 ; Increase of Knowledge, 223. 

Taylor, Jeremy (1613-67), an English 
bishop and celebrated theological 
writer. Among his works are " Lib- 
erty of Prophesying," " Duct or Dubi- 
tantium," " Dissuasive from Popery." 
— Sunday, 535. 

Taylor, William Bower (1821-95). 
physicist ; and examiner in the United 
States patent office in Washington ; 
editor of the publications of the Smith- 
sonian Institution, and author of 
" History of the Electro-Magnetic 
Telegraph," " The Scientific Work of 
Joseph Henry," " Physics and Occult 
Qualities ; " also a discussion with the 
Rev. J. Newton Brown on " The Ob- 
ligation of the Sabbath." — Sabbath, 
461. 

Temple, The.— Sabbath. 464. 

Temporal Power of the Vicar of Jesus 
Christ (Manning). — Mass, 300; Pa- 
pacy, 334, 343 : Pope, 382 ; Rome, 427 ; 
Temporal Power of the Pope. 550. 

Ten. Commandments (Dale). — Sunday. 
535. 

Ten Commandments (Eyton). — Sunday, 
535. 

Ten Commandments (Morgan). — Law 
God, 281, 282; Sabbath, 465. 



632 



AUTHORITIES CITED. 



Ten Commandments and the Lobd's 
PBayee (Schenck). — Law, Ceremonial, 
280 ; Law of God, 281. 

Tennent, Sie James Emerson (1804- 
69), a British traveler, politician, and 
author. — Missions, 313, 

Tenney, Dr> Samuel.— Dark Day, 139. 

Tertullian (150-230), a celebrated ec- 
clesiastical writer, one of the Fathers 
of the Latin Church. His writings 
are very numerous. — Antichrist, 32 ; 
Babylon, 61, 67 ; Baptism, 67 : Fathers, 
3.68 ; Forgeries, 173 ; Religious Lib- 
erty, 412 ; Tradition, 562. 

Tetzel. — Indulgences, 239. 

Thatcher, Oliver J. — Persecution, 373. 

Thayer, Joseph Henry (1828-1901), 
an American clergyman and scholar ; 
author of " A Greek-English Lexicon 
of the New Testament," a very schol- 
arly work, and " The Change of Atti- 
tude Toward the Bible." From 1884 
until his death he was professor of 
New Testament Criticism and profes- 
sor emeritus at Harvard Divinity 
School. — Baptism, 69. 

Theodosius, Dynasty of (Hodgkin).— 
Seven Trumpets, 504. 

Theologia (Dens). — Indulgences, 234; 
Purgatory, 404, 405. 

Theologia Moralis (Liguori). a work 
on moral theology, much esteemed by 
Catholics, and used as a textbook in 
all their theological schools. — Canon 
Law, 105: Jesuits, 270; Syllabus of 
Errors, 547. 

Theological Compend, Improved (Bin- 
ney), a synopsis of Christian doctrine 
as held and taught by Methodists gen- 
erally. It is printed and sold in this 
country by the Methodist Book Con- 
cern, New York and Cincinnati. It 
has passed through a number of edi- 
tions, and in its present form, which 
differs from earlier editions only in 
minor details, was edited bv Rev. 
Daniel Steel. D. D., and copvrighted 
by him in 1902.— Bible, 73 ; Sabbath, 
459; Sunday, 536; Sunday Laws, 541. 

Theology Explained and Defended 
(Dwight).— Sabbath, 465. 

Thiety-nine Articles, a statement of 
the doctrines held and taught by the 
Church of England. — See Church of 
England ; Creed ; Creeds. 

Thompson, R. C, an archeologist asso- 
ciated with L. W. King in preparing 
a report for the British Museum, 
printed by the trustees of that insti- 
tution in 1907 under the title, " The 
Inscription of Darius the Great at 
Behistun," and included a full illus- 
trated account of the sculptures and 
the inscription, with a complete col- 
lation of the text. — Spiritualism, 530. 

Thompson, Richaed Wigginton (1809- 
1900), a member of Congress, 1841-43 
and 1847-49 ; secretarv of the navy, 
1877-81. — Temporal Power of the 
Pope, 549. 

Thucydides (c. 465-400 b. a), a Greek 
historian. His great work is " The 
History of the Peloponnesian War." 



As a writer of history Thucydides has 
never been surpassed. — Artaxerxes, 40. 

TlBERius. — Seven Churches, 491. 

Timbs, John (1801-75), an English 
writer, among whose many books are 
" Predictions Realized in Modern 
Times," " Notable Things of Our Own 
Times," and " Mysteries of Life, Death, 
and Futurity." — Increase of Knowl- 
edge, 226, 227, 228. 

Timothy, Homilies on (Chrysostom).^ 
Bible, 78. 

Tithing (Fox) Tithing, 557. 

TiTHiNG and Tithing Reminiscences. 

— Tithing, 557. 
Tithes. — Jerusalem, 262. 

Townley, Rev. James (1715-78). an 
English divine and dramatic writer. 

— Bible, 90. 

Tregelles, Samuel Peideaux (1813- 
75), an English New Testament 
scholar, noted for his critical edition 
of the New Testament (1857-72) ; au- 
thor of several critical works. — Dan- 
iel, 130, 133. 

Trevor, Rev. George, canon of York, 
English clergyman ; author of a num- 
ber of works, the most important of 
which, " Rome and Its Papal Rulers," 
was published by the Religious Tract 
Society, London, in 1868. — Papal Su- 
premacy, 367. 

Tridentine, or Roman Catechism. — 
Creed, Roman, 127. 

Teiglott Evangelist's Interlinear 
Translation of the Bible. — Nature 
of Man, 319. 

True Christ and False Christ (Gar- 
nier). — Babylon, 64; Idolatry, 214, 
215, 216, 217; Priesthood, 392. 

True Voice, The. — Idolatry, 215 ; Mass, 
298. 

Trumbull, Heney Clay. (1830-1903). 
American religious editor, secretarv of 
the American Sunday School Union, 
and from 1875 until his death editor 
of the Sunday School Times. His 
books are numerous. — Sabbath, 462. 

Tuber ville. Rev. Henry, a Roman Cath- 
olic priest and author. — Sabbath, 
Change of, 475. 

Turgot (Johannes Turgotus) (d. 1115). 
bishop of St. Andrews, Scotland. He 
was confessor, friend, and confidential 
adviser of Queen Margaret. — Sabbath. 
467. 

Turkey (Clark). — Eastern Question, 
150. 

Turkey and the Balkan States (Sin- 
gleton). — Seven Trumpets, 517. 

Turkey in Eueope (Eliot). — Seven 
Trumpets, 517. 

Tubkey, Stoey of (Lane-Poole) . — East- 
ern Question, 154. 

Turkish-Armenian Question. — East- 
ern Question, 155. 

Turkish Language, Grammar of 
(David). — Seven Trumpets, 514. 

Twining, Prof. Alexander C- — Falling 
Stars, 165. 



AUTHORITIES CITED. 



G33 



Tyndale, William (1484-1536), an Eng- 
lish Reformer and translator of the 
Bible ; martyred near Brussels after 
a protracted trial for heresy. His ar- 
rest was at the instance of Henry VIII. 
— Antichrist, 33 ; Bible, 91. 



Ullathorne/ William Bebnard (1806- 
89), an English Benedictine monk and 
bishop. — Immaculate Conception, 221. 

Unam Sanctam. — Church, 110 ; Infalli- 
bility, 250; Papacy, 354. 

Undesigned Coincidences (Blunt). — 
Sabbath, 463. 

Union with Rome (Wordsworth). — 
Babylon, 61, 63, 65, 67 ; Infallibility, 
249 ; Pope, 380, 384 ; Revelation, 423. 

Unitate Ecclesi^l De (Cyprian). — 
Forgeries, 172, 173. 

United States of America., History of 
(Bancroft). — Religious Liberty, 414, 
415 ; Seven Churches, 492. 

United States of America, History of 
Independence of (Gordon). — Dark 
Day, 137. 

United States Government Official Bul- 
letin. — War, 580. 
Upham, Edward. — Seven Trumpets, 508. 

Usher., James (1580-1656), an English 
archbishop, scholar, and theologian ; 
author of the scheme of Biblical chro- 
nology found in many Bibles. — Jes- 
uits, 266 ; Seventy Weeks, 521. 



Vacaudard, E. — Religious Liberty, 412. 

Vatican Council. — Councils, 122, 123, 
124 ; Gallicanism, 181 ; Infallibility, 
240 ; Papacy, 343. 

Vatican Council, Inside View of (Ken- 
rick). — Infallibility, 241. 

Vatican Council, True Story of (Man- 
ning). — Councils, 122, 123. 

Vatican Decrees (Edward). — Pope, 
383. 

Vatican Decrees, Declarations and 
Letters on (Dollinger). — Infallibil- 
ity, 247, 248. 

Vaughan, Herbert Cardinal (1832- 
1903), an English cardinal. — Mass, 
297. 

Vebne, Jules (1828-1905), a noted 
French novelist, best known by his 
remarkable work, " Twenty Thousand 
Leagues under the Sea," 1870. — In- 
crease of Knowledge, 224. 

Versions and Translations of the 
Bible. — Baptism, 68 ; Bible, 75. 88, 
89. 90, 91 ; Papacy, 343 ; Sacraments, 
477. 

Viator. — Dark Day, 135. 

Victorinus, bishop of Pettau, a city of 
Panonia ; earliest exegete of the Latin 
Church ; martvred in 304. — Babylon, 
61. 

Villemain, Abel Francois (1790-1870), 
a French writer, author of several 
short papers and articles that were 
published in book form, besides essays 
on Grecian themes. — Pope, 385. 



ViNETj Alexandre Rodolfe (1797-1847). 
Swiss theologian.- — Religious Liberty, 
419. 

Virginia, Notes on the State of (Jef- 
ferson). — Religious Liberty, 418. 

Vitringa, Campegius (1659-1722), 
Dutch Reformed Old Testament 
scholar. He wrote on Biblical theol- 
ogy, dogmatics, and polemics. — Seven 
Churches, 487. 

Voice from Sinai (Farrar). — Sabbath, 
Change of, 471. 

Voice of the Church. — Advent. Sec- 
ond, 17. 

Voice of Truth. — Advent, Second. 21. 

Volcanoes and Earthquakes (Knee- 
land). — Earthquakes, 145. 

Voltaire, Life of (Parton). — Earth- 
quakes, 145. 

Voltaire, Life of (Tallentyre) . — Earth- 
quakes, 145. 

Vulgate, the oldest extant Latin version 
of the Scriptures, made by Jerome in 
the latter part of the fourth century 
and early in the fifth, and held in high 
esteem, especially by the Church of 
Rome. — Bible, 90. 



Wace and Buchheim. — Babylon, 63 ; 
Indulgences, 237. 

Wace, Henry (b. 1836), member of the 
Church of England ; Boyle lecturer ; 
Bampton lecturer, and since 1903 
dean of Canterbury. He is the author 
of several works, and editor of the 
second series of " Nicene and Post- 
Nicene Fathers." — Babylon, 63 ; 
Church, 111 ; Papacy, 346. 

Waffle, Albert Edward (b. 1846), 
American Baptist clergyman, author 
of "The Lord's Day" ($1,000 prize 
essay), and several other books on re- 
ligious subjects. — Sabbath, 461, 463. 

Waldenses. — Antichrist, 31 ; Church, 
111. 

Wallace, Prof. Alfred Russel (b. 

1823), an eminent English scientist 

and author. — Increase of Knowledge, 

227 ; Spiritualism, 529, 531. 
Walsh, Wm. S. — Sabbath, Change of. 

473. 

Warburton Lectures (Goode). — Sev- 
enty Weeks, 525. 

War, Diplomatic Background of (Sey- 
mour). — Eastern Question, 152. 

Wardlaw, Ralph (1779-1853), a Scotch 
Congregationalist. — Religious Liberty, 
419. 

Wars of the Jews (Josephus). — Ad- 
vent, First, 6 ; Calendar, 96 ; Jeru- 
salem, 258, 259, 261, 262, 263, 264. 

Washburn, George (b. 1833), Congre- 
gationalist. He was professor of phi- 
losophy and political economy in Rob- 
ert College, Constantinople, from 1869 
to 1903, and president from 1877 to 
1903. — Eastern Question, 156. 

Washington, George (1732-99), first 
President of the United States. — Re- 
ligious Liberty, 416. 



634 



AUTHORITIES CITED. 



Washington (D. C.) Herald. — War, 584. 

Washington Post, an independent daily 
newspaper, published in Washington, 
D. C, established in 1877. — War, 583. 

Washington (Pa.) Reporter. — Sabbath, 
Change of, 470. 

Watchman and Examiner, now Watch- 
man-Examiner, a leading Baptist 
weekly published in New York ; es- 
tablished in 1819. — - Increase of Knowl- 
edge, 231. 

Watson, Richard. — Sabbath, 458. 

Wayland, Francis (1796-1865), a widely 
known and highly esteemed Baptist 
preacher and educator. — Sabbath, 461, 
463. 

Wearb, History of (Little). — Dark 
Day, 142. 

Weber. — Ten Kingdoms, 553. 

Webster, Daniel (1782-1852), a well- 
known American statesman. — Bible, 
82. 

Webster, Prop. Hutton. — Sabbath, 
Change of, 472 ; Sunday, 537. 

Webster, Noah (1758-1843), a widely 
known American lexicographer. His 
" Dictionary of the English Language " 
was first published in America and 
Great Britain in 1828.— Dark Day, 
141. 

Weighed and Wanting (Moody). — Law 
of God, 281, 282, 283, 284. 

Wellington, Duke of. — Eastern Ques- 
tion, 150. 

Wells, Amos R. (b. 1862), Congrega- 
tionalist-Presbyterian layman. He is 
a prolific writer, having produced 
about fifty volumes or booklets for 
young people, on the Bible and on the 
Sunday school. — Health and Temper- 
ance, 200. 

Wernz, Francis Xavier. — Jesuits, 271. 

Wesley, John (1703-91), founder of 
the doctrinal and practical system of 
Methodism. — Advent, Second, 9, 24 ; 
Baptism, 69 ; Health and Temperance, 
200 ; Increase of Knowledge, 222 ; Law 
of God, 284, 285. 

Westcott and Hort. — Bible, 87. 

Westcott, Brooke Foss (1825-1901), 
minister of the Church of England, 
and bishop of Durham ; one of the 
brightest examples of English schol- 
arship and industry. — Antichrist, 28 ; 
Canon, 103. 

Western Watchman, prominent Roman 
Catholic weekly, published in St. 
Louis, Mo., established in 1865. — Here- 
tics, 210 ; Indulgences, 235 ; Marriage, 
294 ; Persecution, 372. 

Westminster Confession of Faith. — 
Bible, 76, 84. 

Westminster Review, established in 1824, 
one of the leading English reviews, 
published in London. — French Revo- 
lution, 178. 

Wharey, James (1789-1842), a Presby- 
terian clergyman. He published a se- 
ries of articles in the Southern Reli- 
gious Telegraph on " Baptism " and on 
" Sketches of Church History from the 



Birth of Christ to the Nineteenth Cen- 
tury," both of which afterward ap- 
peared in book form. — Advent, First, 
5, 6. 

Wharton, Henry (1664-95), an English 
clergyman and author, most widely 
known probably by his " Anglia Sacra." 

— Tradition, 559. 

Wharton, Rear- Admiral. — Missions, 
312. 

Whates, Harry Richard, English jour- 
nalist and Parliamentary correspond- 
ent of the Daily Post (Birmingham, 
England), and assistant editor of the 
London Standard, 1896 to 1905 ; au- 
thor of a number of books and of many 
magazine articles. — Eastern Question, 
155. 

What We Owe and the Results of 

Paying it. — Tithing, 557. 
When Railroads were New (Carter). 

— Increase of Knowledge, 228, 229. 
Whiston, William (1667-1752), an Eng- 
lish divine and mathematician. — East- 
ern Question, 155, 156 ; Jerusalem, 
261 ; Seven Trumpets, 500, 505 ; Sev- 
enty Weeks, 522 ; Two Witnesses, 573. 

Whiton, John W. — Dark Day, 139. 
Whittaker, Dr. Nathanael. — Dark 
Day, 142. 

Whittier, J. G. (1807-92), an American 
Quaker poet and reformer. — Dark Day, 
136, 138. 

Wickware, Francis G. — Increase of 

Knowledge, 230. 
Willey, Freeman Otis. — Signs of the 

Times, 527. 
Williams, Henry Smith (b. 1863), 

physician and author, editor of the 

" Historians' History of the World." 

— Babylon, 46; Hittites, 211: Medo- 
Persia, 311 ; Papal Supremacy, 369 ; 
Rome, 455. 

Williams, Rev. Isaac (1802-65), a poet 
and harmonist. His literary industry 
was great, and his works embrace com- 
mentaries on the Psalms, the Gospels, 
and the Apocalypse. — Sunday, 535. 

Williams, Roger (1600-84), a Separat- 
ist Anglo-American theologian, founder 
of Rhode Island, and a fearless advo- 
cate of liberty of conscience. — Reli- 
gious Liberty, 413, 414; Sabbath, 469. 

Williams, Thomas. — Increase of Knowl- 
edge, 223. 
Williams, Samuel. — Dark Day, 136. 

Willison, Rev. John W. — Two Wit- 
nesses, 572. 

V\ 7 illiston, Seth. — Sabbath, 464. 
Will the Old Book Stand? (Hastings). 

— Bible, 70, 73, 83, 87, 88. 
Wilson, Daniel (1778-1858), bishop of 

Calcutta, and metropolitan of India. 

— Sabbath, 459. 

Wilson, Robert Dick (b. 1856), an 
American philologist, professor in the 
Old Testament department of Western 
Theological Seminary from 1885 to 
1900, and later professor of Semitic- 
philology and Old Testament intro- 



AUTHORITIES CITED. 



635 



duction at Princeton University. — 

Babylon, 57, 58, 59. 
Wilson, Woodrow (b. 1850). twenty- 
eighth President of the United States ; 

edncator, author, and statesman. — - 

Bible, 82, 83. 
Winckler, Hugo (b. 18(33), a German 

Protestant Orientalist. — Babylon, 49, 

60. 

Wiseman, Nicholas P. S. (1802-65). 
cardinal, and archbishop of Westmin- 
ster. His " Works " have been pub- 
lished in fourteen volumes. — Bible. 
75. 

Wonderful Century (Wallace). — In- 
crease of Knowledge, 227. 

Wonderful Inventions (Timbs). — In- 
crease of Knowledge, 226, 228. 

Wood, Nicholas. — Increase of Knowl- 
edge, 228. 

Woodhouse, Archdeacon J. C. — Seven 
Seals, 495, 496, 497. 

Wordsworth, Christopher (1774-1846), 
youngest brother of the poet. He is 
best remembered for his " Ecclesiasti- 
cal Biography."- — Antichrist, 31 ; Baby- 
lon, 61, 63, 65, 67; Canon, 98, 99, 100, 
101, 103 ; Creed of Pope Pius IV, 125 ; 
Heretics, 206 : Infallibility, 245, 249 ; 
Pope, 380, 384, 386 ; Popery, 388 ; 
Revelation, 423 ; Scriptures, 485 ; Tra- 
dition, 562, 563. 

Work. Rev. Edgar Whitaker. — Bible, 
82. 

Works of Robert Boyle.— Bible, 83. 
Works of William Ciitt.lingworth. — 

Protestant, 397. 
Works of William Cowper, Poetical. 

— Advent, Second, 13. 

Works of Archbishop Cranmer. — An- 
tichrist, 34. 

Works of Jonathan Edwards — Law of 
God, 283. 

Works of Robert Hall. — Religious 
Liberty, 414. 

Works of Thomas Jefferson. — Reli- 
gious Liberty, 416. 

Works of Lardnet;. — Seventy Weeks, 
521, 522. 

Works of Bishop Latimer. — Anti- 
christ, 34. 

Works of Joseph Mede. — Antichrist, 
33. 

Works of John Milton, Prose. — Sun- 
day, 536 ; Tradition, 561. 

Works of Philo Judjeus.— Sabbath. 
460. 

Works of Bishop Ridley.— Antichrist, 
34. 

Works of Tyndale. — Antichrist, 33. 

Works of Wesley. — Law of God, 284. 

Works of Tacitus. — Advent, First, 6; 
Jerusalem, 259 ; Rome, 435, 436 ; Sev- 
enty Weeks, 521, 522. 

Works, Practical (Baxter). — Advent, 
Second, 7. 



World Almanac. — Federation, 170; 
Signs of the Times, 528. 

World Missionary Conference. — Mis- 
sions, 313 ; Religious Liberty, 415. 

World War (Daniells). — War, 581. 

World's History and Its Makers. — 
Increase of Knowledge, 228. 

World's Work. — Increase of Knowledge, 
232. 

Wright, Charles H. H. (1836-1909), 
member of the Church of England ; 
after 1898 clerical superintendent to 
the Protestant Reformation Society. 
His works are numerous. — Antichrist, 
33 ; Babylon, 55, 58, 59 ; Bible, 90 ; 
Greece, 187 ; Increase of Knowledge, 
223. 

Writings of Bradford. — Antichrist, 35. 
Writings of Bishop Hooper. — Anti- 
christ, 34. 

Writings of James Madison. — Religious 
Liberty, 410. 

Writings of Archdeacon Philpot. — 
Antichrist, 35. 

Wyatt, Harold F. — Armageddon, 39. 

Wycliffe, John (c. 1320-84), the most 
prominent of the Reformers before the 
Reformation. The main characteristic 
of his teaching was the repudiation of 
formalism and his insistence on the 
necessity of inward religion. — Anti- 
christ, 29 ; Church, 111, 112. 

Wylie, James Aitken (1808-90), mem- 
ber of the Church of Scotland ; lec- 
turer on popery at the Protestant In- 
stitute of Scotland, Edinburgh. His 
works include " The History of Prot- 
estantism," " The Papacy," " The 
Papal Hierarchy," " The Road to 
Rome via Oxford," etc. — Antichrist. 
27 ; Canon Law, 104 ; Heretics, 207 ; 
Papacy, 327, 335, 337 ; Popery, 388 ; 
Protestantism, 397 ; Reformation, 409 ; 
Seven Churches, 492. 



Xenophon (430-357 b. c), a celebrated 
Greek historian and essayist. — Baby- 
lon, 51, 52, 54, 58 ; Meoo-Persia, 307. 



Young, Chas. A. (1834-1908), an Amer- 
ican astronomer, and member of va- 
rious important astronomical expedi- 
tions. — Falling Stars, 166. 

Young, C. F. — Papal Supremacy, 361 ; 
Seven Trumpets, 505. 

Youth's Instructor. — Health and Tem- 
perance, 200, 201. 



Zedtwitz, Baroness von (Mary Eliza- 
beth Caldwell), author of " The Double 
Doctrine of the Church of Rome," pub- 
lished by the Fleming H. Revell Com- 
pany, New York and London, 1906. — 
Church of Rome, 115. 

Zoroaster (c. 600 b. c), founder of the 
religion of the Parsees and of ancient 
Persia. — Bible, 92 ; Spiritualism, 532. 



Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process. 
Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide 
Treatment Date: May 2005 

PreservationTechnologies 

A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATION 

1 1 1 Thomson Park Drive 
Cranberry Township, PA 16066 
(724) 779-2111 



